EDP4304: General Methods of Teaching

: LECTURE 03

Various strategies of instruction

MONOLOGUE METHODS:

a. lecture
b. demonstration

A: Lecture-based classes

Activity 01: Is a lecture an effective method of teaching? Why? Why not?

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Planning an effective lecture

The lecture, one of the oldest teaching methods, is still the most widely used method of
instruction on college campuses. But, is it an effective method?
Lectures are particularly good for presenting up-to-date information, summarizing material,
adapting material to the background and interests of a particular group of students, and focusing
on key concepts, principles, or ideas (McKeachie and Svinicki, 2014). However, new
advancements in understanding memory, motivation, and learning indicate a need to rethink how
to organize and deliver a lecture.
Research shows that information is more easily learned when it is linked to what one already
knows. Thus the lecture needs to build a bridge between students' knowledge base and the new
material or subject matter of the lecture (McKeachie and Svinicki, 2014). The following are
some suggestions as to how to do this:

 Find out what your students already know by collecting information, asking questions, etc.
 As you introduce new topics, start with a review of the material that came before and show
how the new content is connected to or builds on it.
 Use examples that are relevant to your students' experiences.
 Order the subtopics in a meaningful sequence, using good transitions and ample metaphors,
examples, demonstrations, or other relevant illustrations.
 Make the lecture structure transparent by planning a good introduction.
 Use slides or the board for key points.
 Make sure your conclusion or summary ties the important information together.

One of the biggest barriers to an effective lecture is presenting too much material for a given
class. An easy trap to fall into is overloading students' information processing capacity to the
extent that they become frustrated and give up. Students learn more and better if fewer points are
presented. So it is essential to think carefully about what you can reasonably address in the time
allotted.

Activity 2: What can be done to minimize the passive and monotonous nature of a lecture and to make it
more effective?

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Using active learning in lecturing

Students learn more effectively when they are actively engaged than when they passively receive
information (Mc-Glynn, 2001). Following are some ways to incorporate active learning into your
lecture (Davis, 1993). For additional strategies, see the section on group learning.

Beginning of class

 Use groups: Have students form groups (pairs or trios) at the beginning of class and give
them time to discuss material, solve a problem, or raise a question to be discussed during
the class.
 Brainstorm: Pose an open-ended question to the class at the beginning of a lecture and ask
students to brainstorm. Write students' ideas on the board or on an overhead. Refer to these
ideas later in the lecture. You can combine or group related ideas and provide major
conclusions, or allow students to do this.
 Post problems: Ask students to raise questions they may have at the start of the hour. Write
these on the board. Alternatively, you can invite students to e-mail questions to you about
readings ahead of time. These questions can be assembled and distributed at the beginning
of the period. As you lecture, indicate any questions that are being addressed.

Middle of class

 Pause: Divide your lecture into two 20-minute (or three 15-minute) periods of lecturing
followed by a two-minute pause where students can work in pairs to compare and rework
their notes. Students might also use a pause to answer a question or solve a problem with a
partner. This is a good time for students to address any questions posed earlier and posted
on the board.
 Student experts: Have students become experts on key points throughout the semester.
Students can be responsible for a small part of a lecture where their “key point” is featured.
 Take a vote: Make a statement based on the lecture content and ask students for a show of
hands if they agree, disagree, or don't know. A discussion of why may follow.

End of class

 Assign a one-minute paper: At the end of the lecture, students can be asked to write a one-
minute paper summarizing the main points of the lecture, the most important point of the
lecture, or perhaps the most unclear point. You can collect these and use them as a guide to
how well information was presented and what information needs clarification.
  Hold a discussion: Periodically cut your lecture short. Use the last 20-25 minutes of class
time for informal discussion.

Classroom presence
In addition to introducing active learning, you can capture your students' attention by becoming a
more dynamic lecturer. Here are some techniques you might try (McGlynn, 2001, p. 76).

 Start your lecture with an interesting story, a personal anecdote, or a provocative visual.
 Ask a question or state a problem that is central to the material you will be talking about.
 Use real-life examples that are relevant to your students' experiences.
 Show enthusiasm.
 Use your voice effectively-speak with energy and inflection.
 Move around the room to better connect with all your students.

B: Classroom demonstrations

Activity 3: Do you use the demonstration method in your classes? Give examples. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of this method?

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Lecture demonstrations have two important purposes: to increase student understanding of the
concepts demonstrated, and to increase student enjoyment of class.

Previous studies have cast doubt on whether traditional demonstrations accomplish the first,
finding that passive observation of demonstrations does not significantly improve student
understanding of the associated concepts. Indeed, many students alter their memory of
demonstrations to match their ideas about the underlying physics! Does the presentation of a
demonstration affect its effectiveness? If students are required to predict the outcome of a
demonstration and discuss their predictions with one another before the demonstration, they
think more actively about the demonstration and its explanation and have opportunities to
discover inconsistencies or weaknesses in their own thinking. We are studying whether this
strategy improves student understanding of the demonstration. We identified four possible modes
of demonstration presentation:

 no demonstration
 show and tell (traditional approach)
 predict (students predict the outcome individually before seeing the demonstration)
 predict and discuss (students predict the outcome individually, then discuss their predictions
with others, before seeing the demonstration)
Each demonstration was presented to part of the class in each of these modes during discussion
sections.
At the end of the semester, we gave a free-response test in which students were asked to predict
and explain the outcome of physical situations similar or identical to the demonstrations. Initial
analysis suggests a small performance improvement when students have to predict the outcome
of a demonstration before seeing it.

DIALOGUE METHODS
a. Group Discussion
b. Problem-solving
c. Discovery method
C: Group Discussion
Activity 04: What are the advantages and disadvantages of group discussions?

A group discussion (GD) is a technique for exchanging ideas and viewpoints. It is commonly
implemented in professional or educational contexts. The main goal of a group discussion is to
provide each participant with an opportunity to express their thoughts and ideas on a particular
topic, as well as to encourage listening and learning from other members of the group. Group
talks may be helpful for idea generation, information sharing, connection development, and
issue-solving.

The panelists or moderators will start introducing themselves and offer you guidelines for the
process in a normal group discussion session. The group will then have around 10-15 minutes to
pause and prepare before having about 30 minutes to discuss the topic. The time restrictions
might change depending on the process. The panelist evaluates the applicants' performance using
an assessment form and a specified marking scheme.

Group discussions are important for self-growth, but not everyone engaged in the discussion will
have the same perspectives. Some may have had good experiences, and some may have had bad
ones.

Advantages:

Encourages the development of Critical Thinking

Because it gives everyone a chance to voice their opinions and have their views questioned,
group discussions encourage the development of critical thinking. Active participation in a
conversation increases the probability that participants will analyze their own beliefs and weigh
the merits of other points of view. This inspires individuals to express more carefully and
critically on a certain subject.

Additionally, it broadens the group members' perspectives. Because everyone's perspective is

heard and questioned, a group discussion enables members to think more creatively and develop
new ideas.
Enhances Communication

Through the practice of listening, processing information, thinking critically, and expressing
their opinions to others, group discussions help people improve their communication abilities. A
group discussion gives participants a chance to practice how to communicate effectively with
various personality types and how to negotiate in order to achieve an agreement.

For instance, people learn to listen during a group conversation by paying attentive attention to
what others are saying and asking relevant questions. Moreover, individuals may practice
respectfully and effectively responding to criticism and opposing viewpoints. They can also
enhance their ability to defend their point of view without becoming aggressively defensive.

Enhances Problem Solving Skills

By giving people a chance to collaborate and suggest solutions to an issue, GD improves

problem-solving abilities. Members can generate ideas, exchange ideas and viewpoints, and push
one another to come up with unique solutions through group discussions.

Additionally, members of the group can express constructive criticism of one another's views,
which can assist in sharpening and enhancing the solution. Working on a problem together can
also aid in identifying underlying problems and basic reasons that may not have been visible to a
single person. Individuals can develop their problem-solving abilities, strengthen their critical
thinking abilities, and gain information from the group's combined knowledge by participating in
GD.

Promotes Involvement of the Participants

Usually, a group gives members a place to share their thoughts. People who are ordinarily afraid
to chat or interact are more inclined to participate when there is a team aspect present. People are
more likely to act independently because they feel included in the decision-making process.

People are more likely to contribute ideas and find solutions to issues when there is often no sole
responsibility of any particular person in the case of failure. Thus, a group discussion promotes
the participation of the participants.

Helps in gaining Depth of Knowledge

The acronym GDL stands for "Gaining Depth of Knowledge", and it refers to the process of
learning and understanding a subject more deeply. Group discussions involve a controlled and
coordinated conversation among a group of individuals about a certain topic or issue. By
considering many viewpoints and ideas, participants are able to develop a more thorough grasp
of the subject or problem being addressed in the Group discussion. A more in-depth examination
of the subject is encouraged by this form of discussion since it gives everyone an opportunity to
speak freely. Additionally, it encourages the creation of awesome ideas and solutions to issues.
Also, it fosters better communication and interpersonal relations among group members, which
can promote more productive teamwork.

Helps to Boost Confidence

Having a group discussion may increase confidence in a variety of ways. It offers individuals the
chance to develop their public speaking and communication abilities while getting input and
encouragement from their colleagues. By enabling individuals to have a better grasp of their own
pluses and minuses, a group talk further contributes to increased self-awareness.

Additionally, it encourages collaboration and relationship-building, which may raise morale and
confidence. Last but not least, it provides individuals with the chance to learn from one another,
which may aid in both broadening and deepening knowledge and comprehension of a subject.

Disadvantages of Group Discussion

A Time-Consuming Process

Group discussion takes time because participants must listen to one another, share ideas, debate
contrary views, and reach a conclusion. Everyone should have the opportunity to voice their
opinions and be heard. Depending on the depth and complexity of the problem and the number
of participants, this procedure may take a while. It is crucial that everyone is given the
opportunity to express their opinions respectfully.

Engaging with the entire group can have several benefits when there is a lot of time before a
decision needs to be taken. It is preferable to seek an individual decision than a group one if you
need to make a decision quickly.

No place for Hesitant People

Sometimes individuals choose to remain quiet throughout a group discussion because they have
nothing additional to say. Prior to the procedure, they may have decided to "roll with the
punches" and accept whatever the consequences may be. Due to this drawback, the leader may
nevertheless be expected to make the final choice in a room filled with quiet people.

Due to social constraints, some team members may prefer to keep quiet. Since an excessive
number of loud voices drown out humble and quiet expressions of shared expertise, this can be a
downside of the process that can lead teams in the wrong direction. Simply put, if someone is
hesitant to voice their opinion, the other team members will suppress their point and move on.

Sometimes leads to Unproductive Discussions

For a variety of reasons, group conversations might result in fruitless discussions. First, there is
the possibility of herd mentality, which happens when members lose track of or disregard an
individual's ideas in lieu of the group's attempt to attain a consensus. Due to the group's inability
to fully explore all alternative options, this can result in having fewer ideal results.

Second, it might be challenging to make sure everyone gets an opportunity to contribute to

discussions when there is a big group of members. As a result, certain participants may dominate
the conversation, while others might feel embarrassed or ill-equipped to contribute due to their
lack of confidence or expertise. As a result, the conversation might not accurately reflect the
opinions of everyone in the presence, which could produce an incomplete and potentially useless
result.

Third, it might be challenging to maintain concentration when a group is debating over a

complex matter. The discussion may lose focus and direction as it deviates from the main topic,
which could prevent any significant progress or resolution.

To sum up, group discussions can be ineffective if the participants don't allow each person an
opportunity to contribute, or they lose concentration or are unable to come to a consensus.

Expensive Process to Conduct

Due to the costs involved in planning, directing, and monitoring the discussion, conducting
group discussions can be expensive. A moderator is typically needed in group discussions to
keep the conversation on track and to guarantee that each member has an equal chance to
contribute. Given that moderators are often compensated for their knowledge and time, this can
be a costly process.

Additionally, buying equipment like paper, pens, and other items is frequently necessary for
group discussion. These expenses can easily build up and make conducting group discussions
expensive. If required, renting a place is also expensive. Furthermore, travel expenses might be
required if the gathering is huge or separated geographically.

Create Personal Conflicts between the Colleagues

Group conversations can be a cause of dispute and tension when different viewpoints are
expressed and discussed, which can lead to interpersonal issues between coworkers. Whenever a
group of colleagues gathers to talk about a problem or a project, they can individually contribute
their own viewpoints and opinions to the discussion. This might lead to heated debates and
personal disputes.

For example, suppose one person has an opinion that is in stark contrast to another's. In that case,
they may feel frustrated or insulted if their opinion is not given equal consideration or respect.
This can lead to feelings of resentment or hostility, which can manifest itself in the form of
personal conflicts between colleagues.
Additionally, group discussions can create personal conflicts if someone feels left out or ignored.
If some members of the group are more vocal or assertive than others, they may monopolize the
conversation and drown out the opinions of more introverted colleagues. This can lead to
feelings of exclusion, which can ultimately lead to personal conflicts between the participants.

Overall, group discussions can create personal conflicts between colleagues, especially when
opinions are diverse and some people feel left out.

Conclusion

Group discussion has proven to be a great way to promote active learning and collaboration
among peers. While this method has many advantages, such as allowing people to brainstorm
ideas, gain feedback from others, and practice communication skills, it can also have some
drawbacks. These drawbacks include the potential for groupthink, the lack of control over the
conversation, and the difficulty of ensuring that everyone has an equal voice.

D: Problem Solving Method:

Many instructors design opportunities for students to solve problems. However, are their students
solving true problems or merely participating in practice exercises?
Problem solving is often broadly defined as "the ability to understand the environment, identify
complex problems, review related information to develop, evaluate strategies and implement
solutions to build the desired outcome" (Fissore, C. et al, 2021). True problem solving is the
process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is subject to a specific
set of conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, to obtain a satisfactory
solution.
Principles for problem-solving
 Model a useful problem-solving method: Problem-solving can be difficult and
sometimes tedious. Show students how to be patient and persistent, and how to follow a
structured method, such as Woods’ model described below. Articulate your method as
you use it so students see the connections.
 Teach within a specific context: Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which
they will be used by students (e.g., mole fraction calculations in a chemistry course). Use
real-life problems in explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach problem solving as
an independent, abstract skill.
 Help students understand the problem: In order to solve problems, students need to
define the end goal. This step is crucial to the successful learning of problem-solving
skills. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?” and “why?”,
finding the answer to “how?” will be easier.
 Take enough time: When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough time for:
understanding the problem and defining the goal (both individually and as a class);
 dealing with questions from you and your students; making, finding, and fixing mistakes;
and solving entire problems in a single session.
 Ask questions and make suggestions: Ask students to predict “what would happen if
…” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and
deductive thinking skills. Also, ask questions and make suggestions about strategies to
encourage students to reflect on the problem-solving strategies that they use.
 Link errors to misconceptions: Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not
carelessness or random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct
it, then teach students to do this by themselves. We can all learn from mistakes.
Wood’s problem-solving Model
The Problem-Solving Model was developed in the present study by the five phases of Wood's
Problem-Solving Model (1975) viz., define the problem, think about it, plan a solution, carry out
the plan, and look back.

Activity 05: Work in groups/pairs and identify how you can use ‘Problem-solving strategy’ for
any level of your students. Design the lesson plan.
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E: Discovery Method:

The Discovery Learning Method is an active, hands-on style of learning, originated by Jerome
Bruner in the 1960s. Bruner emphasized that we should be “learning by doing.” With this
method, students actively participate instead of passively receiving knowledge. Students interact
with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and
controversies or performing experiments. They are encouraged to think, ask questions,
hypothesize, speculate, cooperate, and collaborate with others. They develop confidence in
problem-solving and feel comfortable using the knowledge they already have. Instead of a
student being an empty vessel for a teacher to fill with knowledge, the Discovery Learning
Method takes into consideration that all students have some background knowledge that they
may be able to apply to the current subject at hand.

The Discovery Learning Method is a constructivist theory, meaning it is based on the idea that
students construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing
things and reflecting on those experiences. Willy Wonka very famously said “We are the music
makers. We are the dreamers of dreams.” Willy Wonka was a constructivist and his factory
constantly used the Discovery Learning Method. That’s what made his Chocolate Factory so
exciting to children and adults alike–there was hands-on learning and trying in his factory.
Granted, some of the results weren’t favorable, but each time something happened to a child, an
Oompa Loompa would sing a song not only reiterating the lesson but also reminding the children
and adults that they should have known something would happen based on their prior
knowledge. This hands-on approach created lifelong lessons nobody (not even the people
watching it from the comfort of their own homes) would ever forget.

1. Guided discovery method

2. Unguided discovery method

Steps in Discovery Method of Teaching

The discovery method of instruction consists of three phases to assist pupils in autonomously
discovering and investigating various topics. The following items are normally included in these
steps:
1. Exploration
2. Invention
3. Discovery

Exploration
Exploration is the first stage of the discovery method of teaching students. Students are allowed
to investigate a subject or idea at this stage of the process by engaging in activities such as
reading, watching, and participating in experiments, amongst other activities. In addition to
laying a foundation of knowledge for the students to build upon in the next parts of the discovery
process, this stage aims to foster a sense of natural curiosity and interest in the subject matter the
class is studying.

As students are in the discovery phase of the unit, their instructors may utilize a range of
materials, such as films, articles, and hands-on activities, to keep their attention and interest.

For instance, in a science lesson, the teacher would invite the students to watch a chemical
reaction demonstration and write down their thoughts in a notebook about what they saw.
Students taking a literature class may be assigned to read a short tale and then do an analysis of
the narrative’s themes and characters.

The exploration phase is essential because it lets students get acquainted with the subject matter
and develop a fundamental comprehension of the subject’s main ideas. Also, it helps to build
interest and enthusiasm among students, which might drive them to participate in the succeeding
parts of the discovery process.

Invention
The invention process is the second phase of the discovery method of teaching. At this stage, you
will allow the students to apply their prior knowledge and imagination to develop original
thoughts and answers to connect the subject.

This phase is intended to be completed for students to improve their ability to think critically and
independently, as well as their problem-solving skills.
During the innovation phase, instructors may give students a provocation or challenge connected
to the subject and then ask them to think of their ideas and develop their own answers. Students
in a social studies class must devise a strategy for combating poverty in their neighborhood as an
assigned project.

Students in a math class could be invited to create a game that illustrates a mathematical subject
via play.

Since it allows students to generate their concepts and approaches to the problem, the innovation
phase is an essential part of the process. Students could benefit from this not just in terms of
gaining self-assurance and independence but also in terms of developing a more in-depth
comprehension of the material.

Discovery
The actual process of discovery learning is the last stage in the discovery method of instruction.
At this stage, you will guide students through putting their thoughts and ideas to the test by
having them do experiments and conduct analyses.

Students will benefit from this phase by developing a more in-depth grasp of the material and
strengthening their ability to solve problems in various contexts.

During the discovery phase, a teacher may give students a task or issue relevant to the subject
and then invite students to use materials to solve the problem.

To put a theory to the test, for instance. The students in a science class can be asked to design
and carry out their very own experiments. Throughout their history study, students are
sometimes tasked with evaluating primary materials and drawing judgments on a particular
historical occurrence.

Since it allows students to test their ideas and solutions in the context of the real world, the
discovery phase is a crucial part of the process. Both their ability to solve problems and their
grasp of the material may improve due to this activity.

It also allows children to take ownership of their work and feel pleasure in their
accomplishments, which is a powerful motivator.