UNIT 2: DATA LINK LAYER
1. Data Link Layer – Need, Services Provided
Introduction
The Data Link Layer is the 2nd layer of the OSI Model. It is
responsible for the reliable transfer of data between two directly
connected devices on the same network.
It receives data from the Network Layer, converts it into frames, and
sends them to the Physical Layer. At the receiver, it extracts the data
from the frame and passes it to the Network Layer.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
LLC (Logical Link Control) – Provides flow control and error
control.
MAC (Media Access Control) – Controls access to the
communication medium and provides MAC addressing.
Need for the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer is needed because:
It provides reliable communication between neighboring devices.
It converts packets into frames.
It detects and corrects transmission errors.
It controls the flow of data between sender and receiver.
It manages access to the shared communication channel.
Services Provided by the Data Link Layer
1. Framing
The Data Link Layer divides data into frames before transmission.
2. Physical Addressing
Each frame contains the MAC address of the sender and receiver.
3. Flow Control
Prevents the sender from sending data faster than the receiver can
process.
4. Error Control
Detects and corrects transmission errors using checksums, CRC, and ARQ
techniques.
5. Access Control
Determines which device can use the communication channel at a
particular time.
2. Framing
Definition
Framing is the process of dividing a continuous stream of bits into
smaller units called frames.
Each frame contains:
Header
Data
Trailer
Need for Framing
Synchronization
Error detection
Addressing
Reliable transmission
Framing Methods
(a) Character Count
The first field stores the total number of characters in the frame.
Advantage:
Simple implementation.
Disadvantage:
If the count field is corrupted, the receiver loses synchronization.
(b) Character Stuffing
Special characters indicate the beginning and end of a frame. If the same
character appears in the data, an escape character is inserted.
Advantage:
Simple for character-oriented protocols.
Disadvantage:
Extra characters increase overhead.
(c) Bit Stuffing
Frames start and end with a special bit pattern (usually 01111110).
Whenever five consecutive 1s appear in the data, the sender inserts a 0.
The receiver removes this extra 0.
Advantage:
Works well for bit-oriented protocols (e.g., HDLC).
Disadvantage:
Slight increase in transmission overhead.
(d) Physical Layer Coding Violation
Uses unused signal patterns of the Physical Layer to indicate frame
boundaries.
Advantage:
No extra bits are added.
Disadvantage:
Depends on the physical encoding scheme.
3. Flow Control
Definition
Flow control prevents the sender from transmitting data faster than the
receiver can handle.
Need
Prevents receiver buffer overflow.
Improves communication efficiency.
Ensures reliable transmission.
Methods
(a) Stop-and-Wait
Sender transmits one frame.
Waits for ACK.
Sends the next frame only after receiving ACK.
Advantages
Simple.
Reliable.
Disadvantages
Low efficiency due to waiting time.
(b) Sliding Window
Sender can send multiple frames before receiving ACKs.
Uses a window to control the number of outstanding frames.
Advantages
Better channel utilization.
Higher throughput.
Disadvantages
More complex than Stop-and-Wait.
4. Error Control
Definition
Error control detects and corrects transmission errors.
It ensures that the receiver obtains the correct data.
Types of Errors
Single-bit Error
Only one bit changes.
Example:
10110010
10110000
Multiple-bit Error
More than one bit changes.
Burst Error
Two or more consecutive bits change.
Burst errors are the most common in communication systems.
Error Detection Techniques
Parity Check
Checksum
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Error Correction
Errors are corrected using:
Hamming Code
ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
5. Data Link Layer Protocols
These protocols provide reliable communication between two directly
connected devices.
(a) Stop-and-Wait Protocol
Definition
The sender sends one frame and waits for an acknowledgment before
sending the next frame.
Working
1. Send Frame.
2. Wait for ACK.
3. If ACK received → Send next frame.
4. If timeout occurs → Retransmit the frame.
Advantages
Easy to implement.
Reliable.
Disadvantages
Low throughput.
Poor performance on long-distance links.
(b) Sliding Window Protocol
Definition
Multiple frames can be sent before receiving acknowledgments.
The sender maintains a window of frames that are allowed to be
transmitted.
Types
1-Bit Sliding Window
Go-Back-N
Selective Repeat
6. 1-Bit Sliding Window Protocol
Definition
The simplest Sliding Window protocol where the window size is 1.
Sequence numbers alternate between 0 and 1.
Working
1. Send Frame 0.
2. Receive ACK 0.
3. Send Frame 1.
4. Receive ACK 1.
Advantages
Prevents duplicate frames.
Simple implementation.
Disadvantages
Low efficiency.
7. Go-Back-N ARQ
Definition
The sender can transmit multiple frames without waiting for ACKs.
If one frame is lost, that frame and all subsequent frames are
retransmitted.
Working
Example:
Frames:
01234
If Frame 2 is lost:
The receiver discards Frames 3 and 4.
Sender retransmits:
234
Advantages
Higher throughput than Stop-and-Wait.
Efficient for low-error networks.
Disadvantages
Wastes bandwidth when many frames are retransmitted.
8. Selective Repeat ARQ
Definition
Only the lost or damaged frame is retransmitted.
Correctly received frames are stored in the receiver's buffer.
Working
Frames:
01234
If Frame 2 is lost:
Receiver stores Frames 3 and 4.
Sender retransmits only:
2
Advantages
Better bandwidth utilization.
Higher efficiency.
Disadvantages
Requires more memory.
More complex implementation.
Difference: Go-Back-N vs Selective Repeat
Selective
Feature Go-Back-N
Repeat
Retransmissi Lost frame and all following Only lost
on frames frame
Buffer
Small Large
Required
Efficiency Lower Higher
More
Complexity Simple
Complex
9. Hybrid ARQ (HARQ)
Definition
Hybrid ARQ combines Forward Error Correction (FEC) and Automatic
Repeat Request (ARQ).
The receiver first attempts to correct errors using error-correcting codes. If
correction fails, it requests retransmission.
Advantages
Better reliability.
Fewer retransmissions.
Improved performance.
Applications
LTE
4G
5G
Wi-Fi
10. Protocol Verification
Protocol verification checks whether a communication protocol behaves
correctly under all conditions.
Two common models are:
(a) Finite State Machine (FSM)
Definition
An FSM represents a protocol using:
States
Inputs
Outputs
State transitions
Components
Initial State
Current State
Next State
Transition
Advantages
Easy to understand.
Useful for protocol design.
Disadvantages
Difficult to model very large protocols.
(b) Petri Net Model
Definition
A Petri Net is a graphical model used to represent concurrent and parallel
systems.
It consists of:
Places
Transitions
Tokens
Advantages
Models concurrent operations.
Detects deadlocks.
Suitable for complex protocols.
Disadvantages
More complex than FSM.
11. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Definition
ARP converts an IP Address into a MAC Address.
Working
1. Sender broadcasts an ARP Request.
2. Device with the matching IP replies with its MAC address.
3. Sender stores the mapping in the ARP cache.
Advantages
Enables communication within a LAN.
Automatically resolves MAC addresses.
12. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)
Definition
RARP converts a MAC Address into an IP Address.
It was mainly used by diskless workstations during booting and has largely
been replaced by BOOTP and DHCP.
Working
1. Device sends a RARP Request.
2. RARP server replies with the IP address.
13. GARP (Gratuitous Address Resolution Protocol)
Definition
GARP is an ARP request sent by a device for its own IP address.
Uses
Updates ARP tables of other devices.
Detects duplicate IP addresses.
Announces a change in MAC address.