MEN 200
Dislocations
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Issues To Address
Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals and alloys?
How are strength and dislocation motion related?
How do we increase strength?
How can heating change strength and other properties?
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Dislocations & Materials Classes
Metals: Disl. motion easier. + + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions for slip. + + + + + + + +
electron cloud ion cores
Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding
+ - + - + - +
Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):
– Motion hard. - + - + - + -
– Need to avoid ++ and - - neighbors. + - + - + - +
Hence, slip is more difficult on a low atomic
density plane (or direction) than on a high
atomic density plane (or direction). 3
MEN 200 Science of materials
Dislocation Motion
Dislocations and plastic deformation
Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by plastic shear or slip where one
plane of atoms slides over adjacent planes by defect motion (dislocations).
The extra half plane moves by discrete steps to the right by successive and repeated
breaking of bonds.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Caterpillar Analogy
Slip : is the process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion.
Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
The dislocation motion is similar to a caterpillar locomotion mode.
– It forms a hump near its posterior end by pulling
its last pair of legs a unit distance.
– The hump is propelled forward by repeated
lifting and shifting of leg pairs.
– When the hump reaches the front end, the entire caterpillar
has moved forward by a leg separation
Analogy between caterpillar and dislocation motion
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Dislocation Density
Expressed as
– The total dislocation length per unit volume
or
– The number of dislocations that intersect a unit
area of a random section.
Range
– From 103 mm-2 (carefully solidified metal crystals)
– To 109-1010 mm-2 (heavily deformed metals)
– Heat treatment reduces the dislocation density
to the order of 105 106 mm-2
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
• Dislocations do not move with the same degree of ease on all crystallographic
planes of atoms and in all directions
• IT DEPENDS on the crystal structure of the metal and is such that the atomic
distortion that accompanies the motion of a dislocation is a minimum
• Slip system is composed of a slip plane & slip direction
• Slip plane: plane allowing easiest slippage - highest planar densities
• Slip direction: direction of movement - Highest linear densities
• Metals with large number of slip systems are quite DUCTILE because plastic
deformation is normally possible along these systems.
• Metals with few slip systems are normally brittle.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Deformation Mechanisms
Example: Slip system
FCC Slip:
{111} planes (close-packed)
<110> directions (close-packed)
→ total of 12 slip systems in FCC
Possible slip systems for BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structures
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip In Single Crystals F
A
Dislocations move in response to shear stresses
IF an applied stress is in pure tensile or pure
compression, shear components exist at all but
parallel or perpendicular alignments to the stress
Resolved shear stresses : R cos cos
• A metal single crystal has a number of different slip
systems that are capable of operating
The resolved shear stress differs for each slip system.
Slip commences on the plane where resolved shear
stress reaches some critical value. Geometrical relationships used in
calculating the resolved shear stress
Critical resolved shear stress : crss
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip In Single Crystals F
A
The single crystal plastically deforms or yields when
R max crss
The magnitude of the applied stress required to
initiate yielding is
crss
cos cos max
The minimum stress necessary to introduce
yielding occurs when a single crystal is oriented
such that
Geometrical relationships used in
calculating the resolved shear stress
45o 2 crss
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip In Single Crystals
Macroscopic slip
in a single crystal
Slip in zinc single crystal
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening Mechanisms
– The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of
dislocations to move.
– Strengthening materials can be achieved by reducing the mobility of
the dislocations (greater mechanical forces are required to initiate
plastic deformation)
– The more unconstrained the dislocation motion, the greater is the
facility with which a metal may deform and the softer and weaker it
becomes
– Restricting the dislocation motion renders a material harder and
stronger
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening Mechanisms
– Strengthening by grain size reduction:
Reducing the grain size in order to block dislocations translation
– Solid solution strengthening:
Alloying with impurity atoms will generate stress that will oppose
dislocation motion
– Strain hardening:
Deforming the metal at a temperature lower than its melting
temperature Tm (cold work) increases its strength.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by grain size reduction
Grain boundaries are barriers to slip
When they reach a grain boundary, dislocations stop moving
– Since the grains orientations are different, a dislocation passing through a
boundary should change direction.
– The higher the misorientation the more difficult it becomes for a dislocation
to pass through boundaries
– The atomic disorder within a grain boundary will result in a discontinuity of
slip planes from one plane into the other
– For high angle boundaries, dislocations might
pile up at the boundary which will introduce
stress concentrations that will generate new
dislocations in adjacent grains
Strengthening:
Increase barriers to slip, reduce the grain size Motion of a dislocation as
it encounters a grain boundary
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by grain size reduction
Yield strength varies with grain size
The Hall-Petch equation
1
y 0 kyd 2
σy is the yield strength
σ0 and ky are constants for a particular material
d is the average grain diameter
The influence of grain size on the
yield strength of a Cu-Zn alloy
Grain size regulation:
By the rate of solidification from the liquid phase
Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat treatment
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Solid Solution
– Impurity atoms distort the lattice and generate stress.
– Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional impurity Larger substitutional impurity
Impurity generates local stress that opposes dislocation motion
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Solid Solution
Variation of the yield strength and tensile stress of a Copper-Nickel alloy
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Yield strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
400
120
300
200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)
Impurity atoms tend to diffuse around dislocations in a way to reduce the
overall stain energy - reduce mobility of dislocation - increase strength
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Strain hardening
Strain hardening: deforming the metal at a temperature lower than its
melting temperature. (Cold work)
Before strain hardening:
yield strength is y 0
Stress strain diagram showing increase
in yield strength after deformation
After strain hardening :
yield strength is yi
yi y 0
The dislocation density in a metal INCREASES due to cold work
The average distance of separation between dislocations decreases.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Strain hardening
Room temperature deformation.
Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:
-Forging force
-Rolling
die roll
Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
roll
force
-Drawing -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
tensile force
Ao ram billet extrusion A d
force
die container die
The % of cold work Ao Ad
%CW is defined as
%CW 100
Ao
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Strain hardening
Change in yield and tensile strength due to strain hardening
for 1040 steel, brass and copper
The increase in yield strength for The increase in tensile strength for
1040 steel, brass, and copper 1040 steel, brass, and copper
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Strain hardening
The price for strengthening (tensile strength) is in the ductility of the metal
The decrease in ductility due to strain hardening for The influence of cold work on the stress
1040 steel, brass, and copper strain behavior of a low-carbon steel
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening by Strain hardening
Example: What is the tensile strength & ductility after cold working?
Copper
r r
2 2
%CW o d
100 35.6% Cold
ro2 Work
Do =15.2mm Dd =12.2mm
yield strength tensile strength ductility (%EL)
60
700 (MPa) 800 (MPa)
500 600 40
300MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu
100 7%
0 20 40 60 200 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
s y = 300MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Effect of Temperature
Properties change
Cold work Heat treatment
Initial Properties
• Obstacles to Dislocation motion harden metals, BUT high temperatures can
help to overcome these obstacles and thus soften the metals.
• An example of this concept is the Annealing process: A stress-relieving heat
treatment.
Mechanism of Annealing
• At sufficiently high temperatures, atomic diffusion is sufficiently great to allow
highly stressed crystal grains produced by cold working to be restructured into
more nearly perfect crystalline structures.
• The Dislocation Density is dramatically REDUCED with increasing
temperature, which allows the relatively simple deformation mechanism to
occur free of the “Forest of Dislocations”. 23
MEN 200 Science of materials
Effect of Heating After Cold work
Properties change
Cold work Heat treatment
Initial Properties
– Recovery
Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of
dislocation motion
– Recrystallization:
Formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains
(equiaxed: having approximately equal dimensions ) (Grains are formed that:
Have a small dislocation density and are strain free, they Start as small nuclei
and grow until they consume the cold-worked grains
– Grain growth
Grains grow in size if the metal specimen is left at an elevated
temperature
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Recrystallization
Recrystallization temperature:
is the temperature at which recrystallization reaches completion in 1 hour
Typically it is between ⅓ and ½ of the melting temperature of the material
It depends on the purity of the material and the amount of prior cold work
Recrystallization temperature
The minimum temperature in the
% CW versus temperature plot
(literature )
Critical deformation
Critical degree of cold work below which
recrystallization cannot be made
The variation of recrystallization temperature
with % cold work for Iron
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Grain boundary area is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
After 8 s, After 15 min,
580ºC 580ºC
Empirical relation:
variation of the grain diameter d with time t
d0 is the initial diameter at t=0
d n d0n Kt
K and n are constants (n≥2)
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.13:
A single crystal of zinc is oriented for a tensile test such that its slip plane
normal makes an angle 65o with the tensile axis. Three possible slip
directions make angles of 30o, 48o, and 78o with the same tensile axis.
a – Which of these three slip directions is most favored ?
b – If plastic deformation begins at a tensile stress of 2.5 Mpa (355 psi),
determine the critical resolved shear stress for zinc.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.13:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.13:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.16:
a – A single crystal of a metal that has the BCC crystal structure oriented
such that a tensile stress is applied in the [100] direction. If the magnitude
of this stress is 4.0 MPa, compute the resolved shear stress in the
[1 1 1] direction on each of the 110 , 011 , and 10 1 planes.
b – On the basis of these resolved shear stress values, which slip system(s)
is (are) most favorably oriented?
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.16:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Slip in Single Crystals
Problem 7.16:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening By Grain Size Reduction
Problem 7.21:
Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC
metals.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening By Grain Size Reduction
Problem 7.23:
a – From the plot of yield strength versus (grain diameter)-½ for 70 Cu-30 Zn
cartridge brass, Figure 7.15, determine values for the constants σ0 and ky in
Equation 7.7 .
b – Now predict the yield strength of this alloy when the average grain
diameter is 2.0 × 10-3 mm.
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening By Grain Size Reduction
Problem 7.23:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strengthening By Grain Size Reduction
Problem 7.23:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strain Hardening
Problem 7.28:
Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be
strain hardened by reducing their cross-sectional areas (while maintaining
their circular cross sections). For one specimen, the initial and deformed
radii are 15 mm and 12 mm, respectively. The second specimen, with an
initial radius of 11 mm, must have the same deformed hardness as the first
specimen; compute the second specimen’s radius after deformation
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strain Hardening
Problem 7.28:
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MEN 200 Science of materials
Strain Hardening
Problem 7.28:
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MEN 200 Science of materials