ALSO BY JOHN ELDER

Ruby Programming For Everyone

Learn Ruby On Rails For Web Development

PHP Programming For Affiliate Marketers

The Smart Startup: How To Crush It

Without Falling Into The Venture Capital Trap

Adsense Niche Sites Unleashed

Social Media Marketing Unleashed

SEO Optimization: A How To SEO Guide

To Dominating The Search Engines
Intro To Python
Programming
Beginners Guide
Series

John Elder

[Link]
Las Vegas
 Intro To Python Programming
Beginners Guide Series

By: John Elder

Published By [Link]
Las Vegas, NV USA

ISBN
979-8-9859654-0-7

First Edition

Copyright © John Elder and [Link]

All rights reserved - Printed in the United States of America

[Link]
FOR APRIL
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ............................................................................. 15

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 16
WELCOME! ........................................................................................ 16
Get the Book Videos Discounted ..................................................... 18
Grab the PDF version of this book .................................................. 19
Conventions Used in the Book ........................................................ 20
Exercises .............................................................................................. 20

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................. 22

Setting Up A Python Development Environment ........................ 23
Windows / Mac/ Linux ...................................................................... 23
Mac ....................................................................................................... 23
Linux .................................................................................................... 24
Windows ............................................................................................. 25
Git Bash Terminal …………….......................................................... 26
Sublime Text Editor ……................................................................... 27
Summing Up …................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................ 29

Writing Our First Python Program ................................................. 30
Creating a Python File ....................................................................... 30
Hello World! ...................................................................................... 31
Print() ………....................................................................................... 31
Errors ................................................................................................... 33
Comments ........................................................................................... 35
Exercises .............................................................................................. 39

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................ 40

Fun With Math, Variables, and Inputs ........................................... 41
Basic Math Operators ........................................................................ 41
John Elder

Math With Quotes? ............................................................................ 43

Integers and Floats ............................................................................. 45
Inline Math With F-Strings ............................................................... 47
Comparison Operators ...................................................................... 48
Variables .............................................................................................. 51
Math with Variables .......................................................................... 53
String to Integer .................................................................................. 53
Adding Strings ................................................................................... 54
Multiplying Strings ............................................................................ 56
Assignment Operators ...................................................................... 56
Getting User Input ............................................................................. 59
Getting Numbers As User Input ...................................................... 60
Exercises .............................................................................................. 62

CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................... 63

IF/ELSE Statements ………................................................................ 64
Basic IF Statements ………................................................................ 65
IF/ELSE ................................................................................................ 66
IF/ELIF ................................................................................................ 67
Multiple Conditionals And/Or ........................................................ 68
String Manipulation .......................................................................... 70
lower, upper, capitalize, title, swapcase, len, rstrip ….................. 70
Build A Choose Your Own Adventure Game ............................... 73
Exercises .............................................................................................. 75

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................ 76

Lists ….................................................................................................. 77
Creating a List…................................................................................. 77
Lists Start With Zero! …..................................................................... 78
Putting Numbers and Variables Into Lists… ................................. 78
Another Way To Create a List …...................................................... 79
Adding Things to Lists Later On …................................................. 80
Removing Items From a List …........................................................ 82
Multi-Dimensional Lists …............................................................... 83

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 [Link]

Exercises .............................................................................................. 86

CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................... 87

Loops ................................................................................................... 88
What Is A Loop? ................................................................................. 88
While Loops ........................................................................................ 89
Infinite Loop Problems! .................................................................... 91
Break/Continue .................................................................................. 93
For Loops ............................................................................................ 95
Using Else With Loops ...................................................................... 98
Pass Statement ……………………………………………………… 99
Fizz/Buzz Game ............................................................................... 100
Exercises ............................................................................................ 104

CHAPTER SEVEN ...................................................................................... 105

Functions …………........................................................................... 106
Creating a Function ......................................................................... 106
Calling a Function ............................................................................ 107
Passing Things Into A Function ..................................................... 107
Fizz/Buzz Using Functions ............................................................. 108
Returning True or False .................................................................. 109
Passing More Than One Argument To A Function .................... 111
Using Default Arguments In A Function ..................................... 112
Exercises ............................................................................................ 114

CHAPTER EIGHT ...................................................................................... 115

Dictionaries ....................................................................................... 116
Dictionaries vs. Lists ........................................................................ 116
Pizza Dictionary ............................................................................... 117
Dictionary Keys and Values ........................................................... 117
Calling a Value From A Dictionary ............................................... 118
Adding And Removing Items From a Dictionary ...................... 118
Odds and Ends ................................................................................. 120
Alternate Ways To Write A Dictionary ........................................ 121

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John Elder

Finding Keys or Values ................................................................... 122

Looping Thru Dictionaries ………………………………………. 123
When to Use A Dictionary vs. A List ............................................ 124
Exercises ............................................................................................ 126

CHAPTER NINE ......................................................................................... 127

Putting It All Together To Make a Flashcard Game ................... 128
Quick Recap ...................................................................................... 128
Mapping out our Game .................................................................. 129
Creating Random Numbers ........................................................... 130
start_game Function ........................................................................ 132
Math Functions ................................................................................. 134
add_flashcards Function ................................................................. 134
subtract_flashcards Function ......................................................... 138
multiply_flashcards Function ........................................................ 139
divide_flashcards Function ............................................................ 140
Simplifying The Code ...................................................................... 141
Exercises ............................................................................................ 143

CHAPTER TEN ........................................................................................... 144

Conclusion ........................................................................................ 145
Get My Python Video Course at [Link] ……................... 145
A Special Favor ................................................................................. 146
Python Coding Challenges ………………………………………. 147

APPENDIX A ............................................................................................... 149

Get a Massive Discount For My Online Code School ................ 149

12
 INTRO TO
PYTHON
PROGRAMMING

BEGINNERS GUIDE SERIES

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

John Elder is a Web Developer, Entrepreneur, and Author living in Las

Vegas, NV. He created one of the earliest online advertising networks in
the late nineties and sold it to publicly traded WebQuest International
Inc. at the height of the first dot-com boom.

He went on to develop one of the Internet's first Search Engine

Optimization tools, the Submission-Spider that was used by over three
million individuals, small businesses, and governments in over forty-
two countries.

These days John writes about Coding and wealth creation; produces a
popular coding Youtube Channel, and runs [Link] the online
learning platform that teaches Coding to hundreds of thousands of
students.

John graduated with honors from Washington University in St. Louis

with a degree in Economics. He can be reached at john@[Link]
John Elder

INTRODUCTION

"Which programming language should I learn?"

Over at [Link] I've taught hundreds of thousands of people how

to code and if I've heard that question once, I've heard it a thousand
times.

It's confusing – there's no doubt about it!

Most people would agree that Python is one of the most popular
programming languages out there.

But is it a good first language to learn?

Absolutely!

For one, it's incredibly easy to learn. Python is more "conversational" in

nature than many other programming languages. Meaning, it feels
more like writing words than it does technical jargon.

Second, it's incredibly powerful! There's not much you can't do with
Python.

Want to build websites? Python works for that.

Want to build GUI apps? Yep, Python works great for that too.

Want to do Data Science? Oh yeah, Python shines there too.

There are very few languages that tick all those boxes at once yet remain
so easy to learn and fun to work with.

16
 [Link]

Maybe that’s why Python is "eating the world" when it comes to

computer programming.

Either way, I think Python is certainly the best programming language

to learn if you're just starting out.

What if you aren't just starting out?

Python is great for you too! If you have experience coding in another
language, then Python should be very easy for you to pick up.

In fact, the ease of Python may even frustrate you a little bit! You'll be
angry at yourself for all the hassle you went through learning those
other languages!

I'm not kidding!

You might find yourself trying to slap semi-colons to the end of your
Python lines of code, and other unnecessary things like that.

Yeah...Python is drop dead simple and it makes other programming

languages seem old and stuffy by comparison.

Wherever you're coming from; complete newbie all the way to seasoned
coder, Python is almost certainly right for you.

This book is focused mainly on newer programmers. Though seasoned

coders should still find it useful.

If you're new, I suggest starting at the beginning and taking it one page
at a time. If you're experienced, feel free to jump around and grab what
you need whenever you need it.

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John Elder

If you get confused or stuck along the way you can always head over to
[Link] and use the contact form to shoot me a message. You
bought this book, so I'm happy to help explain anything in here that you
don't understand.

FOLLOW ALONG – VIDEO COURSE!

Everyone learns differently. Some people learn by reading, some by

watching and listening, others learn by doing. I want you to be able to
learn this stuff in the best way for you.

So I've created a companion video course that goes along with this book.
Basically, it covers everything that the book covers, it's just in video
format.

Normally I charge $49 for the course on its own, but I want you to have
it for just $9 today as my 'thank you' for giving this book a try.

You can sign up and access the course at [Link]/pythonfollow

It's only $9, you don’t even need a coupon code. I suggest you go sign
up right now, because even if you don't watch the videos, by signing up
you'll get a membership account at [Link] and you can post
questions directly to me under each video.

If you don't understand something in the book, maybe the video will
clear things up for you. If not, you can post a question right there and I'll
answer personally.

It's not a bad deal for just $9 bucks ;-)

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 [Link]

FREE PDF VERSION OF THE BOOK

Programming books are tricky. I like reading my programming books in

the paperback form. But you can't copy and paste code from a
paperback book.

Then there's Kindle...which is super convenient and sometimes does

allow you to copy and paste (sometimes – programming books are
sometimes different). But the problem with Kindle is that the formatting
sometimes messes things up and makes it hard to read...especially code
examples etc.

PDF is the best of both worlds. You can read it on your Kindle or iPad
or Desktop, you can read it online, you can print it out if you want. You
can copy and paste code examples, etc. etc. etc.

Everyone who signs up for the $49 Python course at

[Link]/pythonfollow will also get a free copy of this book in pdf
form.

Like I said, I want to give you all the tools you need to learn this stuff, so
giving you a free pdf copy makes sense to me.

Grab it now at:

[Link]

19
John Elder

CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK

This is a book on Python programming, so there will be lots of code

examples and snippets.

Usually when I'm just talking about something, things will look like this;
regular text in paragraph form.

Whenever there's code to be discussed, I'll use a fixed width font like
this with a bold header like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 2.1

1.
2. if weather == "sunny":
3. print("Go for a run")
4. elif weather == "rainy":
5. print("Go to the gym!")
6. else
7. print("Watch TV.")
8.
9.

It should be pretty obvious :-p

I'll also use images from time to time. Hopefully the images will be clear
and readable, but if not then get the pdf copy over at
[Link]/python or watch the videos.

EXERCISES

At the end of each chapter or major section of the book, I'll try to give
you some practice exercises covering whatever we just discussed. By no
means do you need to do all the exercises, but I do recommend that you
give them a try.

20
 [Link]

Even if you think you totally understand the thing I just discussed,
there's something about trying it yourself. Don't just go back to what
you just read and copy and paste my example code and then modify it
to fit the answer.

Instead, I suggest you do the exercises from scratch. Write out all the
code by hand, don't copy and paste anything. And maybe wait a little
while after you read before trying the exercises.

Python is pretty easy. The exercises will likely seem pretty easy as well,
especially after you've just read about them. Instead, wait a few hours,
or a day or two and then try the exercises. Give yourself time to forget
what you just learned so that you reinforce things in your mind by
learning it again.

I think you'll get more out of this book that way, and isn't that the whole
point? Sure, you can speed through this book in a couple of hours, but it
won't stick with you the same way.

Ok, enough with this jibber jabber...lets dive in and learn some freaking
Python!

21
John Elder

CHAPTER ONE

SETTING UP A PYTHON
DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

22
 [Link]

First things first! Before we do any Python coding, we need to set up a

development environment so that you can actually run Python code.

It's a small but important step!

Windows / Mac / Linux

Running Python is a little different depending on which operating

system you're running. As with most things code related, Mac is going
to be a little harder out of the box than Windows.

But in this case, it's not a big deal.

Historically, all Mac's come with Python already installed. But the
problem is, the version of Python that comes on a Mac is horribly out of
date. You'll need to upgrade to the latest version to continue with this
book. Yes, really. The old version of Python 2.7 is deprecated. It's no
longer supported or recommended for use. Newer Mac's may have an
updated Python version and we'll need to determine that now.

MAC

It's quick and easy to determine which version of Python is installed on

your Mac computer. All we have to do is open up a Terminal (that
comes installed on your computer already) and type:

CODE EXAMPLE 1.1

1.
2. python –V
3.

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John Elder

Punch in that command and hit enter and the terminal should respond
with a version number. If you have version 2.7 then you'll need to
upgrade to the latest version at [Link].

You may be able to continue without installing the latest version of

Python by running all your Python code with this command: python3

Apart from Python, you'll also need some sort of text editor so that you
can actually write Python code. Any text editor will do. I like Sublime
Text and a lot of coders use it. It's freeware at [Link]

LINUX

Like Macs, Python is likely already installed on Linux already. You can
open a terminal and check for sure:

CODE EXAMPLE 1.2

1.
2. python –V
3.

If the terminal spits out a version number higher than 2.7, then you're
good to go. If your particular flavor of Linux doesn't have Python
installed already then you'll need to download and install it.

I'm not going to explain how to do that – let's face it, you're running
Linux so you're awesome already and likely don't need my help
installing some trifling software!

But in case you can't figure it out, check out the Python website:
[Link]

24
 [Link]

You'll also need a text editor, I like Sublime Text but use whatever you
like. You're running Linux, so I know you'll do exactly that!

It seems like everyone and their mother has a personal preference when
it comes to text editors and the reality is, it doesn't really matter what
you use.

WINDOWS

Windows is never particularly friendly to the coder. It always does

things it's own way – which usually annoys me because I like to do
things MY own way and this can lead to friction.

But in this case, running Python on Windows isn't particularly

troublesome. In fact, it's downright easy.

Head over to the official Python website at:

[Link]

There you can download the free self-contained Python installer for
windows. It's one file, download it and double click it to install Python.
Be sure to click the “Add To Path” option during installation.

Like I've mentioned for Mac and Linux, you'll also need some sort of text
editor to write code in. Any text editor will work (even Notepad), but I
suggest Sublime Text – which is free and many many many coders use
it.

But as I mentioned earlier, you're free to use any coding text editor that
you like. I recommend against using IDE's like Pycharm or Visual
Studio if you're a beginner. Really, Sublime Text is all you need and it's
drop dead easy to use.

25
John Elder

GIT BASH TERMINAL

In order to run your Python code, you'll need a terminal. Most

computers come with some sort of terminal.

If you're on a Mac, you can just use the terminal that comes with your
computer. Go to the little search icon and type in 'terminal' and it
should pop right up.

The same goes for Linux.

Windows users should download and install a better terminal. It's true,
Windows comes with a couple of terminals (the cmd terminal and the
powershell terminal) and you can certainly use them…but I don't
recommend it!

Your life will be easier if you download and install a better, more
professional terminal…and that's what I recommend that you do.

The terminal I recommend is the Git Bash terminal. It's similar to the
terminal that comes with Mac and Linux.

Newer Windows computers may come with a version of the Git Bash
terminal, but I recommend you download the actual Git Bash terminal
at:

[Link]

You can download the latest version at that web site.

Installing the Git Bash terminal can be confusing. There are about a
zillion installation screens. Don't pay them any attention. Just click the
"Next" button for all of them.

26
 [Link]

One of the installation screens will ask you what Text Editor you'll be
using (we're using Sublime Text).

You DON'T have to make a selection!

The Git Bash terminal doesn't really need to know which text editor
you're using.

So just continue to click "Next" and speed through all the installation
screens. You don’t even need to read them.

CODING TEXT EDITOR

You'll also need some sort of text editor to write code on. As I've
mentioned, I recommend Sublime Text which you can download for free
as freeware at [Link]

They'll ask you to pay if you continue to use it, but it will keep working
if you don't.

Any coding text editor will work, but you can't go wrong with Sublime
Text.

SUMMING UP

Now that you have Python installed on your computer, a text editor to
write your code on, and a terminal to run your code…you're ready to
go!

27
John Elder

There's nothing else you need in order to start writing and running some
awesome Python code!

Let's get to it!

28
 [Link]

CHAPTER TWO

WRITING OUR FIRST PYTHON PROGRAM

29
John Elder

Alright! Let's write some Python code! I recommend that you create a
directory on your computer on your C:\ drive where you can save all
the code we'll be writing throughout this book.

You can open up a file explorer and create a directory or do it when you
save your first file in Sublime.

Let's name it C:\code

Name it anything you like but keep it simple and one word because that
will make it easier to navigate to in the terminal later when we want to
run the code.

Open Sublime Text

It's time to create an actual Python file! Python files generally end in .py
so let's create one right now called [Link]

To do this, fire up your Sublime Text and click "New File" in the top
right corner of the screen under the "File" menu.

A new file will appear, rename it [Link] by clicking "Save As" in the
"File" menu in the top right corner of the screen.

If you've already created your C:\code directory, navigate there and

save your file. Otherwise navigate to your C:\ directory and right click,
and choose "New>Directory" to create the directory. Then save the file.

There's nothing there now, but let's type in our very first line of Python
code, which will be the first line you write in ANY programming
language, the infamous "Hello World!" line...
CODE EXAMPLE 2.1

30
 [Link]

1.
2. print("Hello World!")
3.

Type that in and then save the file. You can save it two ways; either by
clicking the CTRL+S button on your keyboard (Command S on mac – I
believe), or by clicking the "File" link at the very top of the screen, and
then choosing "Save" from the menu that pops up.

With me so far? Before we talk about the code, let's run this thing and
see what happens!

Open up your Git Bash Terminal. Just click your Windows Start menu
and type git and the Git Bash Terminal icon should pop up.

Once open, type the command: cd /c/code

(Space after cd). That will navigate you to the code directory where you
saved your Python file. To run the file just type: python [Link]

CODE EXAMPLE 2.2

$.
$. python [Link]
$.

This should output the line Hello World! right into the terminal.

The command "python" that we typed tells the terminal to execute the
file [Link]

31
John Elder

Whenever you want to run a Python program, just type in python

file_name.py and the file will get executed and output right there on the
terminal screen. (python3 file_name.py on a mac)

THE CODE

You've created your first Python program! Congratulations! Sure it was

pretty easy, but it was still a pretty impressive thing. Most people don't
know how to do even that much in Python – and now you do.

So what's going on in our code? Well, not much. We have just one line
and the only thing that looks unfamiliar is the word "print", which tells
the Python interpreter to "print" something on the screen; in our case
we're "printing" the phrase "Hello World!" onto the screen. That phrase
is a Python string (more on strings later).

Notice anything after the last parenthesis in ("Hello World!")? Nope,

there's nothing else there. In some programming languages you have to
end each line with a semi-colon ; or maybe a colon : or something else.

Not so in Python, which makes code much easier to read.

TERMINAL NOTE

I should mention that you can clear the screen in the terminal by typing
in: clear and then hitting enter. You're going to want to do that from
time to time because as we continue to run code and output the contents
to the terminal screen, things can get a little jumbled up and cluttered
feeling.

32
 [Link]

I usually clear the screen before running any code.

ERRORS

So far, our code has been incredibly simple, so you probably didn't run
into any errors. That won't stay the same for very long. If there's one
thing that's as certain as death and taxes, it's that you're going to screw
something up in your code and get an error.

In fact, let's create an error right now just to see what happens. Let's
leave off the parenthesis…

CODE EXAMPLE 2.3

1.
2. print "Hello World!"
3.

Save the file and run it in the terminal.

What happened? Did the code execute? Nope, you got an error code
that looked something like this:

SyntaxError: Missing parentheses in call to 'print'. Did you mean print("Hello

World!")?

Sometimes the errors will be helpful like that, sometimes you won't be
able to understand what they mean at all.

But this is the common situation you'll see whenever you screw
something up. The code generally won't execute in the terminal and
instead you'll get some sort of error message.

33
John Elder

Get used to it - it's going to happen a lot.

I mean a lot.

So many times.

Welcome to being a coder! Right now, it was incredibly easy for us to

figure out what went wrong. The error itself suggested a fix, and if it
didn’t, a quick glance at the code itself should have done the trick.

But what happens when our code gets more complicated and we have
hundreds, or even thousands of lines of code? How do we figure out
how to fix it?

Google.

I'm convinced that something like 78% of a good coder's job is simply
Googling error messages to debug mistakes.

Just copy and paste the error code into Google.

Most of the time you'll quickly find the solution.

If you take the time to actually Google this error, you'll see that a lot of
the results are from a site called [Link]

Get used to [Link] because as a developer, you're going to

spend a HUGE amount of time there searching for answers to problems
with your code. It's a great resource for coders to ask questions and get
help with their code.

34
 [Link]

Chances are, someone's already had the problem you're having and had
their questions answered. So you can read about their solutions right
there. If you run up against an error that no one has ever had before,
you can post a question, along with your actual code, and people will
help you out. All for free.

It's a real community and I highly recommend that you take advantage
of it whenever needed.

COMMENTS

Before we move on and start talking about some real coding, I want to
mention one more minor thing; comments.

Comments are ubiquitous in any and every programming language.

They're everywhere and they're pretty important.

Comments are...well, just that. They allow you to describe your code so
that someone else later on can look at it and understand what you've
done. They're also for YOU later on when you look back over your code
and go "What the heck was that bit of code supposed to do?!"

It's not always obvious what any specific bit of code is supposed to do.
That becomes even more true the larger and more complicated your
program becomes.

Believe me, if you've been working on a project for three months and
have written several thousand lines of code for the thing, you just aren't
going to remember what every line is supposed to do.

Sometimes several people might hack around on a thing and the code is
changed and re-changed many times. Comments are your friend.

35
John Elder

Get into the habit of using comments throughout your code.

You don't have to comment on every single line of code. There are best
practices that you'll pick up as you gain experience.

But every time you add a major section to your code, get in the habit of
writing a little comment to explain what's going on.

Python handles comments with a number sign, or pound sign, or

hashtag or whatever you want to call it. # That thing.

Comments get ignored by the Python interpreter and don't execute.

They're just for our human eyes. You can use them on their own line, or
at the end of any line of code.

CODE EXAMPLE 2.4

1.
2. # Output Hello World! to the screen
3. print("Hello World!")
4.

You see how I put the comment right above the code that I wanted to
explain? That's how you do it, but you could also put it at the end of
line 3 as well. Like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 2.5

1.
2. print("Hello World!") # Output Hello World! to the screen
3.

36
 [Link]

Python will ignore anything behind the # sign for the rest of the line.
Comments can be more than one line too, just use triple single quotation
marks ''' at the beginning and end of whatever you'd like to comment,
like so:

CODE EXAMPLE 2.6

1.
2. '''
3. This is a comment and it's long
4. So I'm going to use two lines for it
5. '''
6. print("Hello World!")
7.

Don't get carried away with commenting, you should definitely

comment, but keep it short, keep it succinct, keep it direct and easy to
read. Don't write a paragraph talking about how you're feeling or what
you ate for breakfast.

Here's one more example, take a look at this next bit of code and try to
figure out what will happen:

CODE EXAMPLE 2.7

1.
2. print("Hello World! # I learned about comments!")
3.

Can you guess what will be output to the screen? If you guessed:

Hello World! # I learned about comments!

37
John Elder

Then you guessed correctly. Why wasn't that last bit commented out?
Because the # sign was typed INSIDE the quotation marks on line 2.

Yeah, I tricked you there…

38
 [Link]

CHAPTER TWO EXERCISES

1. Write some code that outputs more than one line of text to the
screen.

2. Write a comment on the same line as another line of code.

3. Write a multi-line comment

4. Write some code that creates an error, then google that error.

5. Clear the screen of your Git Bash terminal window

39
John Elder

CHAPTER THREE

FUN WITH MATH, VARIABLES, AND INPUTS

40
 [Link]

Alright, so You've got your development environment all set up and

you've familiarized yourself with writing and running some simple
code. You've created your first Python program and ran it from the
terminal.

Sure, it was a pretty simple little program, but you've got to start
somewhere (and every programmer has written that Hello World
program when they started learning to code).

It's time to start talking about slightly more complicated things, namely
math (and later variables).

Sure, no one really likes math – well I like math – but most normal
people don't like math. But math is one of those building block things
that you need to master quickly to write code in just about any
programming language.

Luckily we're not talking about advanced calculus or linear algebra here;
we're just talking about basic arithmetic operators like adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing.

In this chapter I'll give a quick overview of Python's basic math

operators.

BASIC MATH OPERATORS

Like I said, we're not going to get into any heavy math right now. We're
just going to focus on the basics like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.

41
John Elder

Math with Python couldn't be easier. You might not think you'll use this
stuff much because...well...math. But you really will, as we'll see as we
go throughout the rest of the book.

Python Handles math just like you would expect, with these operators:

• Addition +

• Subtraction –

• Multiplication *

• Division /

• Modulus %

• Exponents **

Those all probably look familiar to you, except maybe the modulus
operator (think remainder), but we'll talk about it in a bit.

For now, let's create a new file called [Link] in your Sublime Text
editor.

Let's play around with our math operators.

CODE EXAMPLE 3.1

1.
2. print(3 + 2)
3.

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Go ahead and save the file, then run it and you should see the number 5
output to the terminal screen. Wow, right?!

There's a couple of things to note here. The first is that we didn't use
quotation marks around the 3 + 2. In the last chapter, whenever we used
"print", we slapped a couple of quotation marks around the thing we
wanted to output.

Not so with math. But just for fun, try adding the quotes:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.2

1.
2. print("3 + 2")
3.

Save the file and run it. What happened? Instead of outputting 5, the
program outputted the text "3 + 2". So, if you want to do math, leave the
quotes off. If you want to output text, use quotes.

The other thing to not is the spacing. Notice how we used a space
between the 3 and the + and the 2?

Those spaces are just for us and our stupid human eyes™ so that it's easier
to read. You could have left them out like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.3

1.
2. print(3+2)
3.

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...and that would get you the exact same output of 5. It's really just a
personal preference whether or not to use spaces. Personally, I find it
easier to read and therefore easier to keep track of what's going on in my
code...so I use spaces.

Play around with the other Math operators. In fact, let's make a little
program that uses them all:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.4

1.
2. print(3 + 2)
3. print(5 – 1)
4. print(3 * 4)
5. print(10 / 5)
6. print(35 % 3)
7. print(2 ** 4)

That should output:

5
4
12
2
2
16

Pretty straight forward, except maybe the modulus operator "%".

Modulus basically returns the remainder when dividing the number on

the left by the number on the right.

In our example, three goes into thirty-five 11 times (3 x 11 = 33). What's

left over? 2: (35 – 33 = 2).

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What is 35 % 7? The answer is zero. Why? Because 7 goes into 35

exactly 5 times (7 x 5 = 35) with zero left over.

This might seem a little weird, but you'll actually use the modulus from
time to time because it's helpful to determine programmatically whether
a number is fully divisible by another number for a bunch of different
reasons that we'll get into later.

INTEGERS AND FLOATS

So we've talked about the basic math operators, now let's talk about
numbers in general. This is kind of important.

A number can be an integer or a float (and also a 'complex', but we don't

care so much about that right now).

An integer is a whole number. 5 is an integer. So is 55378008. 98 is also

an integer. Whole numbers.

A float is a number with decimals in it. Like 5.27, that's a float. 98.1 is
also a float. So is 1,902,488,278,211.923

This is important to understand because Python handles floats and

integers very differently. Let's take an example:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.5

1.
2. print(3.0 - 1)
3.

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Go ahead and run that code. What did you get? You got the answer
"2.0"!

2.0?

Yep, 2.0 This might seem a little strange because we know that 3 – 1 is 2,
but Python returned 2.0.

So why did Python do that? Because we mixed data types; we used a

float (decimal) and an integer (whole number) when we wrote the code.
So Python returned a float.

We could easily have used all integers in our code, like so:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.6

1.
2. print(3 – 1)
3.

If we save that and run it, Python will return 2.

What's the point of all this? Just that integers and floats are different
and using them has different consequences.

GETTING A LITTLE CRAZY

So we've talked about some basic math stuff, and we've talked about
strings (remember our first program had a string that said "Hello
World!" in it).

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So let's put the two together and see what we can do. Let's create a math
program that outputs all the math operators we've seen so far, with
strings as well:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.7

1.
2. print(f"3 + 2 = {3 + 2}")
3. print(f"5 – 1 = {5 – 1}")
4. print(f"3 * 4 = {3 * 4}")
5. print(f"10 / 5 = {10 / 5}")
6. print(f"35 % 3 = {35 % 3}")
7. print(f"2 ** 4 = {2 ** 4}")
8.

Go ahead and save that and then run it and you should see this output:

• 3+2=5
• 5-1=4
• 3 * 4 = 12
• 10 / 5 = 2.0
• 35 % 3 = 2
• 2 ** 4 = 16

So what's going on here? Well, we wrapped everything after our print

in quotation marks. Normally when we use quotation marks like that,
no math will get executed. But we used something called an f-string
that allows us to execute code inside of a string…right there between the
brackets:

{....}

Whenever you put that inside an f-string, Python escapes it out of the
string and executes the code inside the curly brackets.
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Just be sure to slap the f before the quotation marks:

f"string stuff here {code stuff here}"

Why did we do this? Just for fun! Plus I think it's more readable when
you run the program to be able to get the questions as well as the
answers. A bunch of numbers outputted to the screen doesn't help me
at all. 5...what does 5 mean? But if the program outputs "3 + 2 = 5" then
it makes sense to me.

So that's fun. Hey, we're getting a little more complicated here! It's
exciting! Well, maybe just a little exciting. Let's move on to some slightly
more complicated things.

...but we're still going to stick with the math theme for a bit longer
because there's a few more math concepts that you need to learn, and
they’re actually really important. You'll use them a lot.

COMPARISON OPERATORS

Comparison operators are something you'll use forever no matter what

programming language you code in. Apart from If/Else statements and
loops, they're possibly the most used things in all programming.

What are they?

Well, comparison operators are exactly what they sound like...they

compare things; two or more things.

Is 5 bigger than 2?

Is 10 equal to 27?

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All these things and more can be determined by comparison operators.

So here's a list of the biggies:

Table Of Comparison Operators

Equal to ==
Not Equal To !=
Greater Than >
Greater Than or Equal To >=
Less Than <
Less Than or Equal To <=

When you use a comparison operator, Python will return either "True"
or "False", which might seem a little weird at first but totally makes
sense. True and False are "Booleans", but more on that later.

Give it a try and see:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.8

1.
2. print(5 > 1)
3.

If you run that code, the output is "True". Why? Because 5 is greater
than 1. Or to put it another way, it is True that 5 is greater than 1. Let's
make another big batch of code to test out all these operators:

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CODE EXAMPLE 3.9

1.
2. print(f"5 == 1: {5 == 1}")
3. print(f"5 != 1: {5 != 1}")
4. print(f"5 > 1: {5 > 1}")
5. print(f"5 >= 1: {5 >= 1}")
6. print(f"5 < 1: {5 < 1}")
7. print(f"5 <= 1: {5 <= 1}")
8.

Save and run that code and you should see an output that looks like this:

5 == 1: false (because 5 is not equal to 1)

5 != 1: true (because it's true, 5 is not equal to 1)
5 > 1: true (because it's true, 5 is greater than 1)
5 >= 1: true (because it's true, 5 is greater than or equal to 1)
5 < 1: false (because it's false that 5 is less than 1)
5 <= 1: false (because it's false that 5 is less than or equal to 1)

Play around with these. Enter different numbers. Enter the same
numbers (5 == 5 or 5 != 5) see what happens.

This might not seem terribly important right now, but you really will
use this stuff a lot in the future. A lot of coding revolves around
comparing different things.

We'll use this stuff soon when we create if/else statements, and also
when we use loops.

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VARIABLES

So far we've just been outputting strings manually to the screen, like
"Hello World!" and doing some math and outputting that to the screen.
Now it's time to talk about variables.

Variables are like buckets. You can put stuff in them and dump stuff out
of them.

In Python, you create a variable just by naming it and sticking

something in it. Like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.10

1.
2. my_name = "John Elder"
3.

In that bit of code we created a local variable called "my_name" and we

put 'John Elder' in it. We used an operator to do that, an assignment
operator. We "assigned" the string "John Elder" to our variable. We'll
talk more about assignment operators in just a minute.

Notice how I named the variable my_name with an underscore.

Variable names should be descriptive without going crazy. You
wouldn't name a variable this_variable_is_my_name – though I guess
technically you probably could.

Keep them short but descriptive, and try to use underscores to separate
words in the variable name. You could just as easily have named the
variable myname, or MyName though in Python we tend to use
underscores to separate words in variable names.

Also keep your variable names lowercase.

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Variables are great because from now on within your program, you can
use that variable however you want. Let's add another line of code to
our program to output my name to the screen:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.11

1.
2. my_name = "John Elder"
3. print(my_name)
4.

Run that program and what do you see? You should see my name, John
Elder.

We don't have to put text in a variable, we can put numbers in them too:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.12

1.
2. my_name = "John Elder"
3. my_age = 38
4.

Notice how I didn't put quotation marks around the number 38? There's
a reason. Without quotes, Python knows that this is a number. That's
important because if we wanted to do math with that variable later, we
could!

If you put quotes around the 38, then Python thinks that you're not
using a number, but instead using a string. If you try to do math with
that variable later, you would run into trouble.

In fact, let's try that right now. Create a new program.

MATH WITH VARIABLES

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CODE EXAMPLE 3.13

1.
2. number_1 = 5
3. number_2 = 10
4. print(number_1 + number_2)
5.

Run that code and see what you get. You should see 15 output to the
screen. There are a couple of things to see here. First, you'll notice that
we can do math with variables just like we did math with numbers
earlier.

Instead of typing 10 + 5 into your program, we assigned 10 and 5 to

variables and then did the math on the variables. That's a much better
way to do math for a lot of different reasons.

The second thing to see is that we didn't use quotation marks around
either of those two numbers. Just for fun, wrap one of the numbers in
quotation marks and then run the program and see what happens:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.14

1.
2. number_1 = 5
3. number_2 = "10"
4. print(number_1 + number_2)
5.

What happened? The terminal threw up a big nasty ERROR and

wouldn't add your stuff! The error says something like: "TypeError:
unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str' ".

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What's going on? Well, our number_2 variable isn't holding a number,
it's holding a string. And Python won't let you add a number and a
string. That would be like telling it to add 27 + apples. What would the
answer be? Who knows! You can't add numbers and words.

If you forget, there are ways to convert a string to an integer, that's a

little beyond the scope of this intro section, but look up string to integer
if you want to see how (actually, we'll discuss it a little later in the book).

APPLES TO APPLES

We've discovered that you can't add numbers and words, but can you
add two words with Python? Let's see!

CODE EXAMPLE 3.15

1.
2. fruit_1 = "apples"
3. fruit_2 = "oranges"
4. print(fruit_1 + fruit_2)
5.

Care to make a wager what will happen? Will it throw up an error?

Actually, it should output this:

applesoranges

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As it turns out, a plus sign (+) for strings is used to concatenate the two
variables. Whenever we're working with strings and you want to add
something in, or concatenate it in, use the plus sign.

CODE EXAMPLE 3.16

1.
2. fruit_1 = "apples"
3. fruit_2 = "oranges"
4. print("I Like " + fruit_1 + " and I like " + fruit_2)
5.

This bit of code will output "I Like apples and I like oranges" to the
screen. Remember earlier when we used f-strings? We can also use
variables inside those curl brackets like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.17

1.
2. fruit_1 = "apples"
3. fruit_2 = "oranges"
4. print(f"I Like {fruit_1} and I like {fruit_2}")
5.

In fact, that way seems a little cleaner to me so I would probably use that
instead of a bunch of plus signs. But there are certainly times when
either way would be acceptable.

MORE FUN WITH MATH AND STRINGS

Oh, we’re not done yet! What happens when you try to do other types
of math on variables? Let's see!

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CODE EXAMPLE 3.18

1.
2. fruit_1 = "apples"
3. print(fruit_1 * 5)
4.

Care to wager what will happen? You might be surprised to discover

that Python will print out apples 5 times to the screen, like this:

applesapplesapplesapplesapples

I really don't know why you'd ever want to do that...but hey, go crazy!

What else works? Well division doesn't work, you'll get an error if you
try to print fruit_1 / 5. You'll also get an error if you try to subtract from
apples.

Not surprisingly, if you use a modulus to print fruit_1 % 5, Python will

throw an error as well.

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS

We've got one last thing to talk about in this chapter and I left it till last
because it deals with numbers, variables, and operators.

Assignment Operators are used to assign things. We've seen one already
when we assigned a value to our variable using an equal sign (=).

The other main Assignment Operators deal with numbers.

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Table Of Assignment Operators

= Assigns something from the right to the left

+= Adds and Assigns
-= Subtracts and Assigns
*= Multiplies and Assigns
/= Divides and Assigns
%= Modulus and Assigns
**= Exponents and Assigns

What's going on here? The first one is easy; we already understand that
one. But what's going on with these other operators?

I like to call these my lazy operators. Coders are some of the laziest no-
good layabouts on this planet! We want to work as little as possible.
That's why we write code to do stuff for us. These operators allow us to
write even less code. Here's how.

Let's say I have a variable (number_1) and I want to add 27 to it. I could
do it like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.19

1.
2. number_1 = 14
3. number_1 = number_1 + 27
4. print(number_1)
5.

That's perfectly acceptable. But...well...I had to type out number_1 twice

there on line 3. I mean two whole times...I'm too lazy for that! Instead, I
could have used the += assignment operator like this:

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CODE EXAMPLE 3.20

1.
2. number_1 = 14
3. number_1 += 27
4. print(number_1)
5.

What will that print out? 14? 27? Nope…it will print out 41.

Now that's much better! Our assignment operator took the value of
number_1, added 27 to it, and then assigned that value back to
number_1 (erasing the original value that was in there).

All the other assignment operators work the same way. -= subtracts and
assigns; *= multiplies and assigns; /= divides and assigns; %= does that
weird modulus thing and then assigns; and **= calculates an exponent
and then assigns.

You don't need to use manually coded numbers either. You can use two
or more variables like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.21

1.
2. number_1 = 14
3. number_2 = 27
3. number_1 += number_2
4. print(number_1)
5.

That will add number_2 to number_1 and assign the output to

number_1. Remember, whenever you use an assignment operator, the
original value of your variable gets erased. It's gone forever, well unless
you run the program again :-p

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So when we started the program, number_1 was equal to 14. During the
program that 14 gets erased and number_1 becomes 41 (14 + 27). Just
keep that in mind.

GETTING USER INPUT

Ok, so I know I said that the assignment operators would be the last
thing we talked about in this chapter but I just flat out lied. I do that
sometimes.

Before we finish this chapter we're going to learn something that's

actually fun, and really easy.

So far, when we run our programs they just do something and output
something to the screen. We haven't really been able to interact with
them at all.

Now we're going to learn how to add input into the program after it
starts running. We do this by using something called the input()
function.

CODE EXAMPLE 3.22

1.
2. name = input("What's Your Name: ")
3. print(f'Hello {name}')
4.

Give that a run and see what happens. You probably already figured it
out; it asks for your name, and then after you type in your name, it tells
you hello.

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The input() function takes user input and assigns it to our name
variable. Once assigned, we can use that variable in any way we would
normally use a variable.

USING INPUT WITH NUMBERS

This is pretty cool! But what if we want to input numbers instead of

words?

By default, input() thinks you're entering a string (text) when you enter
things. You have to tell it that you're looking for a number (integer).

You can do that using the int() function…(int as in integer).

Here's how we do it:

CODE EXAMPLE 3.23

1.
2. num1 = input("Enter A Number: ")
3. num2 = input("Enter Another Number: ")
4. print(f'{num1} + {num2} = {int(num1)+int(num2)}')
5.

Notice how we wrapped our variables in the int() function? That

converts the strings into integers.

Without int(), the program would simply smoosh together the two
numbers you entered, it wouldn't add them.

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So if you entered a 1 and a 5, the program would output "15" just like it
outputted "applesoranges" earlier when we tried to add those two
words (it concatenates them).

So I think we're done with this chapter. You learned about math, math
operators, comparison operators, assignment operators, variables, and
user input!

We're slowly getting into more complicated and interesting things!

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CHAPTER THREE EXERCISES

1. Write some code that outputs your name to the screen

2. Write some code that outputs your name to the screen 10 times
using math

3. Write some code that asks how many Apples you'd like to
purchase and then outputs the response

4. Write some code that asks for a person's first name on one line,
then after they type it in, asks for their last name. Then tells them
"Hello first last name"

5. Write some code that asks (one line at a time) what your name is,
where you live, what your phone number is, and what your
favorite color is; then outputs all that info to the screen one item
per line.

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CHAPTER FOUR

IF/ELSE STATEMENTS

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We've played with some basic math, and tinkered with variables, now
it's time to start with the first of our actual real programming topics.
Well, I say real...everything's been real so far; but it's all been really easy
so far.

I guess that's not going to change, because IF/ELSE statements are really
easy too...they just feel a little more programmy then things we've done
so far.

The great thing about IF/ELSE statements is that they give us a lot of
power to do all kinds of other things. Logic things.

I've been writing code since I was seven years old...that's a loooong time.
I think IF/ELSE statements were one of the first things I ever learned to
do. I used them to make "choose your own adventure" games on my
Commodore 64 computer.

Choose your own adventure games were actually books we had as kids.
"You're standing in front of two doors, one leads left, the other right...to
open the door on the left, turn to page 27, to choose the door on the
right, turn to page 12".

...That sort of thing. They were all the rage in the 80's but we didn't have
the Internet back then, or cell phones; so I guess that's why.

IF/ELSE statements allow you to make choices and decisions in your

code and do different things based on different things.

"Do different things based on different things"...yeah that makes sense I

guess.

Enough jibber jabber, let's just start coding.

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BASIC IF STATEMENTS

IF statements in Python are really easy.

CODE EXAMPLE 4.1

1.
2. x = 41
3. if x == 41:
4. print("X Does in fact equal 41!")
5.

So let's look through that code. In line 2 we're just creating a variable (x)
and setting it equal to 41.

In line 3 we start our IF statement. They follow this format:

if conditional:
do something here

So in line 3 we look to see if x equals 41 (remember to use double ==

when checking for equality, not a single = which would assign
something).

x == 41 is a conditional statement, but you could use any condition you

want (comparison operators are great here). If x > 2 that's a conditional.
If x != 17...you get the idea.

If line 3 is TRUE (ie if x does equal 41, which it does in our case) then
execute line 4. If line 3 is not true (false), then skip line 4 and go right to
line 5...notice that line 4 is indented. Python is tab specific, you need to
use the tab button on your keyboard to tab it over.

Pretty simple, right! Let's change line 3 to make it false, just to see what
happens.

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Can you hazard a guess?

CODE EXAMPLE 4.2

1.
2. x = 41
3. if x == 42:
4. print("X Does in fact equal 42!")
5.

All we did was change line 3 to 42 (instead of 41). When you run that
program, nothing happens. Why? Because line 3 gets executed,
determines that x does not equal 42, and then skips to line 5 which is
nothing.

IF/ELSE STATEMENTS

IF Statements are nice, but what if you want to make more than one
decision? If x == 41 do this, otherwise do something else? Enter the
IF/ELSE Statement!

if conditional:
do something here
else:
do something else

Now we're getting somewhere! With IF/ELSE Statements we can use

Logic to do just about anything we want. Let's see this in action:

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CODE EXAMPLE 4.3

1.
2. x = 41
3. if x == 41:
4. print("X Does in fact equal 41!")
5. else:
6. print("X Does NOT equal 41!")
7.

When we run this code, we get "X Does in fact equal 41!" because x does
equal 41 in this example. If we changed line 2 to another number, say 42,
and ran the code again, we would get "X Does NOT equal 41!".

Play around with it. You'll use IF/ELSE statements a lot...I mean a LOT.

IF/ELIF

To throw just a little more complexity into the mix (and give you one
more tool that's pretty useful) we can use the IF/ELIF statement (Else If).
This allows you to test against a second condition.

Sometimes people get a little confused with this one, but it's not too bad,
and actually really helpful. Before we talk about it, let's just take a look.

CODE EXAMPLE 4.4

1.
2. name = "John"
3. if name == "Bob":
4. print("Hi there Bob!")
5. elif name == "John":
6. print("What up John!!")
6. else:
7. print("I don't know who you are!")
8.

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So we set our variable to "John", line 3 checks to see if our name is Bob,
it's not so it moves down to line 5, where we give it another condition to
check for. That's our elif. In this case our variable is in fact "John" so this
program will print out "What up John!!" and then end.

If we changed the variable to "Ralph", then the program would print out
"I don't know who you are!"

We can slap in as many elif's as we want, so you can check against as

many different things as you can dream up.

MULTIPLE CONDITIONALS

So far we've only been testing one condition in our IF statements, but
you can test more than one, using things line AND and OR.

CODE EXAMPLE 4.5

1.
2. name = "John"
3. if name == "John" or name == "Bob":
4. print("Hi there John or Bob!")
5.

Notice the simple difference in line 3? We slapped an "or" in there and

added another condition to test against. In this case, if our variable is
either John OR Bob, the program will return "Hi there John or Bob!"

Instead of or, we could have used "and" as well. For and to be true, our
variable would have to be both John and Bob...which I don't really think
that's possible. So our program would return nothing in that case.

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AND OR

For "And" to evaluate to True, all conditions must be True, otherwise it

will return False. For "Or" to evaluate to True, any of the conditions
must be True; if none of the conditions are True, the whole thing
evaluates to False.

In some programming languages, you see symbols used for "And" and
"Or" such as && for and, || for or. Python doesn't allow that.

Using And/Or with Logic gives you lots of control. It might look
something like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 4.7

1.
2. name = input("Enter Your Name: ")
3. if name == "John" or name == "Bob":
4. print(f"Hi there {name}!")
5. else:
6. print("Hi there Stranger!")
7.

And/Or is very useful for many different things!

CHOOSE YOUR OWN ADVENTURE

Alright, let's take what we've just used and build our own simple little
choose your own adventure game.

Before we start, I want to share one little trick that's going to be pretty
important for our game (and really any time you input user data).

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Let me ask you this; if we build a choose your own adventure game that
asks someone to pick a direction – left or right – and our user types in
LEFT (all capitals) or Left (first word capitalized)...what happens?

We'll be running an IF/ELSE statement to check if their input says "left"

or "right" but that's not the same as "LEFT" or even "Left". Computers
seem smart, but they really aren't, they're Case Sensitive. You have to be
explicit.

So we need to make sure that the thing a user types in will be match-
able by our program. That's easy enough if we standardize our input.

STRING MANIPULTION

Python makes this very easy. We'll just take the user input and change it
to lowercase. But how? Python has many function for manipulating
strings. Here's a few fun ones.

Table 4.1 String Manipulation

lower() Convert to all lowercase

upper() Convert to all uppercase
capitalize() Capitalize just first letter
title() Capitalizes first letter of each word
swapcase() Switches capitalized to lowercase & vice versa
len() *Returns character length
rstrip() Removes trailing spaces

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So how do we use these? For the most part, you'll use them on the ends
of your variable. So if you wanted to convert your variable "name" to
lowercase, you would call [Link]()

CODE EXAMPLE 4.8

1.
2. name = input("Enter Your Name: ")
3. print(f"Hi there {[Link]()}")
4.

Notice how we just slapped the .lower() on the end of the variable in real
time? You could also assign it there permanently.

CODE EXAMPLE 4.9

1.
2. name = input("Enter Your Name: ")
3. name = [Link]()
4. print(name)
5.

In this example, name will forever be lowercase because we converted it

and assigned it back.

Not all String Functions work by just slapping them on the end of the
variable. Take the len() function for instance. You don't slap that on the
end of your variable, you put the variable inside the parenthesis, like so:

CODE EXAMPLE 4.10

1.
2. name = input("Enter Your Name: ")
3. print(f"The name {name} has {len(name)} characters.")
4.

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If I ran that code and entered my name, John, the program would return:

The name John has 4 characters.

How do you know which go on the end of variables and which go

inside the function? I guess you just have to memorize them. But to be
honest, I don't do that. I just slap them on the end of the variable and
run the code to see if it returns an error.

If it does, I know that the variable goes inside the function. Sloppy?
Maybe! But I'm a coder, we're all lazy and a little sloppy.

These are just a few String Manipulation functions. There are many
more built into Python.

Refer back to table 4.1 and play around with the other string
manipulation methods I showed you.

The rstrip one might be confusing. It removes spaces at the end of your
string.

Did you notice the difference between capitalize() and title()? Capitalize
just capitalizes the very first word while title() capitalizes the first letters
in all the words of your string (if there are more than one word).

So with capitalize(), john elder becomes "John elder" and with title(), it
becomes "John Elder".

And of course, upper() just blasts every letter to uppercase, like "JOHN
ELDER". That hurts to look at!

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CHOOSE YOUR OWN ADVENTURE

Ok let's get back to the fun stuff. Let's choose our own adventure. This
thing could easily spiral out of control so let's confine it to one question
and have that question ask for one of two answers. Sound good?

The goal of our game is to find the "Python Princess". Isn't that the goal
of most games? Yep.

So let's start by asking the users name and converting it to lowercase.

And then let's ask our question; be sure to convert it to lowercase right
away.

CODE EXAMPLE 4.11

1.
2. from os import system
3. system("clear")
4. print("Welcome To Choose Your Own Adventure!")
5. print("The goal is to find the Python Princess...")
6. name = input("Enter Your Name: ")
7. name = [Link]()
8. system("clear")
9. print("You're standing in front of two doors...")
10. print("Do you want the door on the left or right?")
11. question = input().lower()
12. if question == "left":
13. system("clear")
14. print("You fell into a pit and died! GAME OVER")
15. elif question == "right":
16. system("clear")
17. print(f"Congratulations {[Link]()} you found")
18. print("the Python Princess! YOU WIN!")
19. else:
20. system("clear")
21. print("Sorry, I don't recognize your response GAME OVER")
22.

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Ok, so there's a couple new things going on here. First off right on line
two and three we see something new (and also line 8, 13, 16, and 20)
system "clear". That just clears the screen to make things easier to read.

The other thing you'll notice is how we sort of stacked things onto the
input statement in line 11 (question = input().lower()). Yep, you can do
that! Python is object oriented, and you can keep stacking things on like
that as much as you want.

You'll also notice that we saved the name variable using lower() so that
we could test it against our lowercase if/else statement, but in line 17 we
capitalized it again when we output the name onto the screen.

That capitalize statement only capitalizes our name there, it doesn't

change the variable.

Finally, you'll notice that we put an else statement there at the end as a
catchall in case someone entered something other than "left" or "right" to
answer our question. It’s always a good idea to think of all the weird
ways a user might use your program and try to write code to catch all
that weirdness!

You can easily expand this game to add more questions and make it
more fun to play. But for the purposes of this book I just want to keep it
simple and use it as an example.

Now we're cooking! We're starting to do stuff that actually looks like
coding!

And it's still pretty easy!

Yeah…that’s Python for you!

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CHAPTER FOUR EXERCISES

1. Create a simple math flashcard game that asks a user what two
numbers added together equal and tell them whether or not they
got the answer correct.

2. Write some code that asks for a person's full name (first and last
name) and then output their name with both first and last name
capitalized

3. Write some code that asks for a person's name and then tell that
person how many characters are in their name (added them up
manually yourself to see if the answer is correct!)

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CHAPTER FIVE

LISTS

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So we're moving right along! So far so good, right? Nothing too terribly
difficult? Good.

In this chapter I'm going to teach you all about Lists (what other
languages call Arrays).

People sometimes have a hard time wrapping their head around Lists.
It's ok, they can be a little tricky to understand...but not really. They're
actually pretty simple and they're something you're going to use forever,
no matter what programming language you happen to be using.

So what is a List?

Basically a List is just a variable...but instead of holding one thing, Lists

can hold many many things…like, well, any list you've used in real life.

For instance, imagine we have a variable called "name" and we set it

equal to "John".

We already know how to do that, it's drop dead simple. But what if we
wanted it to also hold "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", and "Bluto"?

A variable can't really do that, but a List can! And this is very useful.

CREATING A LIST

We create Lists almost the same way we create variables:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.1

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3.

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Pretty easy! Just stick whatever information you want to put in your
List into the brackets [ ] and be sure to separate each item by a comma.
How do we get the information out of our List? Just like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.2

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3. print(names[2])
4.

Can you guess what line three will print out onto the screen?

Trick question...it's not "Tim" (since it looks like Tim is the 2nd item in
our List). The answer is actually "Mary".

Why? Because Lists start at zero. So "John" is the 0th item in our List,
Tim is the 1st, Mary is the 2nd, Beatrice is the 3rd, and Bluto is the 4th.

Burn that into your memory! LISTS START WITH ZERO!

What happens if we replaced line three with just print(names) (instead

of print(names[2]))? Our program would simply print out every name in
our List. Give it a try.

PUTTING DIFFERENT THINGS INTO LISTS

In the example above we put strings into our List. We could also put
numbers and variables as well (and other things too)!

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CODE EXAMPLE 5.3

1.
2. variable_1 = "Tim"
3. names = ["John", variable_1, "Mary", 41, "Bluto"]
4. print(names[1])
5.

What did we do here? We put a variable and a number into our List. If
we ran this code, it would print out "Tim" because "Tim" is what's inside
variable_1.

Notice how we didn't put quotation marks around variable_1 or the

number 41. That's important. If you put quotation marks around them,
they become strings, not variables or numbers.

You can put other things in Lists too ,things like functions and objects;
but we haven't talked about functions or objects yet so we'll go over that
later. You can also put other lists in your list…mind blown!

ANOTHER WAY TO CREATE A LIST

There are other ways to create a list, for instance you could create one
explicitly:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.4

1.
2. names = []
3.

With that code we've created a new list (and called it names) and told
Python that we're going to just leave it blank, at least for now...

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In this case, our List doesn't actually have anything in it at the moment,
but it has space for as many things as you want, whenever you get
around to putting things in there.

In fact, you can see how many items are in any given list like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.5

1.
2. names = ["John", "April"]
3. print(len(names))
4.

Line three should output 2 in this particular case.

ADDING THINGS TO A LIST LATER ON

We know how to put stuff in a List with our code, but what if we want
to add stuff later on...or change stuff, or remove stuff? Easy.

Let's add a name to the end of our List:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.6

1.
2. names = ["John", "April"]
3. [Link]("Bob")
4. print(names)
5.

Append() does what it sounds like…adds an item to the end of your list.

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That's fun, but what if you want to add something to your list at a
specific position in the list? Say first, or in the middle…or anywhere
else?

You can use insert() for that. Insert() takes two arguments; position and
value.

CODE EXAMPLE 5.7

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim"]
3. [Link](0, "Bob")
4.

That code would insert "Bob" into the first position of your list.
(remember, lists start at zero!!)

ADDING MULTIPLE ITEMS TO A LIST

To add multiple items to the end of your list, use extend().

CODE EXAMPLE 5.8

1.
2. names = ["John", "April"]
3. [Link](["Tim", "Bob"])
4.

Notice that we passed in another list: ["Tim", "Bob"] but that list isn't
added to our original list, the items in the list are added individually. So
our list becomes:

["John", "April", "Tim", "Bob"] and not ["John", "April", ["Tim", "Bob"]]

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REMOVING ITEMS FROM A LIST

There are several ways to remove an item from a List. Imagine we want
to remove the last item in our List:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.10

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3. [Link]("Bluto")
4.

This will remove poor Bluto from our List. It's bad enough they're
named Bluto...now we've gone and deleted them!

REMOVE A SPECIFIC INDEX NUMBER

To remove a specific positioned/numbered item of a List, use pop():

CODE EXAMPLE 5.11

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3. [Link](0)
4.

Alas, we removed my name from our List! Oh the humanity!

If you wanted to remove the second item of our list (Tim):

CODE EXAMPLE 5.12

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1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3. [Link](1)
4.

That will remove poor Tim from our List (remember, Lists start at zero –
I'll keep reminding you till it's burned into your brain!)

As I mentioned earlier, you can also remove a specific item from the List,
for instance a particular name, but there's danger there:

CODE EXAMPLE 5.13

1.
2. names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]
3. [Link]("Mary")
4.

That will obviously remove Mary from our List. BE CAREFUL HERE!
If there are more than one Mary in the List, delete will remove just the
first one.

So I'd be cautious using that unless you know there's only one particular
item in your List (or if you don't care that you're deleting just the first
instance of that item in the List).

MULTI-DIMENSIONAL LISTS

Remember when I said that we can put all kinds of things into a List?
Well, it turns out that you can put other Lists into a List. Did I just blow
your mind?

CODE EXAMPLE 5.13

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1.
2. names = ["John", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto", [1,2,3,4]]
3.

So let’s take a look at that code. You’ll see we’ve got our old normal List
with names John, Mary, Beatrice, and Bluto; but then we’ve added
another thing to the end – another List with the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 in
it.

Notice how we separated that second List with a comma, just like we
separate everything in our List with a comma.

So what would happen if we print our List to the screen? It would print
out our List as you’d expect:

["John", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto", [1,2,3,4]]

So that’s cool…but how do we access the stuff in that second List? It’s
pretty easy. Let’s say we wanted to print out the number 3 in our
second List (remember, that’s the second numbered item in the second
List because Lists start at zero, even embedded Lists).

CODE EXAMPLE 5.14

1.
2. names = ["John", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto", [1,2,3,4]]
3. print(names[4][2])
4.

A little weird, but not too bad…right? Our nested List is the fourth item
in our original List, and the number 3 is the second item in that List.

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You can nest another List inside that second List, and another one in that
List and another in that one…but you might go a little crazy if you do.

Another way to create a multidimensional List is by creating a second

List separately and then adding the name of that List to your original list
(in the same way that we added Variables to our List earlier):

CODE EXAMPLE 5.15

1.
2. numbers = [1,2,3,4]
2. names = ["John", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto", numbers]
3. print(names[4][2])
4.

See how we created a separate List called numbers, and instead of

manually typing in [1,2,3,4] into our 'names' List, we just typed in the
name of our numbers List.

If we run this code, we’ll get the same "3" answer that we got last time.

So those are Lists! Lists are super useful, and really not that difficult to
understand at all.

Just think of them as variables that hold more than one thing.

And remember you can put just about anything into a list, strings,
numbers, variables, functions, other lists…if you can dream it up; you
can stick it into a List!

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CHAPTER FIVE EXERCISES

1. Create a List with the names of five people you know and output
the second name to the screen.

2. Create a List where the first item in the List is a math problem,
like 1 + 1 and the rest of the items are names. Output the first item
to the screen. (WOAH, MATH can be an item in a List?!)

3. Create a multi-dimensional List with 4 items, and each item is

itself a List containing a person's name, their address, and phone
number (make up the info). Output the second item in your
multidimensional List.

4. Output just the phone number of the third item in your List from
the last question.

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CHAPTER SIX

LOOPS

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Now we're really cooking! We've come a long way, from Math to
Variables to IF/ELSE statements, and on through Lists. You've got the
foundations of a pretty solid understanding of basic coding so far, but
now it's time to dive into something a little more complicated…Loops.

Ok, they aren't really much more complicated. If you didn't have any
trouble wrapping your brain around IF/ELSE statements, then you
shouldn't have any trouble with simple Loops.

So what is a Loop?

Basically a Loop is just what it sounds like…it does something over and
over and over and over again…looping through again and again and
again, until you tell it to stop.

Let's start with the number three. Check to see if three is equal to ten. If
it isn't, add one to it, then repeat. Now three has became four, check to
see if four equals ten, if not add one and repeat.

Keep looping through that until our number equals ten. Then stop. Or
do something else. Or whatever!

That's basically a Loop.

You're going to use Loops a lot in programming. They're one of those

things you'll just always use. Loops and comparisons sort of go
together. You'll have noticed in my lame Loop explanation above that I
said the word "If" a bunch of times (if three equals ten, if four equals ten,
if, if, if).

Loops need conditionals to determine whether or not the criteria for the
Loop has been met yet.

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Every programming language has Loops, in fact they all have a bunch of
different loops that you can use, and Python is no different. Most
programming languages handle Loops in roughly the same manner, so
if you know Loops in one language, it's easy to learn them in another.

We're going to cover the two main loops to get you started, namely
While and For Loops.

WHILE LOOPS

While loops are pretty simple so they're a good place for us to start. A
while loop basically says "While something is true, do something". As
soon as the thing stops being true, stop looping. Let's take a look:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.1

1.
2. num = 0
3. while num < 10:
4. print(num)
5. num += 1
6.

So what's going on here? A While Loop has this general format:

while conditional:
do something

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We remember conditionals from back at the beginning of the book, we

used them with IF/ELSE statements. This is where our comparison
operators become handy.

So let's take a look at our code. On line 2 we just created a variable and
set it equal to zero. Line 3 is where the while loop starts, num < 10 is our
conditional.

The loop says "Hey, take a look at num, if num is less than 10, do the
code that's in line 4 and 5, then check (loop) again".

So the first time we run the program num is zero. Zero is definitely less
than ten, so our code executes line 4 and prints num to the screen.

Line 5 takes our variable num and adds one to it. Remember that +=
operator we talked about a few chapters ago?

You could also write that line of code like this:

num = num + 1

but num += 1 is more elegant. So when our program first runs, it will
check to see that zero is less than ten, then print 0 to the screen and then
add one to it.

It then loops around and starts over. Now when it checks num, it sees
that num equals one, which is still less than ten, so it executes the code
and adds one to num, printing out 2 to the screen.

And on and on… so the output of our code looks like this:

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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

After the program loops through ten times it stops. Why? Because the
tenth time the program looped, num became 10. The next time the
program started to loop through it asked itself "Hey, is 10 less than ten?"

10 is not less than 10. 10 is equal to 10, so the program stops.

That's the thing, you see…a while loop just keeps looping until the thing
stops being true…while true keep on looping!

THE INFINITE LOOP PROBLEM

You want to be careful when you create your loops and not build an
infinite loop. It's happened to the best of us (in fact, I accidentally did it
earlier when I was writing the code for this chapter!).

So what is an infinite loop?

Well, an infinite loop is a loop that just keeps looping forever. It's
conditional never gets met and it just keeps looping and looping and
looping and looping for all time.

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An infinite loop is not a good thing, they'll more than likely cause your
program to crash and can even tie up all the resources on your computer
or server – causing it to crash.

Yeah, it happens…and it's pretty easy to do. Here's an example, try to

spot the problem here:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.2

1.
2. num = 0
3. while num < 10:
4. print(num)
5.

Did you see it? That's basically the exact same code that we just wrote at
the beginning of this chapter, I just left off one little thing.

Line 4…all it's doing is printing out our num variable. The code doesn't
increment it by one like it did in the previous example.

So what's going to happen if you run that code? Give it a try! You
might as well experience the joy and the terror of an infinite loop…I'll
wait while you go run that code.

So what happened? It printed out:

0
0
0
0
0
0
0

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0
0
0
0
0
0

Over and over and over again and you couldn't get it to stop, right?
Yep.

You'll likely have to close your terminal and open a new one to get it to
stop. Or you might be able to hit the ctrl button on your keyboard plus
to "c" key, to break out (Ctrl+c then hit enter). Sometimes that works,
sometimes it doesn't.

Either way, don't worry too much about it…like I said, it happens to the
best of us from time to time!

BREAK/CONTINUE

If for some reason you need to break out of your loop, you can use the
Break/Continue statement and your old trusty IF/ELSE Statement.

The code looks pretty much the same as a while loop:

while conditional
do something
if conditional
break

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So let's take a look at a basic code example:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.3

1.
2. num = 0
3. while num < 10:
4. num += 1
5. if num == 5:
6. break
7. print(num)
8.

That will output the following:

1
2
3
4

So what's the deal here? We're just sort of sliding in a conditional that
stops the whole loop for any reason you want.

You can do basically the same thing with the CONTINUE statement as
well, but instead of stopping, it will skip over something:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.4

1.
2. num = 0
3. while num < 10:
4. num += 1
5. if num == 5:
6. continue
7. print(num)
8.

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That should print out: 1-10 but not 5. So 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,10

FOR LOOPS

A For Loop is a little different, it runs a specific number of times over a

range of numbers; and of course, you specify the range. Check it out:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.4

1.
2. for num in range(6):
3. print(num)
4.

This will print out:

0
1
2
3
4
5

You'll notice we used num as our variable but we didn't set it to

anything. "For" sets it to iterate over the range that we've specified (in
this case from 0 to 5 – ranges, like Lists, start at zero). You can specify a
starting point if you don't want to start at 0, like this:

for num in range(1, 6)

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In example 6.4, we printed out num, but you don't have to use the
variable in the output.

Often you'll use a For Loop to do something that has to be done many
times repetitively. For instance:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.5

1.
2. for num in range(6):
3. print("I LOVE CHEESE!")
4.

…will ouput I love cheese 6 times (from 0 to 5):

I LOVE CHEESE!
I LOVE CHEESE!
I LOVE CHEESE!
I LOVE CHEESE!
I LOVE CHEESE!
I LOVE CHEESE!

That's fun! But the real power of "For" loops is iteration over
something…usually a list.

You can use a For loop to grab each item out of a List (or really
anything), and do something with it…

CODE EXAMPLE 6.6

1.
2. names = ["John", "Mary", "Tim"]
3. for name in names:
4. print(name)
5.

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That will iterate through the list of names, and print out each name to
the screen:

John
Mary
Tim

Notice how I named the variable in the for loop "name"? That's the
singular version of the name of the list…which was "names".

You can iterate over most things, even variables:

CODE EXAMPLE 6.7

1.
2. name = "John Elder"
3. for x in name:
4. print(x)
5.

That's going to output:

J
O
H
N

E
L
D
E
R

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You'll notice that it even printed out the space in "John Elder". Iteration
is fun!

USING ELSE WITH FOR

Remember when we learned about IF/ELSE statements? You can

actually use an Else statement on a for loop to execute something after
the loop has finished.

CODE EXAMPLE 6.8

1.
2. for x in range(3):
3. print(x)
4. else:
5. print("All Done!")
6.

That would output:

0
1
2
All Done!

You might be asking yourself why you really need the else statement at
the end. Couldn't you skip it and just print out line 5?

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CODE EXAMPLE 6.8

1.
2. for x in range(3):
3. print(x)
4. print("All Done!")
5.

Which would print out:

0
1
2
All Done!

So, yeah…that works too. But there are instances when you might need
that last bit (the "All Done") to execute only under certain circumstances,
and the Else statement will come in handy.

PASS STATEMENT

For Loops can't be empty…and usually they aren't. But if for some
reason yours needs to be empty, you can use the Pass Statement.

CODE EXAMPLE 6.9

1.
2. for x in range(3):
3. pass
4.

Run that code and…nothing happens. If you left off the "pass", you'd
get an error. With the "pass" on there, the code just returns nothing.

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So those are the basic Python loops. Personally I find myself using the
For Loops most often because iterating through Lists is something that
happens a lot.

But While loops are super useful too, especially when you have a
counter that needs incrementing.

FIZZ BUZZ

If you've ever gone on a coding interview of any kind, then you've

probably had to do some sort of code test to prove your skills.
Companies have lots of different puzzles and tests to give you to see
whether or not you've got the chops for the job.

Personally, I think code interviews are a ridiculous waste of time and an

incredibly bad way to choose someone to hire but that's just me.

But I digress…a common code puzzle is the Fizz/Buzz challenge, and

now that we know how to do loops and IF/ELSE statements, we have all
the tools we need to complete this test. So let's take a look!

The problem is simple. Print out every number between 1 and 100, one
number per line, but if the number is divisible by three, print out "Fizz";
if the number is divisible by five, print out "Buzz"; and if the number is
divisible by both three AND five, print out FIZZ BUZZ.

Take a minute and think about this problem yourself before reading on.
You have all the tools you need to do this; and there are many different
ways to do it.

The idea is to write the most elegant code possible (ie keep it short
George!).

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How would you do it?

Let's break it down. First things first, we need to loop through the
numbers 1 through 100 printing each to the screen. We just learned how
to do that no problem.

CODE EXAMPLE 6.10

1.
2. for x in range(1, 101):
3. print(x)
4.

Now we need to figure out whether any given x is divisible by 3, 5, or

both 3 and 5. Sounds like a problem for an IF Statement and a few
modulus operators (remember %).

To determine whether or not a number is divisible by 3, the modulus

would return zero (no remainders).

CODE EXAMPLE 6.11

1.
2. for x in range(1, 101):
3. if x % 3 == 0 and x % 5 == 0:
4. print(f"{x} FIZZ BUZZ!")
5. else:
6. print(x)
7.

So far so good…line 3 might look a little confusing but it’s not too bad.
We briefly talked about "and" earlier (it lets you check two different
conditions instead of just one).

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So line three says basically if, when you divide x by 3 you get a
remainder of zero (meaning x is divisible by 3) AND when you divide x
by 5 you also get a remainder of zero (meaning x is also divisible by 5)
then print to the screen the words "FIZZ BUZZ!"

Else, just print the number to the screen.

If we run that code, we can spot check that it's working by searching for
the first couple of numbers that are divisible by 3 and 5. 15 comes to
mind, as well as 30…and I can spot check that our code is printing FIZZ
BUZZ! Instead of 15 and 30. So we're good so far.

Now we need to break it down further and check to see if x is divisible

by JUST 3 or JUST 5. Sounds like a job for Elif.

CODE EXAMPLE 6.12

1.
2. for x in range(1, 101):
3. if x % 3 == 0 and x % 5 == 0:
4. print(f"{x} FIZZ BUZZ!")
5. elif x % 3 == 0:
6. print(f"{x} FIZZ")
7. elif x % 5 == 0:
8. print(f"{x} BUZZ")
9. else:
10. print(x)
11.

Notice I put a f-string {x} in there so that it would print out the number
as well as the words FIZZ, BUZZ, or FIZZ BUZZ just so we can go
through and spot check to make sure the program is doing it's job.

1
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2
3 FIZZ
4
5 BUZZ
6 FIZZ
7
8
9 FIZZ
10 BUZZ
11
12 FIZZ
13
14
15 FIZZ BUZZ!
16
17
18 FIZZ
19
20 BUZZ
.
.

Yep, looks like it works! And just like that we solved a coding puzzle
that has stumped many people in interviews. Don't laugh, I personally
know people who have not been able to solve that puzzle during an
interview.

So we used modulus's and IF/ELSE and IF/ELIF statements, and our

basic For Loop… pretty simple!

I said there are many ways to do this…can you think of another way? A
simpler way? A way that uses less code? Give it a try…
CHAPTER SIX EXERCISES

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1. Try FIZZ/BUZZ again but do it in less lines of code!

2. Create a multi-dimensional List with 4 items, and each item is

itself a List containing a person's name, their address, and phone
number (make up the info). Loop through the List and output just
each person's phone number.

3. Loop through the List from exercise 2 and print out the full
information of even items in the List (ie the 2nd and 4th List in your
multidimensional List).

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CHAPTER SEVEN

FUNCTIONS

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Now it's time to learn about Functions. Functions are like little
programs inside of your program. If you've programmed in another
programming language, you might have called them "Methods", but
Python calls them Functions.

Sometimes I slip and just call them methods…for all intents and
purposes they're the same thing.

Functions do specific things, at specific times. In fact, Python will ignore

any Function you write until you specifically call it. That's different
than what we've seen so far.

Up until now, we've written code and whenever we run our program
Python executes everything we've written and gives us any output that
the code creates.

Not so with Functions. You'll see what I mean in a minute. First, let's
create our first Function. Functions have the form of:

def name(arguments):
do stuff

And this basic form should look familiar to you by now…it seems like
everything in Python tends to look like this. The name should almost
always be in lowercase. Let's create an example:

CODE EXAMPLE 7.1

1.
2. def wisdom():
3. print("You have to know when to hold em")
4.
5.

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Go ahead and run that code and see what happens. Did you run it?
Nothing happened! Remember, I told you that Functions don't get
executed unless you specifically call them.

To call a Function, just type the name of it with parenthesis. Like this:

CODE EXAMPLE 7.2

1.
2. def wisdom():
3. print("Life is like a box of chocolates...")
4.
5. wisdom()
6.

We call the Function on line 5, and if we run this program the output
will be: "Life is like a box of chocolates..."

This is cool, but we've left off part of it…the arguments part. Running a
Function that just returns some text isn't very interesting. We want to be
able to interact with our Functions, feed them information, have them do
something with that information, and then return results based on what
it did to that information.

So let's build something more interesting that lets us pass arguments to

the Function and have it actually do something.

Hey I know, let's create a Fizz Buzz Function that will tell us if a number
is a Fizz or a Buzz (remember in the last chapter fizz numbers are
divisible by 3, buzz numbers are divisible by 5, and fizz buzz numbers
are divisible by both 3 and 5).

We want to be able to pass any number into it and get a result. So let's
do that:

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CODE EXAMPLE 7.3

1.
2. def fizz_buzz(x):
3. if x % 3 == 0 and x % 5 == 0:
4. print(f"{x} is FIZZ BUZZ!")
5. elif x % 3 == 0:
6. print(f"{x} is FIZZ")
7. elif x % 5 == 0:
8. print(f"{x} is BUZZ")
9 else:
10. print(f"{x} is Boring")
11.
12. fizz_buzz(97)
13.

So basically we're using the same code as in the last chapter when we
wrote our Fizz Buzz program, but this time we're building a Function. In
line 12 we called the Function and passed the number 97 into it.

Do you see how we pass arguments into the Function? When we define
the Function in line 2, we slapped that (x) on there, that's basically a
variable. Then when we call the Function in line 12, we designate 97 as
the argument we want to pass into the Function. That 97 gets passed
into the Function via that (x)…or to put it another way, that x variable
becomes 97.

Now anytime within the Function that you see x, our program is putting
a 97 in there. Cool!

If you run that code it will return "97 is Boring" because 97 is not
divisible by 3, or 5.

If we changed line 12 to fizz_buzz(15) and ran it again, the program

would output "15 is FIZZ BUZZ!"

Pretty cool.

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Functions are fundamental. They're another one of those things that

you're going to use forever, no matter what programming language you
end up using. Python makes using them pretty easy, as you've already
seen.

What else can we do with Functions?

RETURNING TRUE OR FALSE

Sometimes it's useful to find out if something is True or False. Often

you'll want to do a certain thing if a thing is True, and do something else
if a thing is False. So let's create a Function that will return True if a
number is even (divisible by two), and return False if a number is odd.

CODE EXAMPLE 7.3

1.
2. def is_even(x):
3. if x % 2 == 0:
4. return True
5. else:
6. return False
7.
8. print(is_even(99))
9.

When we run this code, the terminal will output: False. If we changed
line 8 to print(is_even(98)), the terminal would output: True.

True and False are a datatype called Booleans and they're useful for all
sorts of things.

Notice also how we wrapped our is_even(99) function call in a print

function. What would happen if we left that off?

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CODE EXAMPLE 7.4

1.
2. def is_even(x):
3. if x % 2 == 0:
4. return True
5. else:
6. return False
7.
8. is_even(99)
9.

If you call that code, the terminal wouldn't return anything at all.

ASSIGNING FUNCTION OUTPUT TO A VARIABLE

Function output can also be assigned to a variable, and many times

that's what you will do.

CODE EXAMPLE 7.5

1.
2. def is_even(x):
3. if x % 2 == 0:
4. return True
5. else:
6. return False
7.
8. my_variable = is_even(99)
9. print(my_variable)
10.

In that example, we called the function in line 8 and assigned it's output
to a variable called my_variable.

Then later on, in line 9, we printed out that variable…which in this

example would print: "False" to the terminal.

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FUNCTIONS CAN HAVE MORE THAN ONE ARGUMENT

Up until now our functions have passed one argument through. But
you can pass more than one just as easily:

CODE EXAMPLE 7.6

1.
2. def namer(first, last):
3. print(f"Hello {first} {last}, nice to meet you!")
4.
5. namer("John", "Elder")
6.

In this program our Function has two arguments (first and last). We call
the function by typing in namer on line 5, but this time instead of
passing just one variable, we pass two (in this case John and Elder).

Also notice on line 5, we didn't wrap our function call in a print

function. Why? Because the function itself prints to the screen on line 3.
So we don't have to wrap the function in a print function.

ERRORS

Try running the code in example 7.6 again, but this time only pass one
parameter in line 5: namer("John").

You'll notice that the program throws an error. This is because our
function is expecting to be passed two arguments, and if you pass only
one, the code won't work.

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USING DEFAULT ARGUMENTS

The first function we created back at the beginning of the chapter didn't
pass any arguments through. Sometimes you want your Function to use
default arguments if none are passed. Let's take a look:

CODE EXAMPLE 7.6

1.
2. def namer(first = "John", last = "Elder"):
3. print(f"First Name: {first}")
4. print(f"Last Name: {last}")
5.
6. namer()
7.

If we run that code it will output:

First Name: John

Last Name: Elder

…notice how we didn't pass any variables when we called the Function
in line 6? We just called namer(). Since we didn't pass any arguments
when we called it, our function fell back on the default arguments we
gave it when we wrote the function (John and Elder) on line 2.

Our Function will only use those defaults because we didn't pass any
arguments there on line 6. But if we changed line 6 to: namer("Adam",
"Smith"), then our program would output:

First Name: Adam

Last Name: Smith

…because we no longer want to use the default John and Elder

arguments. Neato.

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Likewise, if we only passed one argument, the function would accept

that argument, and then use the default for the other.

So if we did something like: namer("Adam") on line 6, the terminal

would output:

First Name: Adam

Last Name: Elder

First name would be Adam because that's what we passed the function
in line 6, and Last Name would be Elder even though we didn't pass
that when we called the function; our code fell back on the default last
name that we built in when we created it.

So there you have functions. Much of what you do as a Python

programmer will resolve around Functions, and you'll learn to use them
in more interesting ways as you grow as a coder.

For now, I just want you to become familiar with them and their basic
usage. And I think we've covered that here!

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CHAPTER SEVEN EXERCISES

1. Re-write the fizz_buzz function to prompt a user to enter a

number and then return the function result.

2. Write some code using the same fizz_buzz function but have it
print out all numbers between 1 and 100 by calling the function
100 times.

3. Create a function that has 7 things passed to it.

4. Create a function that asks a persons name, allows them to enter

the name, and then prints out a welcome message with that
name.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

DICTIONARIES

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Now it's time for Dictionaries…actually, we probably should have

talked about Dictionaries right after we talked about Lists…because
they're very similar.

But I didn't want to confuse you and I wanted to give you enough time
to let Lists sink in.

Remember our names List?

names = ["John", "Tim", "Mary", "Beatrice", "Bluto"]

That's a pretty simple List, and we access the items in that List using
index numbers, starting with zero. So to access the John item in our List
we would call: names[0] and to access Mary in our List we would call:
names[2].

To access a specific item in a List, we need to know it's index number.

That's fine, there are a lot of times when that will be perfectly acceptable.
But when you get right down to it, sometimes being forced to know an
item's index number is kind of a hassle.

Enter Dictionaries.

Dictionaries are an awful lot like Lists, but instead of associating an item
with its index number; we can associate it with any damn thing we want!
™

I don't know about you, but I like having the option to do any damn thing
I want!TM but then again, I'm 44 years old, live in Las Vegas, and have
never had a real job besides running my own startups. So there you go.

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By the way; if you want to learn how I build startups and float through
life without ever having a real job, check out my site [Link] or
grab my "Smart Startup" book or "Living the Dotcom Lifestyle" book
from Amazon.

But I digress…Dictionaries. Let's build one that takes the names from
our List and output's everyone's favorite pizza:

CODE EXAMPLE 8.1

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {
3. "John":"Pepperoni",
4. "Tim":"Mushroom",
5. "Mary":"Cheese",
6. "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
7. "Bluto":"Supreme"
8. }
9.
10. print(favorite_pizza["John"])
11.

So the first thing to notice is that we wrap our Dictionary in curly

brackets { and }.

The next thing to notice is that we separate each value of our Dictionary
by a comma.

The items in our Dictionary are called "Key" and "Value" pairs.

With a List, the "Key" is an index number (the 2nd item in the List, the 4th
item in the List, etc) and that's how we access the items, by calling the
index number key.

With a Dictionary, the "Key" is whatever you want it to be. In this case,
we're using names as Keys.

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So "John" is the Key, and "Pepperoni" is the Value. The Value is the
thing we want to know.

Calling a Value in a Dictionary is very similar to calling an item in a List,

but instead of referencing a List index number, we reference the
Dictionary Key (like John, or Tim, or whatever).

print(favorite_pizza["John"])

If this was a List, we'd do something like print(favorite_pizza[0])…but

since this is a Dictionary, we put "John" as the key instead of "0". Make
sense?

Dictionaries are really really cool because you can do most of the things
you'd do with a List, but you can do it in a more human readable and
human understandable way. Referencing 0 to see what John's favorite
pizza is can be weird, but referencing "John" instead to see what Johns
favorite pizza is makes more sense.

ADDING AND REMOVING ITEMS FROM A DICTIONARY

Just like a List, we want to be able to remove things and add things to
our Dictionary.

Adding items is just as easy as declaring them:

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CODE EXAMPLE 8.2

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {
3. "John":"Pepperoni",
4. "Tim":"Mushroom",
5. "Mary":"Cheese",
6. "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
7. "Bluto":"Supreme"
8. }
9.
10. favorite_pizza["Bob"] = "Tuna"
11.

The important line is line 10. That adds a new key ("Bob") and assigns
the value "Tuna" to it. Can you put Tuna on a pizza? Wouldn't that be
terrible? Well, Bob's a weird dude.

Deleting things is just as easy, we just use the pop function:

CODE EXAMPLE 8.3

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {
3. "John":"Pepperoni",
4. "Tim":"Mushroom",
5. "Mary":"Cheese",
6. "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
7. "Bluto":"Supreme"
8. }
9.
10. favorite_pizza.pop("Tim")
11. print(favorite_pizza)
12.

Line 10 delete's the key "Tim" and it's value "Mushroom". We can
confirm that by printing out our Dictionary in line 11.

Pretty simple!

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DICTIONARY ODDS AND ENDS

So far we've been using strings as Keys and Values for our Dictionary,
but you can use any other data types as well. You can use numbers,
variables, Boolean, Lists, really just about anything you like!

CODE EXAMPLE 8.4

1.
2. user_name = "John"
3.
4. favorite_pizza = {
5. user_name:"Pepperoni",
6. "Tim":"Mushroom",
7. "Mary":"Cheese",
8. "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
9. "Bluto":41
10. }
11.
12. print(favorite_pizza)
13.

In this example the first key is the variable user_name (which we created
in line 2 by assigning "John" to the variable user_name). If we run this
program we get this output:

{"John":"Pepperoni", "Tim":"Mushroom", "Mary":"Cheese",

"Beatrice":"Ham and Onion", "Bluto":41}

So even though we used a variable in our code (line 5), the value of the
variable becomes the key.

Interestingly enough, if you want to access that item of the Dictionary,

you can do it two different ways, either by calling it by the variable
name (user_name), or the actual value that we assigned to that variable
(John).

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So you could call it like this:

print(favorite_pizza[user_name])

or you could also call it like this:

print(favorite_pizza["John"])

Either way will return the value "Pepperoni". I think that's pretty cool.
But then, I've been slamming caffeine pretty hard all morning and I'd
think just about anything is cool right now…

You'll also notice that Bluto's favorite pizza has been changed to 41,
which is a number. You can do numbery things to it now.

print(favorite_pizza["Bluto"]+3)

…would print out 44 (41+3=44). Neat!

ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO WRITE A DICTIONARY

This is a silly point to make, but up until now we've been writing our
Dictionaries on multiple lines. But I only do that to make them easier to
read.

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We don't really need to do that. I just like to write them like that because
they're easier to read that way. You can write the same exact Dictionary
all on one line if you prefer!

CODE EXAMPLE 8.5

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {"John":"Pepperoni", "Tim":"Mushroom",
3. "Mary":"Cheese", "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
4. "Bluto":"Supreme"}
5.
6. print(favorite_pizza)
7.

That does the exact same thing as our earlier code, it’s just all jumbled
together.

I'm not sure why in the world you'd want to write code that was all
jumbled up like that…but hey, go crazy if you feel like it.

FINDING THE KEYS OR VALUES OF A DICTIONARY

Up until now, we've just returned the values of a specific key in our
dictionary. But you may want to return just the keys, or just the values.
Python makes it easy to do both.

To return the keys of a Dictionary, just use the keys() function.

print(favorite_pizza.keys())

That would return: dict_keys(['John', 'Tim', 'Mary', 'Beatrice', 'Bluto'])

To return the values of a Dictionary, just use the values() function.
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print(favorite_pizza.values())

That would return:

dict_values(['Pepperoni', 'Mushroom', 'Cheese', 'Ham and Onion', 41])

You could easily loop through either of those using a for loop to get the
actual items.

LOOPING DICTIONARIES TO GET KEYS AND VALUES

If you need to reference both the keys and values in a Dictionary, you
can loop using the items() function.

CODE EXAMPLE 8.6

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {
3. "John":"Pepperoni",
4. "Tim":"Mushroom",
5. "Mary":"Cheese",
6. "Beatrice":"Ham and Onion",
7. "Bluto":"Supreme"
8. }
9.
10. for x,y in favorite_pizza.items():
11. print(f"Key:{x} Value:{y}")
12.

This will print out the keys and values as x and y variables:

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Key:John Value:Pepperoni
Key:Tim Value:Mushroom
Key:Mary Value:Cheese
Key:Beatrice Value:Ham and Onion
Key:Bluto Value:Supreme

WHEN TO USE A DICTIONARY VS. A LIST

Dictionaries or Lists, which should you use and when? It's pretty
straight forward…when you need to access items by an index number,
use a List. For all other purposes, use a Dictionary.

To tell you the truth, there's probably times when I've used a Dictionary
even though all my Key values where numbers. You can use numbers
in a Dictionary if you want…so why not? We could just as easily have
done this:

CODE EXAMPLE 8.7

1.
2. favorite_pizza = {
3. 1:"Pepperoni",
4. 2:"Mushroom",
5. 3:"Cheese",
6. 4:"Ham and Onion",
7. 5:"Supreme"
8. }
9.
10. print(favorite_pizza)
11.

I'm not really sure why you'd want to do that…but you absolutely could
if you wanted to use a Dictionary instead of a List.
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Just don't try to access the 0'th item of the Dictionary like you would a
List because there isn't one in this code…unless we specifically named
the first item 0!

Those are dictionaries! If you haven't figured it out yet…they're really

useful!

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CHAPTER EIGHT EXERCISES

1. Create your own Dictionary, with five of your friends' names and
their phone numbers.

2. Create a program using your answer to exercise 1 that prompts a

user to enter a name from your list your five friends, and then
returns the phone number for that specific friend.

3. Add a feature to your code from exercise 2 that allows people to

add or delete a name from the Dictionary, then return the
updated Dictionary to the screen.

4. Create a loop that cycles through your Dictionary from exercise 1

and outputs (one per line) "My friend X's phone number is: xxx-
xxx-xxxx" replacing the x's with the persons actual name and
phone number.

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CHAPTER NINE

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER TO

MAKE A MATH FLASHCARD GAME

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Congratulations! You've made it through the book (well mostly) and

now you know Python (well mostly)!

Ok…you know the basics of Python…but the basics will take you pretty
far. You've got a solid foundation of basic programming concepts and
how they're done with Python.

We talked about Variables, Math, all kinds of Operators like Math

Operators, Comparison Operators, Assignment Operators, and even
some Logical Operators (And & Or).

You learned all about IF/ELSE and IF/ELIF statements, Loops, Lists,
Dictionaries…even Functions…we really covered a lot of good stuff!

I hope you had a good time learning these things and I hope it wasn't
too hard…it really wasn't too bad, was it?

Well now it's time to put everything we've learned together and have a
little fun.

Right now I'm working on a new course over at [Link] that

teaches you how to build a children's math flashcard web app. It's pretty
cool. If you're interested in that I highly recommend you go join my
[Link] site.

Membership is usually $198 for all the courses (or $49 per course if you
take any of the over 50 courses individually) but sign up using the
coupon code pythonbook and I'll give you complete access to all the
courses (and all the new courses I create) for just $99 total.

But back to us…I thought it might be fun for us to build our own Python
math flashcard game.

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It won't be a web app (like the one I'm building at [Link]) but we
can still have some fun banging out the code for just a basic math
flashcard game and more importantly, it'll give us a chance to use nearly
everything we've learned so far.

A MATH FLASHCARD GAME

Before you build any sort of program or project, it's a good idea to take a
few minutes and map out what the program needs to do. I'm just talking
broad sketch here.

So what does our program need to do?

Well…we want to build a simple math flashcard game. It should allow

the user to choose to do Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, or
Division.

It should then randomly create a math problem and ask the user to solve
it. Then it should allow the user to enter their answer and see whether
or not the answer is correct or not.

Nothing too tricky here!

Before we get started though, there's one more thing you need to
learn…Randomization.

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RANDOMIZATION

We're going to need some way to create random numbers for our game.
You'd be surprised how often you need to generate random numbers in
everyday coding life. Luckily Python has an easy way to do it:

CODE EXAMPLE 9.1

1.
2. import random
3. print([Link]())
4.

First, notice line two. We've imported the random module that comes
with Python. The random module does what you'd think…it generates
random numbers in a variety of way.

Line 3 will generate a random number. It will return something that

usually looks like 0.6768796878363911, which isn't super useful. Instead,
let's define a range for our random number.

CODE EXAMPLE 9.2

1.
2. import random
3. our_rand = [Link](1,10)
4. print(our_rand)
5.

First off, you'll notice that I slapped a variable on there, so we can do

stuff to that number we generate later if we want.

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Second off, you'll notice that we used the randint() function and that it
takes two arguments. The first is our starting integer, the second is the
stopping integer. Randint() will return a random number between (and
including) those two integers.

So this could return a one, or it could return a ten…or it could return

any number between those two numbers.

What if you wanted to return a number between zero and ten? Then
you'd use randint(0,10). Get it? Good.

So now we know how to generate Random numbers and slap them into
a Variable so that we can play around with them.

So let's start building our game!

I highly recommend you try to build this game on your own without
looking at my code. I'm going to suggest how to proceed with each
section of the game, and I hope you'll take my suggestions and then
write your own code.

Then come back and look at my code to see if I did it the same way.
Remember, there's no right way to do this. Your code could look
drastically different than mine. That ok! As long as it gets the job done,
it doesn't really matter how you do it.

So let's get started…

I think we should break the game apart into different functions that we
can call at various times throughout the game. Let's start with a start
game function.

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Basically, we need to greet the user and ask them what kind of
flashcards they'd like to play (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, or
Division).

This seems like an input() sort of thing, and also an IF/ELIF type of
situation. Be sure to put in error handling too (in case the stupid user
types in Bacon instead of Subtraction!).

CODE EXAMPLE 9.4

1.
2. from os import system
3. # function To Start The Game And Pick Cards
4. def start_game():
5. system("clear")#clear the screen
6. print("Welcome to Math Flashcards!")
7. pick = input(
8. "Choose your flashcards (add|subtract|multiply|divide): ")
9.
10. if [Link]() == "add":
11. print(f"You picked {pick}")
12. elif [Link]() == "subtract":
13. print(f"You picked {pick}")
14. elif [Link]() == "multiply":
15. print(f"You picked {pick}")
16. elif [Link]() == "divide":
17. print(f"You picked {pick}")
18. else:
19. print(f"Sorry, I don't recognize {pick}")
20. input("please hit enter to try again")
21.
22. start_game()
23.
24. start_game()
25.

This is how I chose to start things. Can you think of a simpler more
elegant way? Notice in our IF/ELSE statements I just printed out the user
selection. As we build out our functions, we'll replace those lines with
calls to those functions.

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Let's look through this code. I started out by importing os so we can

clear the screen, and then adding a simple comment to describe what's
going on there. Don't forget that commenting code is important,
especially now that we're building more complicated programs.

Next I defined a function to start the game, called start_game(). You'll

notice we aren't passing any variables into it. You'll also notice that I've
called the function on line 24 (remember Functions don't run until you
call them).

Next we've got some code to ask a person what sort of flashcards they
want, then a simple IF/ELIF statement to figure out what to do next
based on whatever the person typed in.

You'll notice that for each part of the IF statement, I've just printed out
the user's selection. Don't worry, we'll add function calls there soon.

The only other thing to really look at is the last ELSE statement. That's
our error handling. If the stupid user types in NACHOS instead of
"add" then our program throws up a statement telling them that we
don't recognize their response and asks them to hit enter to start over.

Notice the input() call on line 20? That allows the user to hit the "Enter"
key but doesn't really do anything. It's just a way to pause the program
while the user reads the message we printed to the screen telling them
that we don't recognize their selection.

Once they hit Enter, the program continues on, and in line 22, starts the
game over again.

So far so good!

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MATH FUNCTIONS

Now we need to write the four different math Functions; one for
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

We need our program to randomly generate two numbers, and then ask
the user to either add, subtract, multiply, or divide those two numbers
together.

We need to capture their response, and check to see whether they

answered correctly or not. If not, we could give them the chance to try
again, but in this case I think we'll just tell them that they're wrong and
show them the right answer.

Then we need to give them the option to quit, or get another flashcard.
We should probably also give them the chance to switch flashcards
completely, ie to switch from Addition flashcards to Subtraction
flashcards (or whatever).

So let's start out with the addition flashcard function and then go from
there…

Remember to add a call to our new add_flashcards() function to line 11

of our original code, 9.4. Just replace

11. print(f"You picked {pick}")

with:

11. add_flashcards()

CODE EXAMPLE 9.5

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1.
2. import random
3. # Start Addition Flashcards Function
4. def add_flashcards():
5. system("clear")
6. card_one = [Link](0,10)
7. card_two = [Link](0,10)
8. correct = card_one + card_two
9. answer = input(f"{card_one} + {card_two}: ")
10.
11. if int(answer) == correct:
12. print(f"Correct! {card_one} + {card_two} = {answer}")
13. else:
14. print(f"Wrong! {card_one} + {card_two} = {correct}")
15. play = input("Would you like another card?
16. (yes|no|restart): ")
17.
18. if [Link]() == "yes":
19. add_flashcards()
20. elif [Link]() == "no":
21. print("Thanks for playing!")
22. elif [Link]() == "restart":
23. start_game()
24. else:
25. print(f"Sorry, I don't recognize {play}")
26. input("please hit enter to try again. ")
27. add_flashcards()
28. # End Addition Flashcards Function
29.

First things first; where does this code go? If you put this whole chunk
of code BELOW our original start_game() function call, you'll get an
error.

Why?

The answer has to do with flow control. If the start_game() Function is

first, it will try to call the add_flashcards() function. The problem is;
Python can't find that Function. Why? Because it hasn't gotten down to
it yet.

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Python starts at the top of a program and works its way down. Our
add_flashcards() Function doesn't necessarily have to be above the
start_game() Function, but it DOES have to be above the line of code
where we first CALL the start_game() function (line 24 in our 9.4
example code).

I tend to put all my Functions first before we run any actual code to call
a Function. That way Python runs over all our Functions, knows they
exist, and feels good about the situation. Then later on when we call one
of those Functions, everything works the way it's supposed to work.

So let's look at our add_flashcards() Function.

Most of it should be self-explanatory. Line 2 imports random so we can

generate our numbers (You should move that up to the very top of your
program).

Line 6 and 7 gives us our two random numbers and line 8 adds them
together so that we know what the correct answer should be. You don't
really need to explicitly create a variable with the correct answer, you
can do it in the IF Statement, but I like to keep things explicit.

Line 9 is where our user types in their answer, it gets assigned to the
answer variable.

After that we just have a series of IF/ELSE statements to check and see
whether the answer given is correct or not and whether the user wants
to keep playing or not.

Pretty simple, eh?

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Now we can just copy and paste this function to create our other math
functions. We'll just need to tweak it a bit so that it subtracts instead of
adds; and multiplies or divides or whatever. But I think the basic
foundation of the program is solid.

Wasn't that easy?

Could you have done that just a couple of days ago?

I hope you're starting to understand just how easy Python is…and just
how much fun it is to use! Sure, this is a pretty simple little program,
but all programs are simple when you really break them down.

If you understand these basics, you're well on your way to becoming an

awesome Python programmer.

Ok enough blather, let's build our subtraction function:

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CODE EXAMPLE 9.6

1.
2. # Start Subtraction Flashcards Function
3. def subtract_flashcards():
4. system("clear")
5. card_one = [Link](0,10)
6. card_two = [Link](0,10)
7. correct = card_one - card_two
8. answer = input(f"{card_one} - {card_two}: ")
9.
10. if int(answer) == correct:
11. print(f"Correct! {card_one} - {card_two} = {answer}")
12. else:
13. print(f"Wrong! {card_one} - {card_two} = {correct}")
14.
15. play = input(f"Would you like another card?
16. (yes|no|restart): ")
17.
18. if [Link]() == "yes":
19. subtract_flashcards()
20. elif [Link]() == "no":
21. print("Thanks for playing!")
22.
23. elif [Link]() == "restart":
24. start_game()
25. else:
26. print(f"Sorry, I don't recognize {play}")
27. input("please hit enter to try again ")
28. subtract_flashcards()
29.
30. # End Subtraction Flashcards Function
31.

All I did was go through the add_flashcards() code and replace the plus
signs with subtraction signs. Let's do the same thing for the final two
math functions and call this sucker done!

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CODE EXAMPLE 9.7

1.
2. # Start Multiplication Flashcards Function
3. def multiply_flashcards():
4. system("clear")
5. card_one = [Link](0,10)
6. card_two = [Link](0,10)
7. correct = card_one * card_two
8. answer = input(f"{card_one} * {card_two}: ")
9.
10. if int(answer) == correct:
11. print(f"Correct! {card_one} * {card_two} = {answer}")
12. else:
13. print(f"Wrong! {card_one} * {card_two} = {correct}")
14.
15.
16. play = input(f"Would you like another card?
17. (yes|no|restart): ")
18.
19. if [Link]() == "yes":
20. multiply_flashcards()
21. elif [Link]() == "no":
22. print("Thanks for playing!")
23.
24. elif [Link]() == "restart":
25. start_game()
26. else:
27. print(f"Sorry, I don't recognize {play}")
28. input("please hit enter to try again ")
29.
30. multiply_flashcards()
31.
32. # End Multiplication Flashcards Function
33.

Again, I didn't make any real changes to this code, I just changed all the
addition signs to multiply. I also changed the name of the Function from
add_flashcards to multiply_flashcards in a couple places throughout the
code. So let's knock out the division code and call it a day!

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John Elder

CODE EXAMPLE 9.8

1.
2. # Start Division Flashcards Function
3. def divide_flashcards():
4. system("clear")
5. card_one = [Link](0,10)
6. card_two = [Link](1,10)
7. correct = card_one / card_two
8. answer = input(f"{card_one} / {card_two}: ")
9.
10. if int(answer) == correct:
11. print(f"Correct! {card_one} / {card_two} = {answer}")
12. else:
13. print(f"Wrong! {card_one} / {card_two} = {correct}")
14.
15. play = input(f"Would you like another card?
16. (yes|no|restart): ")
17.
18. if [Link]() == "yes":
19. divide_flashcards()
20. elif [Link]() == "no":
21. print("Thanks for playing!")
22. elif [Link]() == "restart":
23. start_game()
24. else:
25. print(f"Sorry, I don't recognize {play}")
26. input("please hit enter to try again ")
27. divide_flashcards()
28.
29. # End Division Flashcards Function
30.

I did need to make a minor change in this code. Check out line 6. I
changed the range of numbers for our Random number. Why? Because
technically a number can't be divided by zero; and if Python tries it will
throw a big ugly error. So I just changed the range.

If you run this code, you'll see a few weird things. You'll see things like
5 divided by 3…and the answer is a decimal. Since we didn't program in
floats or use the modulo (%), our program doesn't know how to deal
with remainders.

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 [Link]

You'll see things like 0 divided by 7…which is 0.

So, this isn't all that practical. But you can tinker with it and make it
smarter if you like…in fact, I'll add that to the exercises at the end of this
chapter.

MAKING IT SIMPLER

So we finished the flashcard game! But, when I add up all the lines of
code for this thing, it ends up being like 140+ lines! Surely we can
simplify things a bit.

One area I would look at for simplification is the math Functions. We

have four math Functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division) but each of those functions is essentially the same big block of
code (we just changed the name of the Function and the math
operators).

Can you think of a way to reduce those four Functions into one?

There are many different ways to do it. You could use loops
somehow…or make just one Function and pass a variable into it as the
argument; the variable could be "add", "subtract", "multiply", or "divide"
and then based on what that variable is, the Function could add,
subtract, multiply, or divide.

I'll leave it to you, it's great practice to take some code and try to
simplify it!

If you want to get the entire code for this program in an easy to copy
and paste format, head over to [Link]/python and sign up for the
video course that goes along with this book.

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John Elder

It's usually $49 but as a thank you reading this book, you can get the
course for $9…just use coupon code python9 at checkout.

Everyone who signs up also gets a pdf copy of this book and you can
copy and paste the code right out of there.

I've also listed a pdf of just this program so you can easily see all the
code in one place.

Plus, if you have any questions about the code, you can post them there
and I'll answer them personally.

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 [Link]

CHAPTER NINE EXERCISES

1. Re-Create the flashcards game to keep track of how many

questions the user answered right and wrong.

2. Re-Create the flashcards game with questions about fractions.

3. Re-Create the flashcards game a different way using less code

(make it more elegant Eugene!)

4. Re-Create the flashcards game using While statements to check

for correct answers in each of our Math functions (instead of the If
statements we're using now).

5. Re-Create the flashcards game, but modify the subtraction

function to make sure card_one is greater than card_two (so the
answer can't be negative!)

6. Re-Create the flashcards game but clean up the division function

so that it makes more sense. Put in logic that keeps picking
random numbers until you get one that is divisible by the other
one (otherwise it's going to ask you to divide 3 by 9, which is a
decimal or other dumb things. Floats? A larger range of Random
Numbers? Go crazy!

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John Elder

CHAPTER TEN

CONCLUSION

144
 [Link]

You made it! We're done! How 'bout them apples?

What'd you think? Python is pretty freaking easy – right? Yes it is!

I hope you enjoyed the book, I really enjoyed writing it and head over to
[Link]/python-follow and sign up for my discounted Python
course (use coupon code python9). You can ask me questions directly if
you got stuck anywhere along the way.

PYTHON ON THE WEB?

Throughout this book we've been playing around with Python in the
terminal, but we haven't done any web development work with it.

That's because Python alone can't easily do web stuff. You need a
framework to go along with it…

That’s where Django or Flask comes in.

If you're interested in Django or Flask, I hope you'll checkout out my

website [Link]

I've got a bunch of Django courses and a couple Flask courses as well.

Django is a more robust, complete web framework; whereas Flask is a

lighter weight framework that gives you a little more hands-on control
over everything.

Both are great, and both have their place in your coding arsenal!

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John Elder

Courses at [Link] are usually $49 each, but you can also sign up
for "Total Membership" that gives you access to all the courses for one
low fee.

At the time of this writing, there are over 50 courses on the website, with
more being added all the time.

Total Membership usually costs $249 but if you use coupon code
python50 I'll knock the price in half and you pay just $99.

And remember, you get all the current courses, but you also get all
future courses at no additional cost. They just show up in your account
whenever I release them!

And that's a one time fee…it's not monthly…it's not yearly…you'll pay
nothing more for lifetime access to the courses.

CAN I ASK YOU A HUGE FAVOR?

Book reviews at [Link] are a HUGE deal for small writers like
me. Just a few reviews can mean the difference between a book getting
ranked well by Amazon's algorithm, and complete oblivion. Without
reviews, the book won't even show up when someone searches for
Python at Amazon.

I'd consider it a great favor if you would head back to [Link] and
leave a quick review of this book. It doesn't have to be long-winded, just
a few words will make a big big difference as to whether my book gets
out there or not.

146
 [Link]

So if you enjoyed the book, got a lot out of it...heck even if you didn't
like it, please head back to Amazon and leave a review. Then shoot me
an email and let me know so I can thank you properly!

Just go to [Link]/pythonreview

And that URL will re-direct to this book's Amazon page where you can
leave a quick review.

I really appreciate it!!

Thanks!
-John Elder
[Link]
john@[Link]

147
John Elder

148
 [Link]

APPENDIX A

SPECIAL [Link] OFFER

Learning never stops, especially for coders. There's always something

new and cool to learn. I've tried to build a website that makes it super
easy to learn how to code, and learn new coding skills…and it's called
[Link]

Each course at [Link] is a series of videos where you watch over

my shoulder as I build something.

In one course I build a Django Math Flashcard App. In another course I

build a clone of the website Pinterest with Ruby on Rails. In another
course I build an affiliate marketing site that makes money from
Amazon affiliate products.

I teach Rails courses, PHP courses, HTML and CSS courses, Database
courses, GUI app courses with Tkinter, PyQT5, Kivy, and more.

Each course costs $49, or you can sign up for all the courses for $198
(which is a pretty good deal if you ask me!) and that entitles you to all
the future courses that I add absolutely free (and I've got some cool
courses on the horizon).

AS A SPECIAL THANK YOU FOR READING THIS BOOK…

I'd love to see you over at [Link] and I'd like to bribe you to join
today; so I'm giving you a special coupon code (python50) that will give
you half off membership (so you pay just $99 instead of $249)…

149
John Elder

It's my gift to you! [Link]

So you get access to ALL my best-selling courses for just $99 instead of
the regular $249.

And I offer a month-long 100% money back guarantee. Check out the
site, if it isn't for you…just shoot me a message and I'll immediately
refund your money, no questions asked, no hoops to jump through.

HANDS ON HELP

Membership doesn't just get you videos…you also get hands on help
from me and other members. Any time you get stuck with something
from a video, you can post a question to me directly, or post a question
directly under the video itself.

It's a great resource and I hope you'll take advantage of it.

Just use coupon code python50 at checkout for the special $99 price.
[Link]

See you on the inside!

-John Elder
[Link]

150
 [Link]

THE END

151
John Elder

NOTES

152
 [Link]

NOTES

153
John Elder

NOTES

154
 [Link]

NOTES

155
John Elder

NOTES

156
 [Link]

Copyright © John Elder & [Link] - All Rights Reserved

157