CHAPTER EIGHT

8. FOLIATIONS AND LINEATIONS

Contents
 Introduction to rock fabrics
 Foliation and Planar Fabrics
• Classification of foliation
• Mechanisms of foliation development
 Lineation and Linear structures
• Classification of Lineation
• Other linear structures includes:-
Boudins, Mullions and Rods
 8.1 Introduction To Rock Fabric
In structural geology, "rock fabric" is the geometric and spatial arrangement
and relationship between regularly repetitive, homogeneously distributed
constituent parts (grain shape and size, clasts, etc. in rocks) at any scale.
Rock fabrics reflect composition, mineralogy and a number of processes that
rocks have undergone.
Primary fabric is a grain configuration developed during the deposition of
sediment or the emplacement of a magmatic rock. E.g. Mineral grain packing
and preferred shape orientation of pebbles of feldspar phenocrysts
Secondary fabrics reflect strain and deformation conditions. A secondary
fabric expressed through the preferred orientation of the individual minerals
constituting the rock is the most distinctive feature that separates metamorphic
rocks from both igneous and sedimentary rocks.
• The basic categories of rock fabric based on dimension:
- 0 dimension: no fabric, random, isotropic.
- 1 dimension: linear (Lineation)
- 2 dimension: planar (Bedding, Foliation, Cleavage, Schistosity)
 Cont’d…
 Rock fabric reflects the history of their deformation and tectonics
setting, or rocks with fabric that features that indicate continuous solid
(ductile) flow during formation, thus rock fabrics are called Tectonites.

Accordingly, it is conventional to distinguish, Tectonites are:

• S- Tectonites have a dominant planar fabric and may indicate a flattening
type of strain. This may be due to a lack of minerals capable of giving a
lineation. E.g. in a phyllonite.
• L- Tectonites have a dominant linear fabrics and generally indicate a
constrictional type of strain.
• L-S Tectonites have equally developed linear and planar fabric elements
and may indicates a plane strain deformation. E.g. Many mylonitic fabric
 PART ONE
PLANAR ROCK FABRICS
(FOLIATIONS)
 8.2. Foliation
What are Foliations?
• Foliations are the repetitive layering or arrangement in rocks that results
from the planar alignment of mineral grains under directed pressure to
within rocks.
• Foliation( Folia - Leaf in latin); describing the sheet-like, planar structure.
• It is particularly occur in metamorphic rocks as homogenously and
penetratively throughout the outcrop.
 Homogenously means, the feature which is distributed in the same
characteristics in any arbitrary volume of the rock.
 Penetrative means, the foliation occurs throughout the volume of the
rock.
• Foliations formed primarily under conditions of regional metamorphism,
where rocks are subjected to high pressures and temperatures over large
areas.
 Foliation formed during genesis rock is called non-tectonic foliation (S0)
 Foliation formed due deformation is S- tectonites, i.e. S1, …Sn.
 The planar fabric in the rock fabric is defined by:-
• Sedimentary diagenetic/ planes.
• Compositional layering in metamorphic rock.
• Oriented deformed mineral grains/ clasts and concentration along
successive planes.
• Alternative grain size variation along successive planes
• preferred orientation of in-equant minerals
• Planar discontinuities (microfractures)
• Crystallographic preferred orientation (alignment of crystal structures)

Note:- Foliation in spacing must be on

the order of tens of centimeters, unless
spacing of planar is in meters then it’s not
foliation (fracture).
 8.2.1. Classification of foliation
 Genetic classification of Foliations based on:- Relative formation
of foliation with respect to rock formation as:-
 Primary foliation and Secondary foliations.
A) Primary foliation:- are formed during the emplacement of magma
or during the flow of lava and depositions or/ diagenetic of sediments.
• Originated by Sedimentary Processes such as transport and deposition:
- Bedding (So)
- Preferred Orientation of Sedimentary clasts

• Originated by Primary Igneous Processes such as lava flow and

crystallization:
 Magmatic Layering in Igneous Rocks (Flow banding in rhyolite),
and,
 Preferred Orientation of Bubbles and Pumice Fragments
 Types of Primary foliation

• Bedding foliation: is attributed to

vertical compaction of the sediments
under static load of overlying strata.

• Diagenetic foliation is result from

orientation of crystallization of
diagenetic minerals (calcite, dolomite,
Fe-oxides and clay minerals)

• Preferred orientations of bubbles:

characterizes some types of extrusive
igneous rocks especially “pumice
fragments”
 Cont’d…..Types of Primary foliation
• Preferred orientations of clasts:
usually characterizes clastic
sedimentary rocks which orientation
occurs due to sedimentary processes
during deposition.

• Magmatic layering (flow

banding):- characterizes cumulate
magmatic rocks.
Secondary Foliation
 Secondary foliation :- are meso to microscopic penetrative planar
fabric formed after lithification and/or crystallization of rocks due to
tectonic stress and under conditions of elevated temperature and
pressure.
• They are also called tectonic foliation.
Foliations have a structure defined by alternating domains and
Microlithon.
Domains (the concentrated zones of fabrics defining the cleavage or
foliation) and Microlithons (the spaces between two adjacent
cleavage domains).
The term “Cleavage” refers to the ability of a rock to split or cleave
into more or less parallel surfaces.
Cleavage is a (large) subgroup of foliation – not all foliated rocks
split preferentially along the foliation. is found in very low-grade
(lower greenschist facies).
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
Morphological
Characteristics of Secondary
Foliations:-
• Spacing between the planes or
planar domains.
• Shape of the planes (rough,
smooth, wriggly, etc.)
• Spatial relationships between
planes (parallel, anastomosing,
conjugate, cross cutting,…etc)
• Characteristics of the
boundaries of planar
domains(gradational, sharp,
discrete, etc.).
• Fabric of the rock between
foliation planes (Planar, folded,
etc.).
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
 Secondary Foliations can be classified based on the morphology
as:-
A) Spaced Foliation
1. Compositional Foliation B) Continuous Foliation
 Diffuse foliations (penetrative foliation)
 Banded foliations  Pencil Cleavage
2. Disjunctive Foliation  Slaty cleavage
 Stylolitic(Solution cleavage)  Phyllitic cleavage
 Anastomosing  Schistosity
 Rough  Gneissic layering and
 Smooth Migmatization
3. Crenulation cleavage  Mylonititc Foliation

Note: The morphology of foliation reflects formation processes like

metamorphic grade, PT-conditions, heating and cooling history, fluid activity,
etc.
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
(A) Spaced foliation
 Spaced foliation: are defined by cleavage domains having 10µm and
more. They are Categorized into compositional, Disjunctive and
Crenulation foliations.
• The Spacing between regularly and repetitive occurrence of less
deformed domains in foliated rock.
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
(A) Spaced foliation
A. Compositional foliations are marked by layers or laminae in which the
preferred alignments of platy or needle shaped crystals present.
• They are characterized by rocks having weak to cleave parallel to the
foliation.
 Compositional foliations are subdivided into diffuse and banded foliation
I. Diffuse foliations are defined by widely spaced and weak
concentration of minerals in a rock of predominantly one lithology.
• They are common in ultramafic rocks and in deformed granites.
E.g. Dunnites have sparse layers of concentration of pyroxene crystals, and
in deformed granite concentrations of mafic minerals define the foliation.
II. Banded foliations are defined by relatively closely spaced
compositional layers that are mineralogically distinct and have comparable
abundance.
• They are common in high grade metamorphic rocks. E.g. Gneissic
layering.
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
(A) Spaced foliation
Gneissic Layering
 Foliated gneiss is a metamorphic rock in
which the foliation is defined by
compositional banding .
• It is commonly, light and dark bands of
felsic and mafic mineralogy alternate. This
color banding in gneiss is called gneissose.
B. Disjunctive cleavage: is a foliation that contain thin cleavage domains or
seam marked by concentrations of oxides and strongly aligned platy
minerals.
 The cleavage domains are separated by tabular or lenticular domains
called microlithons in which platy minerals are less abundant or more
randomly oriented.
 They are commonly formed in previously unfoliated rocks such as mostly
in sedimentary rocks limestone or mudstone. And also form in some
foliated rocks cross cutting an earlier foliation.
 Cont’d…..Types of Secondary foliation
(A) Spaced foliation
They are subdivided into four:
i. Stylolite (irregular cleavage)
ii. Anastomosing (networks of cleavage surfaces)
iii. Rough (short, discontinuous cleavage domain)
iv. Smooth (long, continuous domains free from irregularities or un
evenness)

1. Stylolitic foliation (Solution cleavage):-

exhibits long, continuous but very irregular
cleavage domains that commonly have a
distinct tooth like geometry in cross-
section.
• There is little or no fabric alignment in
the microlithon.
• Spacing in cleavage domains ranges
Figure: formed by dissolution
form 1-5cm & more disjunctive cleavage on seams (stylolite) in
• Common in limestone formations low- grade limestones, Biure, Spain
Figure: Disjunctive cleavage types. Stylolitic (limestones) and anastomosing (sandstones)
cleavages are usually spaced, while continuous cleavages in more fine-grained rocks are
separated into rough and smooth variants, where the rough cleavage can develop into the
smooth version. All disjunctive cleavages are domainal, and the cleavage domains (C) are
separated by undeformed rock called microlithons (M).
2. Anastomosing foliation: - is distinguished
by long, continuous wavy cleavage domains
that form an irregular network outlining
lenticular microlithons.
• The spacing of cleavage domains tends to
be less than stylolithic foliation, averaging
0.5-1cm
• Commonly occurred in phyllite and schists ‘Anastomosing’ cleavage in sandstone

3. Rough cleavage:- is typical of deformed

rocks containing abundant sand size
mineral grains.
 The cleavage domains are short,
discontinuous concentrations of highly
oriented platy minerals that envelope the
coarse grains.
 Spacing of cleavage domains less than ‘Rough’ Cleavage in slate, width 2mm
1mm.
4. Smooth foliation:- cleavage domains
are long, continuous and smooth and
have concentrations of highly oriented
platy minerals.
• Fabric development with in the
microlithons commonly ranges from
random to completely oriented
• Characteristics of some slates
• The cleavage domains spacing less Pressure-solution Spaced Cleavage-’Smooth’
than 1mm.

5. Crenulation Foliation:- Formed by

harmonic wrinkles or chevron folds that
develop in pre-existing foliation.
• The new foliation cut across the old
foliation, in which has both limbs are
symmetric, or long limbs of asymmetric
crenulations.
• Microlithons width is comparable with
half-wavelength crenulations Crenulation foliation Slate (width 7mm)
 Continuous foliation

• Continuous foliation:- are defined by domains spacing less than

10µm. Also known as non domanial structures.
• It is characterized by complete orientations of homogeneously
distributed platy minerals, or by alignments of flattened mineral
grains.
• These are stated based on grain size from fine to coarse size; includes
pencil, slaty, and phyllitic cleavages, schistosity, …etc.

1. Pencil cleavage : characterizes fine

grained sedimentary rocks like shales
and mudstones which breaks into
elongate pencil like shards.
2. Slaty cleavage: - is a fine, continuous
tectonic structure resulting from parallel
orientation of clays or other layer silicates
minerals (e.g. chlorite and muscovite)
 Micro-domains spacing is not
recognizable in the field.
 Foliation provides strong cleavage

3. Phyllitic cleavage:- is the foliation on

phyllitic rock unit that is composed of
strongly aligned fine-grained white
mica and/or chlorite
• The mineralogy and fabric of phyllites
give the rock a distinctive silky luster.
4. Schistosity
characterizes low- medium grained metamorphic
rocks, which tends to be wavy as mica curves
around the large crystals.
• Weak cleavage than phyllitic structures.
 Transposition foliation
Transposition layering is defined by parts of pre-deformation surface
(bedding or an older foliation) which are rotated independently into a new
orientation, after intense deformation all of these parts become subparallel.
The process of changing one foliation into another – thereby removing the
frame of reference provided by the first foliation --- is known as
transposition.
 There are two basic processes are involved:
• Tight to isoclinals folding of initial foliation (for example, bedding) into
approximate parallelism with the axial surfaces, and
• Cutting out of the limbs by simple shear.
Recognition criteria for transposition are
(1) Foliation parallel to bedding/ secondary layers,
(2) Isolated, interfolial fold hinges,
(3) Isolated boudins of competent layers and
(4) Extreme fattening of strain markers.

Pressure solution and transposition of

Isocline folds with Fold transposed sandstone lenses that originally were
some transposition parallel to foliation a part of single bed
 8.2.2. Mechanisms of Foliation Development in rocks

• To recall the term again “FOLIATION : is the complete spatial and

geometric configuration of textural elements.
Factors controlling the development of foliation during deformation
includes, Rock composition, Orientation and magnitude of stress,
Temperature and pressure condition and, Fluid composition like CO2,
H2O,etc.

 The four major micro-mechanisms involved in the development of

structural foliation are:
• Shape controlled Mechanical rotation of pre- existing inequant grains/
fabrics.
• Growth of inequant grains in a preffered dimensional orientation under
deviatoric stress field.
• Modification of grain shape and volume through pressure- solution
• Modification of grain shape by Crystal plastic deformation or diffusion.
• Mimetic growth (parallel to preexisting minerals after deformation).
 Cont’d….. Mechanisms of foliation development

a. Rotation + folding of elongate

minerals
b. Oriented nucleation & growth of
a mineral in a stress field
c. Grain growth of micas parallel
to σ3
d. Change of grain shape by
crystalplastic deformation
e. Change of grain shape by
pressure solution (dissolution
creep)
f. Combination of ‘a’ & ‘e’
g. Restricted growth parallel to
platy minerals
Figure. Proposed mechanisms for the h. Mimetic growth of elongate
development of foliations. grains due to existing foliation
 PART TWO

LINEAR ROCK FABRICS

(LINEATIONS AND LINEAR STRUCTURES)
8.3. LINEATION AND LINEAR STRUCTURES
 Linear fabric any rock fabric can be expressed as :
 Intersection of two planar features (Bedding-cleavage, Cleavage-
cleavage intersection)

 Parallel alignments of linear crenulation (minor fold axes)

 Preferred alignments of mineral grains or pebbles w.r.t long axes
 Development of slickenside and striations faulted plane
 Developments of Boudin, Rods and Mullion structures
Many types of lineations are occurred as are associated with other
structures (such as folds or boudins, …etc.), and;
Some are visible only on specific surfaces in a rock body, while
others reflect the arrangement and shape of mineral grains or clasts
 Types of Lineation
• Lineation are classified based on origin of time span into two: primary and
Secondary Lineation.
Primary lineation
• Primary lineation: is found in both sedimentary and igneous rock and are
formed along with rock.
(A) Flow lineation:- these are formed in lava flows and igneous intrusions as a
result of flowage of magma, longest axis of mineral align parallel to one
another and will be parallel to the flow direction.
• Formed due to the movement of magma or lava, aligning mineral grains in
the flow direction..
(B) Grain Lineation: in sedimentary rocks when elongated grains (e.g.,
pebbles in a conglomerate) align with the current direction.
(C) Parting lineation: is a primary linear structures that commonly occur in
siltstone and sandstone rocks. These may record the current directions of at the
time of depositions of siltstone or sandstone.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Primary Lineation

Fig: Sketch showing inequant grains of columnar shape are caught in flowing magma that has a velocity
gradient, the columns rotate into a stable orientation parallel to the velocity vectors, forming a lineated
fabric (Fig.2a). In the same velocity-gradient flow regime, tabular feldspars rotate into a stable orientation
that imparts both foliation (igneous lamination) and lineation to the magmatic body (Fig.2b).
• Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Primary Lineation
 Secondary Lineation
 Secondary lineation are superimposed after originally deposited, erupted or
intruded rocks. May occur with or without foliation, but more commonly
associated with foliation.
• For their description, they are grouped into two categories, includes:
• Penetrative Lineation: are linear features that occur throughout the entire
rock mass at a microscopic to macroscopic scale.
 Form(crenulation) lineation,
 Surface lineation, and
 Mineral lineation

• Non-Penetrative Lineation: are linear features that do not pervade the

entire rock mass but are confined to specific surfaces or zones.
• Surfaces lineations (Slip lineation)
• Silckensides
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
(B) : Non-penetrative lineation
1. Surfaces lineations (Slip Lineation): are the direct result of frictional
sliding along the faulted surface. They appear as parallel, elongated
grooves & mineral fibers that indicate the direction of slip.
• There are two types: Groove lineation and fiber lineation.
 Groove lineation are linear depressions or striations on a fault surface or
bedding plane created by mechanical abrasion during fault slip.
 Fiber lineation consist of mineral fibers (e.g., quartz, calcite) that grow
progressively along a fault surface due to repeated movement and mineral
precipitation.

Fiber lineation Groove lineation

 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation

Fig: Formation of fiber lineation in irregular shear fractures. (a) Early stage. (b) Final
stage. In (c) the upper wall is removed for inspection. Groove lineations (striations)
are found on surfaces that have not opened during faulting.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
• Slickensides are polished, striated surfaces on a fault or shear plane, formed
due to the entire frictional movement between rock masses.
 They provide crucial information about fault kinematics and the direction of
past tectonic movement.
 Characteristics of Slickensides:
• Polished Surface – Due to intense friction during fault slip, the rock surface
becomes smooth and shiny.
• Striations (Lineation) – Fine parallel grooves, scratches, or fibers that
record the direction of movement.

Slickenside
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
Penetrative foliation
1. Mineral lineations are linear structures formed by the alignment of
elongated or platy minerals within a rock, typically as a result of tectonic
deformation and Metamorphic Processes.
• These lineation are considered penetrative because they occur throughout
the rock mass, affecting the mineral grains at both macroscopic and
microscopic scales.
• They commonly occur in the foliation plane of metamorphic rocks, on
shear surfaces, or in the plane of mylonitic foliation

• Varieties of Mineral lineation:

(A) Aggregate Lineation
(B) Stretching Lineation
(C) Mylonitic Lineation
 The significance of Mineral Lineation are to indicate the direction of
maximum stretching in a deformed rock and help geologists determine
tectonic history and deformation processes.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
(A) Aggregate Lineation:- the alignments of inequant mineral grains (e.g.,
mica, hornblende) in metamorphic rock by growing or recrystallizing in
preferred orientation during deformation
(B) Stretching Lineation:- are elongated mineral aggregates (e.g., quartz,
feldspar, amphibole) and long stretched pebbles of quartz, align in the
direction of tectonic stretching by deformation of pre-existing objects.
Found in schists and gneisses.

Aggregate Lineation Stretching Lineation

 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
(C) Mylonitic lineation:
• Mylonitic lineations has a streaky appearance, with relatively long,
aligned streaks and lenses of minerals and mineral aggregates.
• They are commonly occur in mylonitic rocks and ductile to brittle
shear zones.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
2. Intersection Lineation: are lineation formed by the intersection of two
planar fabric elements in a line (E.g. between bedding and the axial plane
foliation).
• The trace of bedding on an intersecting foliation plane commonly appears as
color stripes generally parallel to local fold axes.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Secondary Lineation
3. Crenulation Lineation: defined by closely spaced fold hinges of
the microfolds in crenulated rock.
• The crenulation lineation is the fabric element parallel to the tightly spaced
hinges, is also called fold hinge lineation. Many schists exhibit this type of
lineation.
• It generally is a good indication of superposed deformation. Two or more
sets of crenulation lineation may intersect one another, sometimes in a
conjugate manner, forming all sorts of small-scale interference patterns.
 Types of Other Linear Structural Features
• Linear structural features in geology are elongated formations found in
rocks, often formed due to deformation, sedimentary processes, or magmatic
flow. These structures provide key insights into tectonic movements, strain
directions, and paleocurrent flows.
1. Stretched-pebble conglomerate: is a metamorphosed conglomerate
where the originally rounded pebbles have been elongated due to tectonic
deformation, typically under ductile shear conditions. The stretching of
pebbles creates a penetrative mineral lineation that indicates the direction of
tectonic strain.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Linear structures
2. Rodding
• Rod is a morphological term for elongate,
cylindrical and monomineralic bodies of
segregated mineral (quartz, calcite, pyrite,
etc.) in metamorphic rocks in all grades.
• These structures are often associated with
shear zones, high-strain regions, and
mylonites.
• Rodding refers to a linear structural feature
found in deformed rocks, where mineral
aggregates, pebbles, or rock fragments are
elongated into rod-like structures due to
intense ductile deformation.
• Rods are generally parallel to local fold
axes and often are isolated fold hinges
detached from their limbs. Fig: Mylonitic Gneiss – Feldspar
rods in high-strain zones.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Linear structures
3. Mullions
• Mullions are coarse linear structures found in deformed rocks, particularly
in metamorphic rocks of the interface between a competent and an
incompetent layer.
• A common place to find mullion structures in metamorphic rocks is at the
boundary between quartzite and phyllite or Mica-Schist.
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Linear structures
4. Boudinage structures
 The geological boudins (blood sausage in French) are side-by-side
segments of a layer or object sandwiched in a less competent (i.e more
deformable) matrix.
 Boudins are tablet-shaped lenses of a relatively rigid lithology, embedded
in a weaker matrix, that have collectively undergone layer-parallel
stretching.
 They are linear segments of a layer that have been pulled apart along
periodically spaced lines of separation called boudin lines.
Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Linear structures
 Cont’d Type of Lineation.. Linear structures
• Boudin profiles are variable, symmetrical or asymmetrical.
• Long faces, usually layer boundaries of the boudins, can be concave
(bone-shaped boudins), convex (barrel-shaped boudins) or parallel to
each other (blocky boudins).
• These shapes reflect ductility contrasts between layer and matrix.
• Large contrasts produce boudins with sharp edges, and small contrasts
produce rounded boudins.
  Reading Assignments

• Shear zones and progressive deformation

• Nature and characteristics of Shear
Zone
• Classification of shear zones
• Kinematic of shear sense indicators and
tectonic setting for shear zones