Optics: A Complete Guide

Refractive Index • Snell's Law • Critical Angle • Total Internal Reflection

Step-by-step theory, worked examples & real-world applications

1. Refractive Index (n)

When light travels from one medium to another, it changes speed. The refractive index (symbol n) of a
medium quantifies how much slower light travels in that medium compared to its speed in a vacuum. It is a
dimensionless, positive number always ≥ 1 for real materials.

n=c/v

where c = 3.00 × 108 m/s (speed of light in vacuum) and v = speed of light in the medium.

Common Refractive Indices

Medium Refractive Index (n) Speed of Light (m/s)

Vacuum 1.000 3.00 × 10■

Air (at STP) 1.0003 ≈ 3.00 × 10■

Water (20 °C) 1.333 2.25 × 10■

Crown glass 1.52 1.97 × 10■

Dense flint glass 1.70 1.76 × 10■

Diamond 2.42 1.24 × 10■

✏ Example 1 – Finding refractive index

Problem: Light travels at 2.25 × 108 m/s inside water. Find the refractive index of water.
Step 1 – Write the formula: n = c / v
Step 2 – Substitute values: n = (3.00 × 108) / (2.25 × 108)
Step 3 – Calculate: n = 1.33
Conclusion: The refractive index of water is 1.33, meaning light travels 1.33× slower in water than in a
vacuum.
2. Snell's Law
Snell's Law (also called the Law of Refraction) precisely describes the change in direction of light as it
crosses the boundary between two media with different refractive indices. It was first accurately described
by Willebrord Snellius in 1621.

n■ sin(θ■) = n■ sin(θ■)

where n■ and n■ are the refractive indices of the first and second medium, and θ■ (angle of incidence)
and θ■ (angle of refraction) are both measured from the normal (the line perpendicular to the interface).

Medium 1 (n■ = 1.0 Air)

— Incident ray

— Refracted ray

-- Reflected ray

-- Normal

θ1

θ2

Medium 2 (n■ = 1.5 Glass)

Figure 1 – Light ray travelling from air (n■ = 1.0) into glass (n■ = 1.5). Because n■ > n■ the refracted ray bends toward the normal.

Key Observations from Snell's Law

• If n■ > n■ (light enters denser medium): θ■ < θ■ — ray bends toward the normal.
• If n■ < n■ (light enters less-dense medium): θ■ > θ■ — ray bends away from the normal.
• If θ■ = 0° (normal incidence): the ray passes straight through without bending.
• The incident ray, normal, and refracted ray are always coplanar.

Step-by-Step Method for Snell's Law Problems

1 Identify the two media and their refractive indices n■ and n■.

2 Determine the angle of incidence θ■ (always measured from the normal, not the surface).
3 Write Snell's Law: n■ sin(θ■) = n■ sin(θ■)

4 Rearrange for the unknown: sin(θ■) = (n■ / n■) × sin(θ■)

5 Take the inverse sine: θ■ = arcsin[(n■ / n■) × sin(θ■)]

6 State whether the ray bends toward or away from the normal.

✏ Example 2 – Air → Glass refraction

Problem: A ray hits a glass surface (n = 1.52) from air (n = 1.00) at an angle of incidence of 45°. Find the
angle of refraction.
Step 1: n■ = 1.00 (air), n■ = 1.52 (glass), θ■ = 45°
Step 2: sin(θ■) = (1.00 / 1.52) × sin(45°) = 0.6579 × 0.7071 = 0.4652
Step 3: θ■ = arcsin(0.4652) ≈ 27.7°
Conclusion: The ray bends toward the normal (27.7° < 45°) because it enters a denser medium.

✏ Example 3 – Water → Air refraction

Problem: A ray travels from water (n = 1.33) to air (n = 1.00) at 30°. Find the angle of refraction.
Step 1: n■ = 1.33, n■ = 1.00, θ■ = 30°
Step 2: sin(θ■) = (1.33 / 1.00) × sin(30°) = 1.33 × 0.500 = 0.665
Step 3: θ■ = arcsin(0.665) ≈ 41.7°
Conclusion: The ray bends away from the normal (41.7° > 30°) because it exits to a less-dense medium.
3. The Critical Angle
The critical angle (θc) is defined only when light travels from a denser medium into a less-dense medium
(n■ > n■). It is the specific angle of incidence at which the refracted ray travels exactly along the interface
(angle of refraction = 90°). Beyond this angle, no refraction occurs — instead, all light is reflected back
into the original medium.

Deriving the Critical Angle Formula

Start with Snell's Law and set θ■ = 90° (refracted ray grazes the surface):

n■ sin(θc) = n■ sin(90°) = n■

sin(θc) = n■ / n■

θc = arcsin(n■ / n■)

This formula is only valid when n■ > n■. If n■ ≤ n■, no critical angle exists and total internal reflection
cannot occur.

Below Critical Angle At Critical Angle Total Internal

Reflection

Figure 2 – Left: θ < θc (partial refraction + partial reflection). Centre: θ = θc (refracted ray grazes the surface). Right: θ > θc (Total
Internal Reflection — all light reflected).
✏ Example 4 – Critical angle for glass–air
Problem: Find the critical angle for light travelling from crown glass (n = 1.52) into air (n = 1.00).
Step 1: sin(θc) = n■ / n■ = 1.00 / 1.52 = 0.6579
Step 2: θc = arcsin(0.6579) ≈ 41.1°
Conclusion: Any ray hitting the glass–air surface at an angle > 41.1° will undergo Total Internal
Reflection.

✏ Example 5 – Critical angle for diamond–air

Problem: Find the critical angle for diamond (n = 2.42) in air.
Step 1: sin(θc) = 1.00 / 2.42 = 0.4132
Step 2: θc = arcsin(0.4132) ≈ 24.4°
Conclusion: Diamond has a very small critical angle, meaning TIR occurs readily — this is why
diamonds sparkle so brilliantly!

■ Tip: A higher refractive index of the denser medium → smaller critical angle → TIR is easier to achieve. This is why
diamond (n = 2.42) sparkles far more than glass (n = 1.52).
4. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
Total Internal Reflection occurs when both conditions are satisfied:

• Light is travelling from a denser to a less-dense medium (n■ > n■).

• The angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle (θ■ > θc).

■ Key Fact: During TIR, 100% of the light energy is reflected back into the denser medium. There is no
refracted ray and no energy loss — making TIR extremely useful in engineering.

Real-World Applications of TIR

Optical Fibres
Glass or plastic fibres with n ≈ 1.5 carry light signals over thousands of kilometres with minimal loss. TIR
keeps the light bouncing along the core without escaping into the cladding (lower n). Used in internet
cables and medical endoscopes.

Diamond Brilliance
Diamonds are cut so that most light entering from the top undergoes TIR off the internal facets and exits
back upward — creating the characteristic sparkle (brilliance).

Periscopes & Binoculars

45° glass prisms replace mirrors in quality optics. At 45° > θc ≈ 41°, TIR gives a nearly perfect, lossless
reflection.

Medical Endoscopes
Flexible bundles of optical fibres guide light into and images out of the human body, allowing surgeons to
see inside without large incisions.

Retroreflectors
Road signs and bicycle reflectors use TIR in corner-cube prisms to return light back toward its source
regardless of angle.
5. Summary & Quick Reference
Concept Formula Key Points

Refractive Index n=c/v Always ≥ 1; higher n = slower light

Snell's Law n■ sin(θ■) = n■ sin(θ■) Angles from normal; determines bending direction

Critical Angle θc = arcsin(n■ / n■) Only when n■ > n■; θ■ = 90° at θc

TIR Condition θ■ > θc AND n■ > n■ 100% reflection; no refracted ray

Critical Angle Values for Common Interfaces

Interface n■ (denser) n■ (less dense) Critical Angle θc

Crown glass → Air 1.52 1.00 41.1°

Dense flint glass → Air 1.70 1.00 36.0°

Water → Air 1.33 1.00 48.8°

Diamond → Air 2.42 1.00 24.4°

Glass → Water 1.52 1.33 61.0°

✏ Example 6 – Full worked problem (combining all concepts)

Problem: A ray of light in water (n = 1.33) hits the water–air surface at 60°. Determine whether TIR
occurs. If not, find the angle of refraction.

Part A – Find the critical angle for water–air:

sin(θc) = n■ / n■ = 1.00 / 1.33 = 0.7519 → θc = arcsin(0.7519) ≈ 48.8°

Part B – Compare with angle of incidence:

θ■ = 60° > θc = 48.8° → Total Internal Reflection DOES occur.
No refracted ray exits the water; all light reflects back at 60°.

Bonus – What if θ■ = 30°?

30° < 48.8° → No TIR. Use Snell's Law:
sin(θ■) = (1.33 / 1.00) × sin(30°) = 1.33 × 0.500 = 0.665 → θ■ ≈ 41.7°

■ Remember the decision flowchart: (1) Is n■ > n■? If NO → only refraction possible. If YES → find θc. (2) Is θ■ >
θc? If YES → TIR. If NO → use Snell's Law for θ■.