This lecture will explore the evolution of scientific thought regarding life beyond Earth, starting with ancient

Greek models and progressing to modern exoplanet discoveries. We'll examine how our understanding of the universe has changed over time.

Exploring the Universe: The Science

Behind Life Beyond Earth

Shahram Abbassi

Explore the evolution of scientific thought about life beyond Earth, from
ancient Greek models to modern discoveries of exoplanets.
 Lecture Overview: The Science of Life in the Universe

➢ Introduction: Evolution of thought about life beyond Earth.

➢ Historical Perspectives: From ancient Greek models to the Copernican revolution.

➢ Modern Discoveries: The Milky Way, exoplanets, and the search for life.

➢ Key Concepts: Planetary motion, gravity, and celestial mechanics.

Omar Khayyam (1048–1131 CE) was a renowned Persian polymath,
known for his exceptional contributions to mathematics, astronomy,
philosophy, and poetry. Born in Nishapur, in modern-day Iran,
Khayyam's legacy transcends disciplines, making him one of the
most celebrated figures of the Iran Historical Golden Age.

➢ Introduced the Jalali calendar (1079), an accurate solar

calendar with an error of only 1 day in 5,000 years—more
precise than the Gregorian calendar.

➢ His work laid the groundwork for later astronomical studies

in both the Islamic Golden Age and Western Europe.

➢ Revered for bridging poetry and science, showcasing how

science and art can coexist harmoniously.
➢ State-of-the-Art for Its Time: It was one of the
largest and most advanced observatories of its
era, equipped with sophisticated instruments
for celestial observation.

➢ Astronomical Instruments: Included

astrolabes, armillary spheres, quadrants, and
Tusi's custom-designed devices like the Tusi
Couple for modeling planetary motion.
Khajeh Nasir-e-din Tusi: 1201-1274 CE
He convinced Hulegu Khan to construct an
observatory for establishing accurate astronomical
tables for better astrological predictions! He disputes
geocentric model of Ptolemy and invents Tusi-
couple which is later used by
Ilkhanate (1256–1335)
 Stonehenge
Astronomical Features of Stonehenge
Solstice Alignments:
✓ Summer Solstice: Sun rises over the Heel Stone.
✓ Winter Solstice: Sun sets along the central axis.

Lunar and Solar Tracking:

✓ Likely used to predict eclipses and mark lunar cycles.

Ritual Significance:
✓ Celestial alignments suggest spiritual ceremonies tied to
seasonal changes.

Ancient Observatory:

✓ Demonstrates advanced knowledge of geometry and the

celestial sphere for its time.
 Templo Mayor

The Templo Mayor (Great Temple) was the main

temple of the Aztec capital.

Equinox Alignments:

✓ During the spring and autumn equinoxes, the

sun rose between the two shrines at the top of
the temple, symbolizing harmony between the
deities.

✓ These alignments were likely used to mark the

agricultural calendar.
9
11
Ancient Greek Arguments on the Possibility of Extraterrestrial Life
Consensus: world is built from four elements:
fire, water, earth, and air But disagreement over nature and extent of
these elements:
atomists: world is made from an infinite number of indivisible atoms of
each of the four elements
natural to assume that the same process created other worlds
Aristotelians: the four elements were confined to Earth, while heavens
were made of a fifth element: ether or the quintessence

• world must be unique

This debate was not settled in Ancient Greece.
 Celestial Sphere Round Earth Geocentric Model

to explain rotation of the sky Pythagoras (c. 560–480 B.C.) • Aristotle

around the (North) pole star (384–322 B.C.):
a round Earth at the center of a
cited evidence of Earth’s round shadow
Anaximander (c. 610–547 B.C.) celestial sphere
on the Moon during lunar eclipses
Eratosthenes, ~240 B.C.: • measured
Earth’s size
 Planets Known in Ancient Times

Mercury
– difficult to see; always close to Sun in sky
Venus
– very bright when visible; morning or evening
“star” – also close to Sun in sky •
Mars
– noticeably red
Jupiter
– very bright
Saturn
– moderately bright
 The names of the seven days of the week come from the names
of the solar system bodies known in antiquity
The name of the seven days were
originally based on the seven visible
"wonderers" of the sky.

The correspondence is no longer

perfect, but pattern is clear in many
languages:

Some English names come from

the corresponding names of
Germanic gods; other connections
are clearer in languages such as
French and Spanish.
 The Ptolemaic Model

The most sophisticated geocentric model

was that of Ptolemy:

• Sufficiently accurate to remain in use

for 1,500 years.

• Arabic translation of Ptolemy’s work

named Almagest (“the greatest compilation”)
 Greek geocentric model (c.
400 B.C.)
An astronomer named Eudoxus
created the first model of a
geocentric universe around 380 B.C.
Eudoxus designed his model of the
universe as a series of cosmic
spheres containing the stars, the
sun, and the moon all built around
the Earth at its center.
20
King Alfonso X of Castile on the epicycle model: “If the Lord Almighty had
consulted me before embarking upon Creation, I should have recommended
something simpler”
 Patterns in the Night Sky
Content:

✓ From ancient Greek science to modern

discoveries of exoplanets.

✓ Key milestones: Geocentric and heliocentric

models, Kepler’s laws, and Newtonian gravity.

✓ Shaping the question: How did our understanding

of the universe evolve, and what does it mean for
life?
✓ The Geocentric Model: Earth at the center of the universe.

➢ Key figures: Pythagoras, Aristotle, and Ptolemy.

➢ Observation-based models using the celestial sphere.

✓ Planetary Mysteries: Retrograde motion puzzled early observers.

➢ Eudoxus introduced spheres for planetary paths (~380 BCE).

➢ Ptolemaic model explained retrograde motion using epicycles.

✓ Early Ideas of Earth's Shape and Size:

➢ Aristotle’s observations during lunar eclipses.

➢ Eratosthenes’ measurements of Earth’s circumference (~240 BCE).
The Need for a Simpler Model:
✓ Geocentric models became overly complex with epicycles.
✓ Observations suggested inconsistencies in planetary motions.

Key Figures in the Revolution:

1. Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543):

✓ Proposed the heliocentric model in De Revolutionibus.
✓ Explained retrograde motion naturally without epicycles.

2. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601):

✓ Precise naked-eye observations of planetary positions.
✓ Hybrid model combining heliocentrism and geocentrism.

3. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630):

✓ Abandoned circular orbits in favor of ellipses.
✓ Formulated the three laws of planetary motion.
✓ Nicholas Copernicus:

Proposed the heliocentric model.

Explained retrograde motion without
epicycles.

✓ Tycho Brahe:

Accurate naked-eye observations.

Hybrid model of the solar system.

✓ Johannes Kepler:

Elliptical orbits instead of circles.

Three Laws of Planetary Motion.
The Evolution of Scientific Thought
The Copernican revolution
simpler model of the universe
(Nicholas Copernicus; 1473–1543)
precise atrometric observations
(Tycho Brahe; 1546–1601)
update mathematical model of planetary
motion (Johannes Kepler; 1571–1630)

Theory of Gravity (Sir Isaan Newton; 1642–1727)

The Copernican Revolution
Nicholas Copernicus
Proposed simpler sun-centered model of
the universe (1473-1543).
Tycho Brahe
Made precise astrometric observations
(1546-1601).
Johannes Kepler
Updated mathematical model of planetary
motion (1571-1630).
Galileo
1564-1642
 The Compernican Revolution:
Copernicus’s Heliocentric Universe

Proposed Sun-centred model (published 1543)

simpler explanation of retrograde motion.

Used model to determine layout of solar system, with

planetary distances in astronomical units (au: Earth-
Sun distance) But . . .

Model was no more accurate than Ptolemaic model in

predicting planetary positions:

still used perfect circles

still needed epicycles
Compiled the most accurate naked-
eye observations ever over a period
of 3 decades
 Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)
Cartoon version of Tycho's model Compiled the most accurate measurements ever made
(Fastfission/Wikipedia) of planetary positions

naked-eye observations
accurate to 1 minute of arc (1/60 of 1°)

Still could not detect stellar parallax, and thus

still thought Earth must be at centre of solar
system but recognized that other planets orbit
Sun

Hired Johannes Kepler, who used Tycho’s

observations to discover the truth about
planetary motion.
 Kepler trusts the data over pre-conceived beliefs

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

Kepler first tried to match Tycho’s observations with
circular orbits.

But an 8-arcminute discrepancy led him eventually to

ellipses...

“If I had believed that we could ignore these eight

minutes [of arc], I would have patched up my hypothesis
accordingly. But, since it was not permissible to ignore,
those eight minutes pointed the road to a complete
reformation in astronomy.”
 Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of each planet around the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.
Kepler’s Second Law:
As a planet moves around its orbit, it sweeps out equal areas in equal
times.

⇒ means that a planet travels faster when it is nearer the Sun and slower when it is
farther from the Sun.
 Kepler’s Third Law

More distant planets orbit the Sun at slower average speeds,

obeying the relationship

p² = a³

p = orbital period in years

a = average distance from Sun in AU

Graphical representations of Kepler’s Third Law

This graph shows that Kepler's This graph, based on Kepler's

third law (p² = a³) holds true; the third law and modern value of
planetry distances, shows that
graph shows only the planets
more distant planets orbit the
known in Kepler's time. Sun more slowly.
 Thought Question
An asteroid orbits the Sun at an average distance a = 4 au. How long does it take
to orbit the Sun?

A. 4 years

B. 8 years

C. 16 years

D. 64 years

Hint: Kepler’s Third Law: p2 = a3. Earth has p = 1 year, a = 1

How did Galileo solidify the
Copernican revolution?
Galileo (1564–1642) overcame major
objections to the Copernican view. Three key
objections rooted in Aristotelian view were:

Earth could not be moving because objects in

air would be left behind.

Non-circular orbits are not “perfect” as heavens

should be.

If Earth were really orbiting Sun, we’d

detect stellar parallax.
 Overcoming the first objection (nature of motion):

Aristotle thought that all objects naturally come to rest.

Galileo’s experiments showed that moving objects remain in

motion unless a force acts to stop it (Newton’s first law of motion)

Hence, objects in air would stay with a moving Earth.

Overcoming the second objection (heavenly perfection):
Tycho’s observations of comets and a supernova already challenged this idea:
heavens do undergo change

Using his telescope, Galileo saw:

mountains and valleys on the Moon

(proving it is not a perfect sphere) •sunspots on Sun (“imperfections”)
 Overcoming the third objection (parallax):

Tycho thought he had measured stellar distances, so lack of parallax seemed

to rule out an orbiting Earth.

Galileo showed stars are must more numerous and likely much farther than
Tycho thought — in part by using his telescope to see the Milky Way is
countless individual
stars.

If stars were much farther away, then lack of detectable parallax was no longer
so troubling.
Galileo also saw four moons orbiting Jupiter,
proving that not all objects orbit the Earth
Galileo’s observations of phases of Venus proved that it orbits
the Sun and not Earth.
Galileo’s observations of phases of Venus proved that it orbits the Sun and not Earth.

Geocentric system
Heliocentric system
The Catholic Church ordered Galileo to
recant his claim that Earth orbits the Sun in
1633

His book on the subject was removed

from the Church’s index of banned books
in 1824

Galileo was formally vindicated by the

Church in 1992
 Thought Question:
Which of the following is NOT a fundamental difference between the geocentric and Sun-
centred models of the solar system?

A. Earth is stationary in the geocentric model but moves around Sun in Sun- centred model.

B. Retrograde motion is real (planets really go backward) in geocentric model but

only apparent (planets don’t really turn around) in Sun-centred model.
C. Stellar parallax is expected in the Sun-centred model but not in the Earth- centred
model.

D. The geocentric model is useless for predicting planetary positions in the sky, while even
the earliest Sun-centred models worked almost perfectly.
The idealized scientific method

Based on proposing and

testing hypotheses

Hypothesis = educated guess

But science rarely proceeds in this idealized way ...

For example:

Sometimes we start by “just looking” then coming up with

possible explanations.

Sometimes we follow our intuition rather than a particular line

of evidence.
 Hallmarks of Science: #1

Modern science seeks explanations for observed

phenomena that rely solely on natural causes.

(A scientific model cannot include divine intervention)

 Hallmarks of Science: #2

Science progresses through the creation and testing of

models of nature that explain the observations as simply
as possible.

(Simplicity = “Occam’s razor”)

 Hallmarks of Science: #3

A scientific model must make testable

predictions about natural phenomena that
would force us to revise or abandon the
model if the predictions do not agree with
observations.
• Explain a wide variety of observations with a few simple principles,

• Must be supported by a large, compelling body of evidence,

• Must NOT have failed any crucial test of its validity.

(1642–1727)
➢ Kepler’s first two laws apply to
all orbiting objects, not just
planets
➢ Ellipses are not the only
orbital paths. Orbits can be:
➢ bound (ellipses)

⚫ unbound
- parabola
- hyperbola
⚫ all are conic sections
➢ explained the motion of the Moon around the Earth.
➢ explained Galileo’s observation that all objects fall at same rate
➢ allowed Sir Edmund Halley to predict that the comet of 1682 would return in 1758
(after his death)
➢ enabled the discovery of Neptune through its gravitational influence on Uranus
(Urbain Leverrier & Johann Galle 1846)

Yet, Newton’s law could not explain:

➢ perturbations in Mercury’s motion
➢ mystery of the action of gravity across vast distances
Einstein’s theory of general relativity explained: perturbations in Mercury’s motion

➢ action of gravity across vast distances:

➢ all objects reside in four-dimensional spacetime
➢ massive objects curve spacetime, and smaller objects follow its curvature

Yet, Einstein’s theory contradicts the theory

of quantum mechanics on very small scales
e.g., in black holes

Theory of quantum gravity is needed!

string theory?
The Universal Context of Life (Ch. 3)
Structure and scale of the universe
History of the universe
 Constellations
A constellation is a region of the
sky in which a group of
visible forms a perceived pattern or
outline, typically representing an
animal, mythological subject, or
inanimate object.

88 constellations fill the entire sky

 Constellations

The word constellation comes from the Late Latin

term cōnstellātiō, which can be translated as "set
of stars"; it came into use in Middle English
during the 14th century.

These terms historically referred to any

recognisable pattern of stars whose appearance
was associated with mythological characters or
creatures, earthbound animals, or objects.

Constellation ​Orion
The Sun appears to move steadily eastward along the ecliptic as Earth orbits the Sun, so we see the
Sun against the background of different zodiac constellations at different times of year. For
example, on March 21 the Sun appears to be in Pisces, because it is between us and the much more
distant stars that make up Pisces. Credit: The Cosmic Perspective.
 Credit: Bhushan Karmarkar

What we see (left); actual distances (right) for Orion

Distances determined through parallax and brightness measurements
Earth is a planet in the Solar System, which is one of many star systems in the Milky Way Galaxy.
The Milky Way is just one of countless galaxies in the universe.
A meteor, known colloquially as a shooting
star or falling star, is the visible passage of
a glowing meteoroid, comet through
Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to
incandescence by collisions with air
molecules in the upper atmosphere,
creating a streak of light via its rapid
motion and sometimes also by shedding
glowing material in its wake.
An interstellar cloud of gas and/or dust
 Dark dust blocking the hot
gas behind it
A cloud in space

Made of gas and dust

Can have stars inside

Most of the ones we see are

inside our Milky Way Galaxy

Different types
 Supernova remnant
(smaller, less gas)
A supernova remnant is the expanding debris
from a star’s explosion.

The shock wave heats gas to millions of degrees,

so it glows strongly in X-rays and other
wavelengths.

Over time it spreads out and mixes with the

interstellar medium, enriching it with new heavy
elements.
After the Sun becomes a red giant, it will
shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula.

The exposed core becomes a white dwarf:

Earth-sized, extremely dense, and initially
very hot.

With no fusion left, it will cool and fade

slowly over billions of years.

Small, but very hot

A planetary nebula forms when a Sun-like
star gently sheds its outer layers near the
end of its life.

The hot central core (future white dwarf)

emits UV light that ionizes the gas, making
it glow.

The shells and rings trace episodic mass

loss and shaping by winds (often with help
from a companion).
 Lagoon Nebula (M8)
The Trifid Nebula (M20) M24

Gaseous nebulae are large clouds of gas and dust in the Milky Way.

They often mark star-forming regions: UV light from young, massive stars ionizes the gas and makes it glow.

Different colors trace different atoms/conditions (e.g., Hα red), while dark lanes show dust absorption.
Pleiades
M7