PROBLEM SOLVING

Nature and Stages of Problem Solving

Human beings are always engaged in problem solving, be it in day-to-day life or at school,
workplace or interpersonal relationships. Problems can range from simple to complex.
Problem solving means there is a problem which needs to be solved. It involves reaching a
goal, and thus includes goal-directed thinking. Various alternative ways are explored to
achieve goals. We solve problems based on our existing knowledge, earlier experience and
thinking in terms of future.

Problem solving is a set of activities designed to analyse a situation systematically and

generate, implement, and evaluate solutions. This involves the seeking of solutions to
problems that arise in an institution. The problem-solving process leads to formulation of
decisions intended to resolve the recognised problems.

There are three components in problem solving – (a) an original state, refers to the present
situation of problem/difficulty; (b) a goal state, which is the desired state which we want to
achieve; and (c) the rules that are applied to reach to the goal state to achieve the desired
outcome. Here the person (the operator) uses various skills and techniques to arrive at the
goal state.

The internal or mental representation of all the three is called the problem space, i.e., the
space in which we visualize the original and end state/goal state, and where alternative
solutions are found and employed.

Usually, problems can be described as of two types such as

TYPES OF PROBLEMS

 Well defined problems: These are the problems that are easy to define and describe. Nature
of the problem is clear and correct solutions are available, e.g., puzzles. The initial state and
goal states are clearly definable, and there are available rules and strategies to reach the goal.

 Ill defined problems: Here the nature of the problem is not clear and cannot be described in
specific ways, e.g., defining justice or peace, or creating an abstract painting. All the aspects
of problem space such as the initial state, goal state, the operator and the rules used are not
clear and defined. The stages in problem solving usually begins with defining and
understanding the problem. Then it involves thinking about the alternative ways to solve the
problem, implementing the best alternative, and finally evaluating it in terms of the desired
outcome. Problem solving stages generally follows the stages in creativity which is described
in detail in the section on creativity.

Ways of Problem Solving

1. Trial and Error: As the name indicates, it involves solving a problem by trying
different methods in a random way. We keep on trying one solution after another on a
trial-and-error basis until we get a correct solution. It works in a mechanical way and
is not very effective.
2. Algorithms: This is another way of solving problems which follows a step-by step
procedure to reach the solution. It will always result in a correct solution. However, it
takes a long time to reach the solution as it keeps exploring the options one by one in
a systematic way.
3. Heuristics: This is comparatively the fastest and most effective way of problem
solving. We cannot possibly use trial and error always or have long enough time to go
through the tedious process of using the algorithm way of problem solving. Though
we can make use of algorithms in the computers to generate solutions, we, as human
beings need something else to solve problems in our day-to-day life. A heuristic is a
better approach here which refers to a “rule of thumb”. That is, heuristic is a simple
rule based on prior experiences which is used to solve problem. Thus, there is no
trying out of each possible solution in a step-by-step way, but this method reduces it
by taking intelligent guesses at solution on the basis of previous learning and
experiences. However, heuristics does not always lead to correct solutions as it is in
the case of algorithm, but it increases the chances of getting the correct solution by
narrowing down the possible solutions unlike the trial-and-error method. Various
types of heuristic methods are used such as backward search, means end analysis etc.
Backward search as the name implies starts at the goal state or the desired outcome
and moves backward towards the original state, e.g., in solving a maze problem, if
you start tracing from the end state, it becomes easier for you to reach the initial state
in short time. In means end analysis, the end is identified and various means are used
to reduce the difference between the current state and goal state. It tries to identify sub
goals between the two and minimize the gap in the process.
 4. Insight: Insight is also another strategy of solving problem. Here the solution comes
suddenly to the person, hence called insight. It is like an “Aha” experience or the
“Eureka” moment. Insight involves reorganization of experiences in the mind when
one is engaged in other things, and then suddenly the solution appears to the person.

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving

Various factors can affect problem solving, for example, lack of appropriate information and
facts about the problem, lack of understanding about the problem, lack of knowledge about
problem solving techniques and process, being unsystematic, lack of patience and
commitment in solving the problem etc.

There are certain barriers which may impact individual’s problem-solving capability.

1. Perceptual barriers Sometimes we fail to see the problem from alternative perspective
because of our fixed and set beliefs. Mental Set refers to a fixed pattern of thinking
based on one’s earlier experiences. Thus, we are not able to go beyond the tried and
tested paths/solutions which poses a barrier in problem solving. We see only what we
want to see.
2. Emotional barriers: Our emotions of fear, anxiety about making mistakes leads to
stress and may prevent us from seeing things in perspective. This in turn poses a
barrier to effective problem solving. We avoid taking risks for fear of failure in
solving the problem.
3. Environmental barriers: Refers to factors in one’s physical and social environment
that become barriers to problem solving. For instance, there may be lack of support,
lack of proper communication, lack of infrastructure, stress etc.
4. Cultural barriers: It refers to one’s beliefs, set notions, attitudes, prejudices, values and
practices influenced by one’s culture which may impact problem solving.

Problem-Solving Techniques

Problem-solving techniques and tools are essential in management because they help
managers identify problems, analyse their causes, generate solutions, and make effective
decisions that improve organisational performance. In business environments, managers
frequently encounter complex situations that require careful analysis and structured
approaches to ensure that decisions lead to positive outcomes. Problem-solving techniques
provide systematic methods for identifying and resolving issues, while decision-making tools
assist managers in evaluating alternatives and selecting the most appropriate course of action.

One of the most widely used problem-solving techniques in business

1. Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a creative technique in which individuals or groups

generate a large number of ideas in response to a problem without immediately
evaluating them. The objective is to encourage free thinking and creativity so that
innovative solutions can emerge. During brainstorming sessions, participants are
encouraged to share ideas openly, and all suggestions are recorded before any
criticism or evaluation takes place. This technique is particularly useful in
organisations that seek innovative solutions to complex challenges.
2. Root cause analysis: This focuses on identifying the underlying causes of a problem
rather than merely addressing its symptoms. Managers using this technique examine
processes and systems to determine why a problem occurred. By understanding the
root cause, organisations can implement solutions that prevent the problem from
recurring. Root cause analysis often involves asking a series of “why” questions until
the fundamental cause of the issue is identified.
3. Nominal group technique is another structured problem-solving method that
encourages participation from all members of a group. In this technique, individuals
first generate ideas independently and then present them to the group for discussion
and evaluation. This method ensures that every participant contributes ideas and
reduces the influence of dominant individuals in group discussions. After all ideas are
presented, members rank or vote on the best alternatives, and the most highly rated
solutions are selected.
4. Delphi technique is another decision-making method used when organisations require
expert opinions. In this technique, a panel of experts provides their opinions or
forecasts on a particular issue through a series of questionnaires. The responses are
collected and summarised by a facilitator, and the results are shared with the panel for
further review. This process continues until a consensus is reached. The Delphi
technique is particularly useful for strategic planning and forecasting where expert
knowledge is required.