LESSON1: HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MOTIONS OF A PROJECTILE

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

-​ States that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on
the body and inversely proportional to the mass of the body
-​ In simple words, acceleration increases as the amount of force applied increases and
decreases as mass increases
-​ F = m(a)

Acceleration
-​ Defined as the rate of change in velocity with time. It is a vector quantity having both
direction and magnitude
-​ Most types of acceleration we observe is not uniform or constant (changes from time to
time)

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

-​ Constant acceleration of an object in motion. The acceleration is constant and does not
change
-​ In simple words, it is when velocity changes in equal amounts in equal intervals of time,
resulting in constant acceleration
-​ An object with zero acceleration is said to be in uniform motion while an object in
uniformly accelerated motion has a non-zero but constant acceleration

Gravity
-​ The force that pulls mass together. It is what pulls us towards Earth
-​ Acceleration due to gravity is -9.8 m/s²
-​ Objects at free-fall exhibit uniformly accelerated motion due to gravity (neglecting air
resistance)
-​ It is a constant acceleration for all falling bodies, regardless of their mass and weight

Projectile Motion
-​ It a type of motion where an object moves along a parabolic path through the air,
influenced only by gravity
-​ Projectile is the object that is undergoing projectile motion
-​ Trajectory is the arc or curve-like path undergone by a projectile. Its shape is a parabola
-​ Projectile motion consists of two components: HORIZONTAL MOTION and VERTICAL
MOTION, both of which work independently of each other
-​ The two types of projectile motion are: HORIZONTALLY LAUNCHED PROJECTILES
(half projectile motion), and ANGLE LAUNCHED PROJECTILES (full projectile motion)

Horizontally Launched Angle Launched

-​ Starting angle= 0 degrees -​ Starting angle = more than 0 degrees

 -​ Initial vertical velocity= 0 -​ Initial vertical velocity= more than 0
-​ Motion: rolls off and goes down -​ Motion: goes up and then down
-​ Shape: Half Parabola -​ Shape: Full Parabola

Horizontal Motion
-​ It is the x-component
-​ Neglects air resistance
-​ It has a constant horizontal velocity
-​ Horizontal acceleration is 0 because no external acts on the projectile horizontally
-​ The horizontal distance is called range

Vertical Motion
-​ The force acting upon this motion is the force of gravity
-​ Vertical velocity is not constant because of the acceleration from gravity
-​ The vertical distance is called the height

LESSON2: PROJECTILE MOTION

COMPONENT MAGNITUDE DIRECTION

Horizontal Constant Constant

Vertical Decreases going up, reaches 0 at the Changes

maximum height, increases going down

Projectile launched at an angle

-​ The projectile follows a full parabolic path
-​ In the first half of the motion, the projectile rises and the vertical velocity is decreasing
because the direction of gravity is opposite to the projectile motion
-​ As the projectile reaches the maximum height, it momentarily stops causing the vertical
velocity to equal to zero
-​ When it returns back to the ground, the vertical velocity agrees to the direction of
gravitational force hence vertical speed increases
-​ As the angle of launch increases, the vertical displacement of the projectile will also
increase
-​ When a projectile begins and ends at ground level, the y displacement is zero.

QUIZ 2:
LESSON3: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Momentum:
-​ The object has momentum if it has a mass
-​ The object has momentum if it is moving (velocity)
-​ Any moving object with a quantity of matter has momentum
 -​ Momentum simply means mass in motion
-​ The momentum of a moving object is its mass multiplied by its velocity
-​ That means momentum increases when it moves
-​ If any object of any mass is not moving, the momentum is 0 because the velocity is 0

Formulas:
Momentum (represented by “p”; unit: kg*m/s):

Mass (represented by “m”; Unit: kg):

𝑝
𝑚 = 𝑣
Velocity (represented by “v”; Unit: m/s):
𝑝
𝑣 = 𝑚

Impulse:
-​ When the object slows down or moves faster, its velocity decreases or increases. If there
is a change in the velocity or the mass of an object, there is also a change in
momentum called Impulse.
-​ Impulse is equal to the net force on the object multiplied by the period over which this
force is applied
-​ △ = change
-​ Body changes their momentum through collisions

Formulas:
Impulse (represented by: “I”; Unit: N· s or kg·m/s2·s):
𝐼 = 𝐹(𝑡)
Force (represented by “F” Unit: N or kg·m/s2):
𝐼
𝐹= 𝑡
Time (represented by “t”; Unit: s): Impulse / Force
𝐼
𝑡= 𝐹

Lesson4: HEAT, WORK, AND ENERGY

Heat Energy
-​ Can do work
 -​ Converted to a mechanical energy by a heat engine with efficiency governed by the
three laws of thermodynamics

Heat and Work

-​ In 1798, american-british physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson experimented on the nature
of heat.
-​ He noticed the tremendous amount of heat generated while supervising the boring of a
brass cannon
-​ He suggested a relation between the amount of heat generated and the mechanical
work done.

Mechanical Equivalent of heat

-​ English physicist James Prescott Joule in 1845 experimentally determined the
mechanical work needed to produce a given amount of heat
-​ Joule had shown that mechanical energy can produce heat and that they are related to
each other

-​ H= W/J
-​ W= work (Unit: J)
-​ J= mechanical equivalent of heat (Unit: joules/calorie)
-​ H= heat (Unit: calorie)
Thermodynamics
-​ Literally means “movement of heat”
-​ It is the study of heat and its transformation to other forms of energy and vice versa

-​ Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

-​ If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are
also in equilibrium with each other
-​ Equilibrium = same temperature
-​ In simple words, if object a is the same temperature as object c, and object b is
the same temperature as object c, then object a and b are also the same
temperature. If a = c, and b = c, then a =b
-​ First Law of Thermodynamics:
-​ States that part of the heat transferred to an object is used by the object to do
work
-​ The remaining heat changes the internal energy of the object
-​ In simple words, this means that if you put heat into an object, it can either use it
to produce work, or to increase its internal temperature
-​ Second Law of Thermodynamics:
-​ Limits the amount of work a heat engine can do for a certain amount of heat
 -​ States the heat energy will always disperse and will always become less useful
-​ In simple words, this means that some amount of heat will always “spread out”
and not be used
-​ Third Law of Thermodynamics:
-​ States that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the
temperature approaches absolute zero
-​ In simple words, this means that the colder the temperature, the less the atoms
move

Heat Engines
-​ Device that converts heat energy to work
-​ Examples include internal combustion engines in cars or giant turbines that generate
electricity for houses
-​ Heat engines make use of a substance inside them that undergoes cooling/heating,
compression/expansion, and sometimes phase change

Heat Transfer
-​ The transfer of heat
-​ Normally from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object
-​ Heat is a form of energy
-​ Transfer of heat from one body through a change in temperature
-​ The rate of heat transfer can be constant or variable depending on operating conditions
-​ Transient heat transfer – when temperature is not constant as it heats up or cools
down
-​ Steady-state heat transfer – when the temperature remains constant

Types of Heat Transfer

-​ Convection
-​ Conduction
-​ Radiation

Conduction
-​ Transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same substance, or
from one substance to another that is in physical content with it
-​ Happens with solids, and direct contact
Convection
-​ Transfer of heat within a fluid by mixing one portion of the fluid with another
-​ Happens with gas and liquid, where particles physically move because of the
temperature (natural convection) or because of external forces (forced convection)
-​ Types
1.​ Natural Convection - the flow of the fluid is induced by buoyancy forces (denser
fluids sink, less dense fluids rise)
2.​ Forced Convection - flow of fluid is included by outside means like a fan, blower,
or pump
Radiation
-​ Transfer of heat through electromagnetic radiation
-​ Doesn't need a medium; works in a vacuum
-​ Higher temperature = more electromagnetic radiation
Fourier’s Law of Conduction
-​ States that heat flow within a single uniform body is directly proportional to the material,
surface area of heat flow and change of temperature with respect to the length of path