Microprocessor
CONTENTS
History Historical Context
Main Components (Inside a Microprocessor) Key Terms
Measurement and Examples
History
History
Intel : First -bit Intel : -bit processor (used in Intel : Very popular -bit
microprocessor (used in microcomputers). processor (used in teaching).
calculators).
Today
Intel : -bit processor (start of modern PCs). -bit & -bit processors (Intel Core i /i /i , AMD
Ryzen, Apple M-series).
Historical Context
Historical Context
Early microprocessors like the Intel ( ) had clock speeds of ‒
MHz.
Modern CPUs (e.g., Intel Core i - K or AMD Ryzen X) have base
clock speeds of ‒ GHz.
Main Components (Inside a Microprocessor)
ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
Performs arithmetic operations: add, subtract, Performs logic operations: AND, OR, NOT, comparison.
multiply, divide.
Control Unit (CU)
Directs and controls all operations. Decides which instruction runs at what time.
Registers
Very small, high-speed memory inside the CPU. Used to store temporary data and instructions.
System Clock
Provides timing signals (pulses) to synchronize operations.
Buses
Data Bus
carries data.
Address Bus
carries address of memory.
Control Bus
carries control signals.
Cache Memory
High-speed memory located on or near the microprocessor to store frequently accessed data or instructions. It reduces the
time needed to fetch data from main memory (RAM).
Key Terms
System Clock
The electronic timing device in a computer that produces a steady stream of
pulses (ticks). These pulses coordinate all components, so the CPU and other
parts work in sync.
Clock Speed (Clock Rate)
The number of pulses (ticks) the CPU clock generates per second, usually
measured in Hertz (Hz), Megahertz (MHz), or Gigahertz (GHz).
Clock Cycle
One single tick/pulse of the clock — the smallest unit of time in CPU operations. In each cycle, the CPU may fetch, decode, or
execute a very small step of an instruction.
Clock Rate vs Clock Cycle:
Clock Cycle Clock Speed/Rate
one pulse → like one heartbeat. how many pulses happen in a second → like your heart
rate (beats per minute).
Measurement and Examples
Units
MHz = million cycles per second.
GHz = billion cycles per second.
Example
A GHz processor can theoretically perform billion cycles per second. If an instruction takes cycles to complete, the
CPU could execute billion such instructions per second (assuming no bottlenecks).
Word Length
Word length is the number of bits a microprocessor can process at a time in one operation.
Examples:
An -bit processor can handle bits ( byte) in one go. A -bit processor can handle bits ( bytes).
A -bit processor can handle bits. A -bit processor can handle bits.
Instruction Set
An instruction set is the collection of instructions (commands) that a microprocessor can understand and execute.
Instructions tell the CPU what operation to perform on the data.
Types of Instructions
Data Transfer Instructions Arithmetic Instructions Logical Instructions
• Move data from one place to another. • Perform calculations. • Perform logical operations.
• Example: MOV A, B (copy data from B • Example: ADD A, B (A = A + B). • Example: AND, OR, NOT.
to A).
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