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BIOLOGY PEARSON ED EXCEL NOTES

UNIT 1: ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES
CHAPTER 1: LIFE PROCESSES
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO UNICELLULAR AND
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES
MAIN OBJECTIVES

1.1 understand that living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition,
they respire, they excrete their waste, they respond to their surroundings, they move, they
control their internal conditions, they reproduce, they grow and develop.

2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and
systems (focusing on cells and organisms).

SUB OBJECTIVE:

To describe the fundamental units of life, explain the differences between single-celled and
multi-celled organisms, and fully detail the eight characteristics that define all living things.

1.1 THE CELL: THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

A. Definition
1. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
2. All living things, from the smallest bacteria to the largest blue whale, are made
up of these tiny, self-contained units called cells.
B. The Cell Theory
1. The Cell Theory is one of the foundational principles of modern biology.
2. It states three main ideas:
a) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b) The cell is the basic unit of structure and organisation in organisms.
c) Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

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C. Organisms are Classified by Cell Number

1. Living things (organisms) are broadly classified into two groups based on the
number of cells they contain: unicellular and multicellular.

1.2 UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

A. Unicellular Organisms
1. Definition:
These are organisms made up of just a single cell.
2. Structure and Function:
a) The single cell must perform all the necessary life processes (nutrition,
respiration, excretion, etc.) on its own.
b) Examples include:
i. Amoeba iii. Chlamydomonas
ii. Paramecium iv. Bacteria

Diagram 1.1 showing examples of unicellular organisms

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B. Multicellular Organisms
1. Definition:
These are organisms composed of many (millions or billions) of cells.
2. Structure and Function:
a) In complex organisms like humans, trees, and insects, the cells cannot all
perform every function. Instead, they become specialised.
b) Specialization means different cells develop specific structures to perform
specific roles (e.g., muscle cells for movement, nerve cells for communication).
c) This specialisation allows multicellular organisms to achieve a higher level of
organisation:
i. Cells group together to form tissues (e.g., muscle cells form muscle
tissue).
ii. Tissues group together to form organs (e.g., muscle tissue, nerve tissue,
and connective tissue form the heart).
iii. Organs work together to form organ systems (e.g., the heart, blood
vessels, and blood form the circulatory system).
d) Examples include:
i. All animals
ii. All large plants (trees, flowers)
iii. Fungi

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS (LIFE PROCESSES)

All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, carry out a set of basic activities known as life
processes. These eight processes collectively define life and can be remembered using the mnemonic
MRS GRENI (or similar variations).

1. Movement (M)

a) Definition:

An action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

b) Examples:

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i. Animals: Often show rapid movement using muscles, such as running, flying, or
swimming, to find food or escape predators.
ii. Plants: Show slower, less obvious movements, usually growth movements towards
or away from a stimulus (like growing roots towards water or stems towards light).
iii. Unicellular Organisms: May move using whip-like tails (flagella) or hair-like
structures (cilia).
2. Respiration (R)
a) Definition:
The chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules (like glucose) in living cells
to release energy. This energy is essential for all other life processes.
b) Respiration is often confused with breathing, but it is a process that happens inside
every cell.
c) The energy released is stored in a molecule called ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), which
acts as the cell's main energy currency.
d) There are two main types: Aerobic (uses oxygen) and Anaerobic (without oxygen).
3. Sensitivity (S)
a) Definition:
The ability to detect or sense changes in the external or internal environment and to
make appropriate responses.
b) Stimuli and Response: The change that is detected is called a stimulus (plural: stimuli).
The resulting action is the response.
c) Examples:
i. Animals: Respond quickly to stimuli like light, sound, touch, and temperature
using organs like eyes and ears.
ii. Plants: Respond slowly to stimuli like light (phototropism) and gravity
(geotropism).
4. Growth and Development (G)
a) Definition:
A permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number, cell size, or
both.
b) Growth: Primarily the increase in physical size.
c) Development:
The process of becoming more complex and changing in form, such as a caterpillar
turning into a butterfly (metamorphosis) or a seed germinating into a seedling.

5. Reproduction (R)
a) Definition:

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The process that makes new individuals of the same species. It is vital for the survival of
the species, though not the individual organism.
b) Types:
i. Asexual Reproduction: Involves only one parent and produces genetically
identical offspring (clones). Common in bacteria and many simple organisms.
ii. Sexual Reproduction: Involves two parents (usually) and results in offspring that
are genetically different from the parents. Common in most animals and plants.
6. Excretion (E)
a) Definition:
The removal of waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in the body) and
toxic materials from an organism.
b) Waste Products: These are substances produced by the cells that are not needed and
could be harmful if allowed to build up.
c) Examples:
i. Carbon Dioxide: A waste product of respiration that must be exhaled by animals
or released by plant cells.
ii. Urea: A toxic nitrogenous waste product formed from the breakdown of excess
protein in the liver; it is excreted in urine.
7. Nutrition (N)
a) Definition: The process of taking in materials for energy, growth, and development.
b) Types of Nutrition:
i. Autotrophic Nutrition (Self-feeding): Organisms (like plants and algae) produce
their own food, usually through the process of photosynthesis, using simple
substances like carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.
ii. Heterotrophic Nutrition (Other-feeding): Organisms (like animals and fungi)
consume other organisms or organic matter to get the complex molecules they
need.

8. Control of Internal Conditions (Homeostasis) (I - included as part of the full list)

a) Definition: The process of maintaining a stable internal environment (such as a steady

body temperature or constant blood sugar level) despite changes in the external
environment.

b) Importance: Cells require very specific conditions (temperature, water potential, pH) to
function correctly. If these conditions change too much, essential processes like enzyme
action can stop.

c) Example: In mammals, maintaining a constant body temperature (around 37°C) is a key

example of homeostasis.

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Homework Questions

1. List the three main ideas that make up the Cell Theory. (3)

2. Define the terms 'unicellular' and 'multicellular' and give one example of an organism for each.
(4)

3. Explain, using specific examples for both plants and animals, how the characteristic of
Movement differs between the two groups of organisms. (4)

4. Why is Respiration considered the most essential life process, and what is the energy molecule
it produces? (3)

5. A fish swims away when a shadow passes over its tank. (a) Which life process is the fish
demonstrating? (1) (b) In this scenario, what is the stimulus and what is the response? (2)

6. Name one other life process that the fish must carry out to stay alive. (1) (Total: 18 Marks)

LESSON 2: MICROSCOPY AND CELL STRUCTURE

MAIN OBJECTIVES

2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole

2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells.

SUBOBJECTIVE:

Understand how microscopes are used to view the detailed structures (organelles) inside plant and
animal cells.

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2.1 MICROSCOPY: MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTION

A. The Need for Microscopes
1. All living things are made up of tiny units called cells.
2. Most cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
3. To study the intricate details of cell structure, we need specialized tools called
microscopes.
B. The Light Microscope (LM)
1. The Light Microscope (also called a Compound Microscope) is the most common type
used in school laboratories.
2. It works by passing a beam of light through a specimen (the object being viewed).
3. Lenses then focus this light to magnify the image.
4. A light microscope can magnify objects up to about × 1500 times their original size.
5. The structures visible are generally the larger ones
6. Details of smaller structures cannot be seen.
C. The Electron Microscope (EM)
1. The Electron Microscope was developed much later and uses a beam of electrons
instead of light to 'see' the specimen.
2. Because electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light, they allow for much
greater detail and magnification.
3. An electron microscope can magnify objects up to × 2,000,000 times or more.
4. This high magnification and detail allow us to see the tiny structures inside the cell
D. Magnification and Formula
1. Definition:
a) Magnification is how many times larger the image appears compared to the
object's actual size.
b) It tells you how much the object has been enlarged.

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2. The Formula
a) The relationship between the actual size of a specimen, the size of its image
under the microscope, and the magnification used is given by the formula,
often called the Magnification Triangle:

b) This formula can be rearranged to find any of the three values:

c) Crucial Note: When using this formula, the units for Image Size and Actual
Size must be the same (e.g., both in micrometres or both in millimetres).
d) Example Calculation:

A drawing of a cell measures across. The actual size of the cell is 0.025mm.
Calculate the magnification.

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =× 1000

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E. Resolution
1. Definition
a) Resolution (or resolving power) is the ability to distinguish between two
points that are very close together as separate objects.
b) A microscope with high resolution produces a clear and sharp image with
visible detail.
2. The Difference Between Light Microscope and Electron Microscope:
a) Light microscopes have a maximum resolution of about 200 nanometres (nm).
b) This means anything smaller than 200 nm will look blurry or like a single point.
c) Electron microscopes can resolve structures less than 1nm apart.
d) This massive difference in resolving power is the key reason why the electron
microscope is essential for studying very tiny organelles in cells.
F. Units of Measurement in Microscopy
1. Because cells and organelles are so small, we use specialized units for measurement.
2. Conversions
a) The basic unit is the metre (m).

1
1 millimetre (mm) = metre (m) = 10−3 metre(m)
1000
1
1 micrometre (μm) = millimetre(mm) = 10−3 millimetre(mm)
1000
1
1 nanometre (nm) = micrometre (μm) = 10−3 micrometre(μm)
1000

3. Examples:
i. A cell image is 32 mm wide, magnification = ×100.
Actual size = 32 ÷ 100 = 0.32 mm = 320 µm.
ii. A cell image is 54 mm wide, magnification = ×500.
Actual size = 54 ÷ 500 = 0.108 mm = 108 µm.

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2.2 THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL CELL

A. What is a Cell?
1. A cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
2. While there is no single 'typical' cell, general diagrams are used to show the most
common features found across many cell types.

Diagram 2.1 showing the structure of a 'typical' animal and plant cell.

B. Cytoplasm
1. Description:
a) The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell and is contained
within the cell membrane.
b) It is not a uniform fluid but is a complex mixture of water, salts, and dissolved
nutrients.
c) It has a slightly sloppy or viscous texture, placing it between a liquid and a
solid.
2. Importance:
The cytoplasm is the location where most of the cell's important chemical reactions
take place, controlled by enzymes.

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C. Organelles
1. Definition
a) Organelles are the tiny structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific
jobs necessary for the cell to live. The word literally means "little organs."
2. Visibility
a) Many organelles are so small that they can only be seen clearly using an
electron microscope, which has the necessary high resolution and
magnification.

2.3 KEY ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Diagram 2.2 showing the structure of a 'typical' animal cell as viewed using electron
microscope.

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Here is a detailed look at the key structures found in most living cells:

1. The Nucleus

(a) Structure and Function

i. The nucleus is typically the largest organelle in the cell and serves as the control
centre, regulating all major cellular functions such as growth, metabolism, cell
division, and protein synthesis.
ii. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane (or
nuclear envelope), which contains pores that control the movement of substances in
and out of the nucleus.
iii. Inside the nucleus is chromatin—this is DNA loosely coiled around proteins. When the
cell gets ready to divide, the chromatin condenses into visible thread-like structures
called chromosomes.
iv. Within the nucleus is a darker region called the nucleolus. The nucleolus is responsible
for producing RNA used to make ribosomes and proteins.
v. Cells involved in essential life processes—such as muscle and nerve cells—contain a
functioning nucleus. Cells without a nucleus (like mature red blood cells) either are not
capable of division or have a short lifespan.

(b) Chromosomes, Chromatin, and Genes

i. Chromatin refers to the uncondensed DNA-protein complex found in the nucleus

during normal cellular activity.
ii. When the cell prepares to divide, this chromatin coils tightly to form chromosomes,
which ensure accurate distribution of genetic information to daughter cells.
iii. Chromosomes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which contains genetic
information. In humans, there are 46 chromosomes.
iv. DNA is organized into segments called genes. Each gene carries coded instructions for
producing specific proteins needed for the cell’s structure, function, and regulation.

2. Cell Membrane

(a) Function and Structure

i. The cell membrane (or cell surface membrane) is a thin layer that completely
surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell.
ii. It separates the contents of the cell from the outside environment.

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(b) Permeability

i. The cell membrane is not a solid barrier; it has tiny pores and
components that control what passes through. It is described as
selectively permeable (or partially permeable).
ii. Selectively permeable means that it allows some substances (like water,
oxygen, and glucose) to pass through, but stops others (like large protein
molecules) from entering or leaving, allowing the cell to control its
internal environment.

3. Mitochondria

(a) Function

i. The mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is the site where the main

reactions of aerobic respiration take place.
ii. Respiration is the process that releases energy from food (like glucose).

(b) Energy Release

i. The energy released by the mitochondria is captured in a molecule

called ATP, which the cell uses to power all its activities (such as
movement, growth, and building new molecules).

(c) Concentration

i. Cells that require a lot of energy, such as active muscle cells or sperm
cells, contain hundreds of mitochondria to meet their high energy
demand.

4. Ribosomes

(a) Function

i. Ribosomes are tiny structures where protein synthesis takes place. This
is where the instructions carried by the genes (from the nucleus) are
used to assemble amino acids into specific proteins (like enzymes).

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(b) Size

ii. Ribosomes are extremely small (about 25 nm in diameter).

Consequently, they are not visible under a light microscope and can only
be clearly viewed using an electron microscope.
iii. They are found either floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to a
network of membranes called the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

2.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPICAL PLANT AND ANIMAL

CELLS

Diagram 2.3 showing the structure of a 'typical' plant cell as viewed using electron
microscope.

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All cells share the fundamental structures (nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria,
ribosomes). However, plant and animal cells have key structural differences that relate to their
specific functions.

1. Structures Found in Both (Common Structures)

a) Nucleus
b) Cytoplasm
c) Cell Membrane
d) Mitochondria
e) Ribosomes

2. Structures Only in a Typical Plant Cell

(a) Cell Wall

(i) Location and Composition: The cell wall is a rigid, non-living layer found outside the
cell membrane. It is primarily made of a tough carbohydrate called cellulose.

(ii) Function: The rigid structure of the cell wall provides mechanical support, helping
the plant cell keep a fixed, regular shape.

(iii) Permeability: Unlike the cell membrane, the cell wall is freely permeable (or fully
permeable). This means water and dissolved substances can pass through it easily
without being controlled.

(b) Permanent Vacuole

(i) Description: Mature plant cells usually contain a large, central, membrane-bound
sac called the permanent vacuole.

(ii) Contents: It is filled with a watery solution called cell sap, which is a store of
dissolved substances like sugars, mineral ions, and salts.

(iii) Support: The vacuole absorbs water, creating an internal pressure (called turgor
pressure) that pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall, making the cell firm. This
provides essential support for the plant body. Animal cells may have very small,
temporary vacuoles, but never a large permanent one.

(c) Chloroplasts

(i) Description: Chloroplasts are organelles found in the cells of the green parts of
plants (mainly the leaves).

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(ii) Pigment: They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.

(iii) Function: Chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which is used to make food (glucose)
through the process of photosynthesis. Cells in non-green parts of the plant, such as
roots or flowers, do not have chloroplasts.

3. Centrioles
a) They are only found in animal cells
b) Description: They are small, barrel-shaped organelles usually found near the
nucleus in animal cells.
c) Function: Their primary role is in cell division (mitosis and meiosis), helping to
organize the cell's internal structure when it divides. Plant cells do not have
centrioles.
4. Summary of Similarities and Differences

Feature Typical Animal Cell Typical Plant Cell

Present (made of cellulose, freely
Cell Wall Absent
permeable)
Cell Present (selectively
Present (selectively permeable)
Membrane permeable)
Nucleus Present Present

Cytoplasm Present Present

Mitochondria Present Present
Ribosomes Present Present

Vacuole Small, temporary, or absent Large, central, and permanent

Present (in green parts for

Chloroplasts Absent
photosynthesis)

Shape Often irregular or variable Fixed, regular shape (due to cell wall)

Centrioles Present Absent

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2.5 OTHER EXCITING ORGANELLES

Even though you will not be tested in this section it is exciting to learn about these organelles
because they help you understand how cells function like tiny, efficient factories. Let’s break
them down clearly, both in structure and function, using simple classroom-friendly language:

A. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
a) Structure:
i. A network of membrane–bound tubes and sacs.
ii. Has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving it a “rough” appearance under the
microscope.
b) Function:
i. Produces proteins — particularly those that will be:
• secreted outside the cell
• inserted into the plasma membrane
• placed inside other organelles
ii. Acts like an assembly line for protein manufacturing.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
a) Structure:
i. Similar tube-like structure as RER but without ribosomes, making it look
smooth.
b) Function:
i. Produces fats (which are also known as lipids), and other important chemicals
such as phospholipids, and steroids
ii. Detoxifies harmful chemicals (especially in liver cells)
iii. Stores calcium ions (important in muscle contraction)
B. GOLGI APPARATUS (GOLGI BODIES / GOLGI COMPLEX)
1. Structure:
a) A stack of flattened membrane sacs (imagine a pile of pancakes).
b) Located near the endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Function:
a) Receives proteins and lipids from the ER
b) Modifies, sorts, and packages them into vesicles (vacuoles)
c) Directs them to their correct destinations

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C. LYSOSOMES
1. Structure:
a) Small, spherical membrane-bound sacs
b) Contain digestive enzymes (powerful chemicals for breaking down substances)
2. Function:
a) Digest (break apart):
i. unwanted molecules
ii. damaged organelles
iii. bacteria and viruses that enter the cell
b) Help in programmed cell death (apoptosis) — essential for development

2.6 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. A student observes an image of a cell under an electron microscope. The image measures 40
mm across. The actual width of the cell is 0.00002 m.

(a) Convert the actual width of the cell from metres (m) into micrometres (𝜇𝑚). (2)

(b) Calculate the magnification of the electron microscope image. (3)

(c) Explain why this cell image must have been taken using an electron microscope
rather than a light microscope. (2)

2. Describe the function of the following organelles:

(a) Nucleus (2)

(b) Mitochondria (2)

(c) Ribosomes (2)

3. The cell membrane and the cell wall are both outer layers of a plant cell, but they have
different properties.

(a) State the main substance that makes up the plant cell wall. (1)

(b) Distinguish between the terms freely permeable (used to describe the cell wall) and
selectively permeable (used to describe the cell membrane). (4)

4. Explain two structural features that are present in a leaf cell that allow it to perform its
function of photosynthesis, but which are absent in a typical cheek cell. (4)

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🔬 LESSON 3: OBSERVING PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

UNDER THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
This practical lesson focuses on preparing and viewing slides of plant and animal cells using a light
microscope. You will learn how to use the microscope effectively and identify the basic structures of
these cells.

MAIN OBJECTIVES

2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, ribosomes and vacuole.

2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells.

2.5B explain the importance of cell differentiation in the development of specialised cells.

SUB-OBJECTIVE

To develop the practical skills necessary to prepare temporary slides of onion epidermal cells and
human cheek cells and to accurately observe, draw, and label the cell structures seen under a light
microscope.

3.1 PRINCIPLES OF USING A LIGHT MICROSCOPE

The light microscope is a fundamental tool in biology that uses light and a system of lenses to magnify
specimens, allowing us to see details of cells and tissues.

1. Key Components of the Light Microscope

a) Eyepiece (Ocular Lens): The lens you look through. It usually has a magnification of × 10
b) Objective Lenses: A set of lenses (e.g., × 4, × 10 and × 40) mounted on a revolving nosepiece
that are placed close to the specimen.
c) Stage: The platform where the microscope slide is placed.
d) Light Source (Illuminator): Provides light that passes through the specimen.
e) Coarse Adjustment Knob: Used to focus the image under low magnification by moving the
stage up or down significantly.
f) Fine Adjustment Knob: Used to focus the image precisely under high magnification by moving
the stage up or down slightly.
g) Clip: Holds the slide in place on the stage.
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Diagram 3.1 showing a light microscope

2. Calculating Magnification

The Total Magnification achieved is the product of the eyepiece magnification and the objective lens
magnification.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑦𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example:

If the eyepiece is × 10 and the objective lens is × 40, the total magnification is 10 × 40 = × 400.

3.2 Preparing and Examining Temporary Slides

In this method, you will prepare temporary slides of onion epidermal cells (plant cell) and human
cheek cells (animal cell).

1. Examining Plant Cells (Onion Epidermal Cells)

The epidermal cells from an onion scale are a good example of plant cells because they are
transparent and easy to prepare. We use iodine solution as a stain to make the structures,
particularly the nucleus, more visible by adding contrast.

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(a) Safety Precautions:

Wear eye protection (safety goggles) to protect your eyes from chemicals like iodine.
(b) Preparing the Slide

i. Use tweezers to carefully peel off a thin, transparent layer (the epidermal tissue) from the
inner part of a fleshy onion scale. This tissue is typically only one cell thick.
ii. Place this piece of tissue flat onto the centre of a clean microscope slide, ensuring it doesn't
fold or wrinkle.
iii. Add one drop of iodine solution (a yellow-brown stain) onto the onion tissue.
iv. Carefully lower a cover slip onto the tissue at an angle of 45°, using a mounted needle or
pencil to support it, then slowly dropping it into place to prevent air bubbles from being
trapped. Air bubbles can be confused with cells.
(c) Observation and Drawing

Use the following steps:

i. Place the prepared slide on the stage and secure it with the clips.
ii. Start with the lowest power objective lens (e.g., X4). Rotate the nosepiece until it clicks into
position.
iii. Looking from the side, use the coarse adjustment knob to move the stage up until the
objective lens is very close to the slide, but without touching it.
iv. Look through the eyepiece and slowly turn the coarse adjustment knob to move the stage
downwards until the image comes into rough focus.
v. Use the fine adjustment knob to get a sharp, clear image.
vi. If you need to see more detail, move to a higher power objective lens (e.g., X10 or X40). Once
on a higher power, only use the fine adjustment knob for focusing. Never use the coarse
adjustment knob on high power, as it could damage the lens or the slide.
vii. Adjust the light source or diaphragm for the best contrast.
viii. At high power, you should clearly see brick-like cells with a distinct Cell wall and a visible
nucleus (stained dark brown/yellow) surrounded by cytoplasm. You should also see a large
permanent vacuole.
ix. Draw and label your observations.

2. Examining Animal Cells (Human Cheek Cells)

Cheek cells are flat, thin cells scraped from the inside lining of the mouth. They are examples of
animal cells. Methylene blue is used as a stain to make the pale, transparent structures more visible.

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(a) Safety Precautions

i. Wear eye protection. Methylene blue is an irritant.

ii. Use a freshly opened interdental stick or cotton swab to avoid contamination. Do not reuse
the stick.
iii. Dispose of the stick and slides safely in the designated solution
(b) Preparing the Slide

i. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek using the clean, soft tip of a new interdental stick. Do
not scrape hard.
ii. Smear the material collected onto the centre of a clean microscope slide in a small, circular
motion.
iii. Add one drop of methylene blue solution (a blue stain) to the smear.
iv. Carefully lower a cover slip onto the stained smear, following the same procedure as for the
onion slide.
v. Remove any excess stain by blotting gently with a piece of paper towel that touches the edge
of the cover slip.
(c) Observation and Drawing

i. Follow the steps for using the microscope similar to those used for observing the onion cells
ii. At high power, you should see irregularly shaped cells. They will have a clear, darker nucleus
and a thin, outer cell membrane. The space between the nucleus and the membrane is the
cytoplasm. You will not see a cell wall or chloroplasts, as they are animal cells.
iii. Draw and label your observations.

Diagram 3.2 showing onion epidermal cells as seen using a light microscope

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Diagram 3.3 showing human cheek cells as seen using a light microscope

3.3 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Safety First: Why is it important to wear eye protection when working with iodine solution and
methylene blue stain? (2)
2. Magnification: If a student uses an objective lens of X40 and an eyepiece of X10, what is the total
magnification of the image? Show your working. (2)
3. Procedure: Explain the purpose of each step when preparing a slide of onion epidermal cells:
o (a) Adding a drop of iodine solution. (2)

o (b) Lowering the cover slip at an angle. (2)

4. Comparison: State two structures present in the onion cell that were not observed in the cheek
cell. For one of these structures, explain its function in the plant cell. (4)
5. Specialisation: Human cheek cells are a type of epithelial cell. Briefly explain why it's important
for an organism to have specialised cells like nerve cells or muscle cells, rather than only having
generalised cells. (3)

[Total: 13 Marks]

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LESSON 4: INTRODUCTION TO ENZYMES AND LOCK AND KEY

MODEL
MAIN OBJECTIVE:

2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions

SUB-OBJECTIVE:

To describe the structure of an enzyme and explain the Lock and Key model of enzyme action,
highlighting enzyme specificity and the concept of activation energy.

4.1 METABOLISM AND THE NATURE OF ENZYMES

1. Understanding Metabolic Reactions
a) The vast number of complex and interconnected chemical reactions that occur
continuously inside a living cell are collectively known as metabolic reactions.
b) These reactions are vital for life and are categorised into two main types:
i. Catabolic reactions (Catabolism): These involve breaking down large, complex
molecules (like carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) into smaller, simpler ones.
This process usually releases energy. Example: Respiration.
ii. Anabolic reactions (Anabolism): These involve building up large, complex
molecules (like proteins, DNA, and new cell parts) from smaller, simpler ones.
This process usually requires energy to be put in. Example: Synthesizing
proteins.
c) These reactions, both building up and breaking down, are essential for maintaining life
within the cell.
d) The sum total of all the metabolic reactions taking place in a living organism is called its
metabolism.
e) All living processes, such as growth, tissue repair, cell division, movement, and the
active uptake of nutrients, depend entirely on the controlled and efficient chemical
reactions of this metabolism.
2. The Role of Enzymes
a) Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
[Link] are a special group of molecules, which are large proteins, that control the
speed of metabolic reactions. They are manufactured inside the cells.
[Link] act as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a chemical substance that speeds up
the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up itself in the overall reaction.
[Link] means that an enzyme takes part in the reaction, temporarily binding to the
starting molecules and changing them into products, but the enzyme molecule

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itself remains chemically unchanged and is free to immediately catalyse the same
reaction again.
b) Controlling Cell Activity
i. Cells contain hundreds, or even thousands, of different types of enzymes. Due
to their complex three-dimensional structure (as large proteins), each enzyme is
specifically designed to catalyse only one particular reaction.
ii. This specific control mechanism is directed by the cell’s nucleus, which contains
the genes. Genes are segments of DNA that contain the instructions (or code)
for building specific proteins, which are the enzymes.
iii. The general flow of control is:

Genes → Proteins (Enzymes) → Catalyse Reactions

iv. Every action and characteristic of a cell depends on which enzymes it is able to
produce.

c) Why are Enzymes Necessary? (Lowering Activation Energy)

i. The chemical reactions necessary for life, such as those in respiration or
digestion, would naturally happen far too slowly at the relatively low
temperatures found inside living organisms (e.g., human body temperature is
about 37°).
ii. The amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation
energy.
iii. At body temperature, there is not enough energy available to overcome the
activation energy barrier.
iv. Enzymes solve this problem by providing an alternative reaction pathway that
significantly lowers the activation energy needed for the reaction to start.
v. By lowering this energy barrier, the enzyme allows the vital metabolic processes
to happen quickly enough and efficiently enough to sustain life.

3. Types of Enzymes:
a) Intracellular vs. Extracellular
i. Intracellular Enzymes
• The majority of enzymes are intracellular, meaning they remain inside
the cell where they were made, carrying out their functions in the
cytoplasm or inside organelles.
• An example includes the hundreds of enzymes responsible for the
process of respiration, which are found inside the cell's cytoplasm and
the mitochondria.

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Enzyme Where it works Substrate Explanation

breaks a harmful waste product into

Catalase inside cells hydrogen peroxide
harmless water & oxygen

DNA polymerase in nucleus DNA pieces helps copy DNA when cells divide

inside
ATP synthase ADP + phosphate makes ATP → the cell’s energy molecule
mitochondria

RNA polymerase in nucleus DNA helps make RNA from DNA instructions

Protease (inside breaks old proteins into smaller parts for

inside lysosomes worn-out proteins
cell) recycling

ii. Extracellular Enzymes

• Some enzymes are made inside the cell but are then secreted (released)
by the cell or tissue to function outside the cell.
• Secretion is the process where a fluid or substance is intentionally
manufactured and then released from a cell or tissue.
• The most common example is the digestive enzymes (like amylase,
protease, and lipase) that are produced by cells in the gut lining and
pancreas, secreted into the stomach and small intestine to break down
large food molecules into smaller, absorbable molecules.

Enzyme Where it works Substrate Simple explanation

Amylase in mouth & small intestine starch turns starch into sugar

Protease (digestive) in stomach & small intestine proteins breaks proteins into amino acids

Lipase in small intestine fats breaks fats into fatty acids & glycerol
Cellulase (not made
made by bacteria & fungi cellulose breaks plant cell walls
by humans)
breaks table sugar into glucose +
Invertase (yeast) outside yeast cells sucrose
fructose

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4.2 THE LOCK AND KEY MODEL OF ENZYME ACTION

1. Enzyme Structure and Components
a) The Substrate
i. The molecule that an enzyme acts upon in a reaction is called the substrate.
ii. For example, in the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (a toxic waste product),
hydrogen peroxide is the substrate for the enzyme catalase.
b) The Active Site
i. Each large enzyme molecule has a small, critical indentation or pocket on its
surface known as the active site.
ii. The active site's unique, intricate shape is determined by the complex three-
dimensional folding of the enzyme's long protein chain. This folding brings
specific amino acids close together to form the precise structure of the pocket.
(iii) It is the exact location where the substrate molecule fits and where the
chemical reaction is catalysed.
2. The Lock and Key Hypothesis
a) The most fundamental way we describe the interaction between an enzyme and its
substrate is through the Lock and Key Model.
b) This model was first proposed in 1894 and suggests that the active site of the enzyme
has a specific, rigid shape that is perfectly complementary to the shape of only one
specific substrate.
c) Analogy for Specificity:
i. The enzyme is analogous to a uniquely shaped lock.
ii. The substrate is analogous to the specific key that fits that lock.
iii. Just as a locksmith designs a key to fit only one corresponding lock, the
enzyme's active site is shaped to bind only one specific substrate.
d) This complementary fit is the reason why enzymes are highly specific—an enzyme will
only catalyse one particular reaction, or a small group of very similar reactions, and no
others.

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Diagram 4.1 showing that enzymes catalyse reactions at their active site. This acts like a 'lock' to the
substrate 'key'. The substrate fits into the active site, and products are formed. This happens more
easily than without the enzyme - so enzymes act as catalysts.

3. Steps of Enzyme Action

(a) Binding:

The substrate molecule collides with and enters the active site of the enzyme. They fit
together perfectly due to their complementary shapes.

(b) Complex Formation:

When the substrate is held securely in the active site, a temporary structure called the
enzyme-substrate complex is formed. This complex is crucial because the close proximity of
the enzyme's chemical groups helps to weaken bonds in the substrate, or hold two substrates
close together, making the reaction much easier.

(c) Catalysis:

While the substrate is bound, the enzyme quickly carries out the reaction. By lowering the
activation energy, the enzyme speeds up the rate at which the substrate is converted into the
new product(s).

(d) Release: The product(s) are released from the active site because they no longer fit the
specific shape in the same way. The enzyme molecule emerges completely unchanged and
ready to accept a new substrate molecule, repeating the process.

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4. Enzymes in Synthesis and Breakdown

(a) Enzymes can catalyse reactions in two directions depending on the cell's needs:

(i) Catabolic Reactions (Breakdown):

The enzyme holds the large substrate molecule in its active site in a way that puts
stress on its chemical bonds, causing it to break down into two or more smaller
product molecules (e.g., the breakdown of fat molecules).

(ii) Anabolic Reactions (Synthesis/Build-up):

The enzyme holds two or more smaller substrate molecules in the active site, ensuring
they are positioned at the perfect angle and distance for a new chemical bond to form
between them, resulting in a larger product molecule (e.g., building up starch from
glucose molecules).

4.3 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms: (a) Metabolism (2) (b) Catalyst (2) (c) Substrate (2)
2. Explain, using examples, the difference between intracellular and extracellular enzymes. (4)
3. Explain the concept of activation energy and describe the role of an enzyme in a metabolic
reaction. (5)
4. Explain why enzymes are described as being 'highly specific' to their reaction, making
reference to the Lock and Key model and the enzyme's molecular structure. (5)
5. A student suggests that since enzymes are not used up in a reaction, they are not actually
involved in the chemical change. Evaluate this statement. (3)
o Hint: Consider the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex and the effect on
activation energy.

TOTAL MARKS: 19

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LESSON 5: FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF ENZYME-

CONTROLLED REACTIONS
Main Objectives:

2.11 understand how the functioning of enzymes can be affected by changes in temperature,
including changes to the shape of the active site

2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH altering the active site

Sub-Objective:

To explain how temperature and pH influence enzyme activity and briefly introduce other influencing
factors like inhibitors and co-factors.

5.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF ENZYME CONDITIONS

1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms.
2. They are proteins, and the specific shape of their active site is essential for their function (the
lock-and-key mechanism).
3. Because their activity relies on this precise shape, anything that changes the shape of the
protein can affect how well the enzyme works, or if it works at all.
4. A number of factors can influence the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction. The most
important ones are:
a. Temperature
b. pH (acidity or alkalinity)
c. Enzyme concentration
d. Substrate concentration
e. Inhibitors and co-factors (briefly discussed later as an extension)
5.2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY
Temperature is a critical factor because it affects the kinetic energy (movement) of the enzyme and
substrate molecules.

1. Low Temperatures:
a) At very low temperatures, the molecules of the enzyme and substrate have very little
kinetic energy and move slowly.
b) This means there are fewer collisions between the substrate and the enzyme's active
site.
c) The reaction rate is therefore very slow. The enzyme is intact but inactive.

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2. Increasing Temperature (Towards the Optimum):

a) As the temperature increases, both the enzyme and substrate molecules gain more
kinetic energy and move faster.
b) This leads to a greater frequency of successful collisions between the substrate and
the active site.
c) The rate of reaction increases rapidly.
3. Optimum Temperature:
a) The optimum temperature is the temperature at which the enzyme is most active, and
the rate of reaction is at its maximum.
b) For most enzymes in the human body (like those found in your digestive system), the
optimum temperature is around 37°C (normal body temperature).
c) Note: Enzymes in organisms that live in extreme environments, like hot springs, will
have a much higher optimum temperature.
4. High Temperatures (Above the Optimum) - Denaturing:
a) If the temperature rises too far above the optimum (usually around 45°C and above for
human enzymes), the heat energy begins to break the weak chemical bonds that hold
the enzyme's specific three-dimensional structure together.
b) This causes the enzyme to lose its unique shape, particularly the shape of the active
site. The enzyme is said to be denatured.
c) Once the active site changes shape, the substrate can no longer fit into it, and the
enzyme can no longer catalyse the reaction.
d) Denaturing is usually permanent—the enzyme's original shape cannot be restored
even if the temperature returns to normal. This causes the reaction rate to rapidly
decrease to zero.

Example: You can see an example of protein denaturation when you cook an egg. The heat
permanently changes the protein in the egg white (called albumin) from a clear liquid into an opaque,
solid white.

Diagram 5.1 showing effect of temperature on the action of an enzyme.

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5.3 EFFECT OF PH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

The pH of the solution surrounding an enzyme (how acidic or alkaline it is) also affects its activity. pH
measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).

1. Optimum pH:
a) Every enzyme has an optimum pH at which it works best and its activity is highest.
b) For most intracellular enzymes (enzymes inside cells), the optimum pH is around
neutral (pH 7).
2. Changes in pH (Too Acidic or Too Alkaline):
a) Changes in pH away from the optimum (either becoming too acidic or too alkaline)
interfere with the chemical bonds and forces that maintain the enzyme's specific three-
dimensional structure.
b) This causes the structure, and specifically the active site, to change shape. The enzyme
becomes denatured (similar to the effect of high heat).
c) As the shape of the active site changes, the substrate cannot bind effectively, and the
rate of reaction decreases rapidly.

Diagram 5.2 showing that most enzymes work best at a neutral pH.

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3. Specialised Enzymes:
a) Some enzymes have evolved to work best in conditions that are far from neutral.
b) Pepsin: This is a digestive enzyme found in the stomach. The stomach produces
hydrochloric acid, creating a very acidic environment (pH 1.5 to 2.5).
c) Pepsin is adapted to work best at this low optimum pH (about pH 2).
d) Trypsin: This digestive enzyme works in the small intestine, which is kept slightly
alkaline.
e) Trypsin’s optimum pH is around pH 8.

5.4 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

1. Enzyme and Substrate Concentration

a) Enzyme Concentration:

If the amount of substrate is unlimited, increasing the concentration of the enzyme will
increase the rate of reaction because there are more active sites available to process the
substrate.

b) Substrate Concentration:

If the enzyme concentration is kept constant, increasing the concentration of the substrate will
increase the rate of reaction up to a point. Eventually, the enzyme active sites become
saturated (all are constantly busy), and the reaction rate will level off, even if more substrate is
added.

2. Enzyme Inhibitors

a) Inhibitors are molecules that slow down or completely stop an enzyme's activity.
b) They work by binding to the enzyme and preventing the substrate from entering the active
site.
c) Competitive Inhibitors: These molecules have a shape similar to the substrate and compete to
bind to the active site
d) (b) Non-Competitive Inhibitors: These bind to a different part of the enzyme (not the active
site), but their binding causes the active site to change shape, making it unable to bind to the
substrate.

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3. Co-factors and Co-enzymes

a) Many enzymes need an extra non-protein component to be fully active.

b) These are called co-factors or co-enzymes.
c) Co-factors are typically inorganic ions (like zinc, iron, or magnesium ions). They often help the
enzyme-substrate complex form more efficiently.
d) Co-enzymes are small organic molecules (often derived from vitamins). They often act as
temporary carriers for atoms or chemical groups that are transferred during the reaction.
e) Without the appropriate co-factor or co-enzyme, some enzymes simply cannot function,
showing how essential these helper molecules are.

5.5 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Define the term optimum temperature in relation to enzyme activity. (2 marks)
2. Explain why the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction slows down dramatically when the
temperature rises significantly above the optimum. Use the term denatured in your answer. (4
marks)
3. An enzyme found in the human small intestine, called pancreatic amylase, has an optimum pH
of 7.5.

(a) What effect would placing this enzyme in a solution of pH 2 have on its function? (2
marks)

(b) Name a human enzyme that is adapted to work well at a pH of around 2 and state
where it is found. (2 marks)

4. Briefly distinguish between a competitive inhibitor and a non-competitive inhibitor. (2 marks)

5. Why does increasing the concentration of a substrate eventually cause the rate of an enzyme-
controlled reaction to level off? (3 marks)

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LESSON 6: PRACTICALS: INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF

TEMPERATURE AND pH ON THE RATE OF ENZYME-
CONTROLLED REACTIONS
MAIN OBJECTIVES:

2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature.

2.14B practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in pH.

SUBOBJECTIVE:

To understand the experimental procedures, key variables, and methods for calculating the rate of
enzyme activity in response to changes in temperature and pH.

6.1 INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME

ACTIVITY (AMYLASE AND STARCH)
1. This practical investigates how the rate at which the digestive enzyme amylase breaks down
starch into the simple sugar maltose is affected by temperature.
2. The rate of the reaction is measured by recording how quickly the starch disappears.
3. The Reaction:
a) The reaction being studied is the breakdown of starch:

b) Starch is a large, complex carbohydrate.

c) Amylase is the enzyme that acts as a biological catalyst.
d) Maltose is a smaller, simpler sugar.

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4. How to Test for Starch:

To track the reaction, we test for the presence of the substrate (starch) over time using iodine
solution.

a) Positive Result (Starch Present):

Iodine solution (which is normally brown/yellow) turns blue-black when starch is present.

b) Negative Result (Starch Absent):

The iodine solution remains its original yellow/brown colour.

c) The point at which the iodine solution remains yellow/brown is called the end-point or
achromatic point, and it marks the moment when all the starch has been digested.

Diagram 6.1 Investigating the breakdown of starch by amylase at different temperatures.

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5. Experimental Procedure:
a) Set up the Temperature:
i. Fill a beaker with water to create a water bath.
ii. Use a thermometer to measure and a Bunsen burner/hot plate (or ice for low
temperatures) to maintain the water bath at a specific temperature (e.g., 20°C}).
iii. The water bath acts as a constant temperature environment.
b) Prepare the Solutions:
i. Use a syringe to place 5cm3 of starch suspension into one boiling tube.
ii. Use a different syringe to place 5 cm3 of amylase solution into a second boiling
tube.
iii. Place both boiling tubes into the water bath for 5 minutes. This is essential to allow
both the enzyme and the substrate to reach the desired temperature, ensuring
that temperature is the only variable affecting the reaction rate once started.
c) Start the Reaction:
i. Pour the amylase solution into the starch suspension.
ii. This is the start time (time= 0 minutes).
iii. Mix gently and leave the tube in the water bath.
d) Monitor the Reaction:
i. Immediately, remove a small sample of the mixture using a pipette and add it to
the first drop of iodine solution on a spotting tile.
ii. Record the colour (it should be blue-black, indicating starch is present).
iii. Repeat this sampling and testing every 30 seconds for 10 minutes.
iv. The reaction is complete when the iodine solution remains yellow for two
consecutive tests, showing all the starch has been digested.
v. Record this time as the reaction time (T).
e) Repeat:
Repeat the entire experiment using a new set of solutions and maintaining the
water bath at different temperatures (e.g., 30°C, 40°C, 50°C,60°C).
f) Sample results:

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Colour of mixture at different temperatures / (°C)

Time / min
20 30 40 50 60
0 Blue-black Blue-black Blue-black Blue-black Blue-black
0.5 Blue-black Blue-black Brown Blue-black Blue-black
1 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Blue-black Blue-black
1.5 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Blue-black Blue-black
2 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Brown Blue-black
2.5 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Brown Blue-black
3 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Brown Blue-black
3.5 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Yellow Blue-black
4 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Yellow Blue-black
5.5 Blue-black Blue-black Yellow Yellow Blue-black
6 Blue-black Brown Yellow Yellow Blue-black
6.5 Blue-black Brown Yellow Yellow Blue-black
7 Blue-black Yellow Yellow Yellow Blue-black
7.5 Blue-black Yellow Yellow Yellow Brown
8 Blue-black Yellow Yellow Yellow Brown
8.5 Brown Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
9 Brown Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
9.5 Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
10 Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow

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6. Variables
a) Independent Variable: The factor you change - Temperature of the water bath.
b) Dependent Variable: The factor you measure - The time taken for the starch to be fully
digested (time until the iodine solution remains yellow).
c) Control Variables: Factors kept constant to ensure a fair test:
i. Volume of starch solution (e.g., 5cm3).
ii. Volume of amylase solution (e.g., 5cm3).
iii. Concentration of the starch solution.
iv. Concentration of the amylase solution.
v. The pH of the mixture (often controlled using a buffer solution, though not explicitly
stated in this example, it's a good practice).
7. Calculating the Rate of Reaction
a) The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken. A shorter time means a
faster rate.
b) The general formula for the rate is:

c) Alternatively, using the example from the prompt:

8. Example Calculation (for 50°C): If the reaction time (T) is 3.5 minutes for 5 cm3 of starch:

9. Interpreting Results: When you plot a graph of Rate of Reaction (y-axis) against Temperature (x-
axis), you should observe an increase in rate up to an optimum temperature (usually around 40°C for
human enzymes), after which the rate will sharply decrease because the enzyme has denatured.

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6.2 INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF PH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

(CATALASE AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE)
1. This practical investigates how the rate of the enzyme catalase breaking down toxic hydrogen
peroxide into water and oxygen is affected by changes in pH.
2. The Reaction:
a. The reaction being studied is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide:

b. Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 is the toxic substrate.

c. Catalase is the enzyme found in many tissues (like potato or liver) that rapidly breaks
down H2O2
d. Water (H2O) and Oxygen gas (O2) are the harmless products.

Diagram 6.2 showing apparatus to investigate the effect of pH on catalase activity.

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3. Why Control pH?

a. Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
b. Buffer solutions are used in this experiment.
c. A buffer solution is a chemical solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts
of acid or alkali are added, thus ensuring the pH of the enzyme-substrate mixture
remains constant throughout the experiment.
4. Preparing the Enzyme (Catalase Extract)
a. Potato tissue is used because it contains a high concentration of catalase.
b. A large potato is chopped, placed in a blender with distilled water, and blended to
break open the cells and release the catalase into the water.
c. The solid potato debris is allowed to settle, and the clear liquid above it—the catalase
extract—is removed and used for the experiment.
5. Experimental Procedure:
a. Prepare the Enzyme/Buffer Mixture:
i. Use a syringe to place 5cm3 of the catalase extract into a boiling tube.
ii. Add 5cm3of a specific buffer solution (e.g., pH 7 buffer) using another syringe.
iii. Mix gently and allow the mixture to stand for 5 minutes to ensure the enzyme is
at the target pH.
b. Start the Reaction and Collect Gas:
i. Quickly add 5cm3 hydrogen peroxide solution (the substrate) to the tube using a
third syringe.
ii. Immediately place a bung with a delivery tube into the boiling tube.
iii. Place the end of the delivery tube into a beaker of water or, more accurately,
under an inverted measuring cylinder filled with water (to collect and measure
the gas).
c. Measure the Reaction Rate:
i. A simple method is to count the number of oxygen bubbles produced in the
first minute after adding the hydrogen peroxide.
ii. This number of bubbles per minute is a measure of the initial reaction rate.

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iii. More accurate methods: Collect the O2$ gas over water in a measuring cylinder
and record the volume of gas produced per unit time (e.g., $\text{cm}^3$ per
minute).
d. Repeat:
i. Repeat the experiment using the same volumes/concentrations of catalase
extract and hydrogen peroxide, but use different buffer solutions to test a
range of pH values (e.g., pH 3, pH 5, pH 7, pH 9).

e. Sample results:

PH RATE OF REACTION/ BUBBLES PER MINUTE

5 6
6 39
7 47
8 14

6. Variables
a. Independent Variable: The factor you change – pH value of the buffer solution.
b. Dependent Variable: The factor you measure - The rate of reaction, determined by the
number of bubbles/volume of oxygen produced per minute.
c. Control Variables: Factors kept constant:
i. Volume and concentration of catalase extract.
ii. Volume and concentration of hydrogen peroxide.
iii. The Temperature (ideally controlled using a water bath at a constant
temperature, e.g., 25°C.
7. Interpreting Results:
a. When you plot a graph or bar chart of Rate of Reaction (y-axis) against pH (x-axis), you
should observe a peak at the optimum pH for catalase (which is pH 7).
b. The rate will be lower at pH values above and below the optimum pH because the
change in pH affects the bonds that hold the enzyme's specific 3D shape, altering the
shape of the active site and reducing or stopping its ability to bind to the substrate.

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6.3 IMPROVING RELIABILITY AND ACCURACY IN PRACTICALS

To get more reliable and accurate results for this practical:
1. Reliability (Consistency)
a) Repeat the Experiment:
Carry out the experiment at least three times at each temperature /pH value.
b) Calculate an Average:
[Link] the mean (average) reaction time or rate for each tested variable.
[Link] reduces the effect of random errors.
c) Identify Anomalous Results: Check the repeated results for any values that are clearly
outside the range of the others (anomalous data), and consider excluding them from
the mean calculation.
3. Accuracy (Closeness to the True Value)
a) More Precise Measurements:
i. In the pH practical, use a gas syringe or an inverted measuring cylinder to
collect and measure the volume of oxygen produced, rather than just counting
bubbles, as this is much more accurate.
ii. Use highly accurate measuring tools like calibrated pipettes or burettes instead
of just syringes for measuring volumes.
b) Test More Values:
i. Test more intervals of temperature (e.g., 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, etc.) or more values
of pH (e.g., pH 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, etc.) around the expected optimum to determine
the optimum pH or temperature more precisely.

6.4 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of placing the amylase and starch solutions in the water bath for 5 minutes
before mixing them? (2)
2. In the amylase-starch practical, what colour change indicates that the reaction is complete, and what
does this colour change signify? (3)
3. Calculate the rate of reaction for the amylase-starch practical if 10cm3 of starch was digested in 4.5
minutes at the optimum temperature. Show your working and state the units. (3)
4. Why are buffer solutions essential when investigating the effect of pH on enzyme activity? (2)

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5. State two ways the catalase experiment could be modified to obtain more accurate results than
simply counting bubbles. (2)
6. Explain what happens to the catalase enzyme if the pH is made highly acidic (e.g., pH 2), and why this
affects the rate of reaction. (3)

LESSON 7: RESPIRATION: HOW THE CELL GETS ITS ENERGY

MAIN OBJECTIVES

2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration in
living organisms.

2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration (in plants, in animals, in yeast cells, etc.).

2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms.

2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells.

SUB-OBJECTIVE

By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to explain the vital role of respiration in providing
energy for life, distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic processes, and state the key reactants and
products of each.

7.1 WHAT IS RESPIRATION?

1. The Biological Definition of Respiration
a) In biology, respiration is defined as the chemical process that occurs in all living cells,
where organic molecules (usually glucose) are broken down to release a form of
chemical energy that the cell can use.
b) It is important not to confuse cellular respiration with breathing (or gas exchange):
i. Breathing is the physical process of taking air into and out of the lungs (or
gills/spiracles) to move gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.
ii. Respiration is the chemical process that happens inside the cells to release
energy.
iii. While the two are linked (breathing supplies the oxygen needed for one type of
respiration), they are fundamentally different.

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2. The Importance of Energy

a) Every living cell requires a continuous supply of energy to carry out the essential
functions necessary for life.
b) Cells get this energy by breaking down food molecules, primarily a sugar called glucose
c) Glucose contains chemical energy stored in its bonds, which is released during
respiration.
3. Respiration as an Oxidation Reaction
a) Respiration is often called an oxidation reaction because, in the presence of oxygen,
the food molecules (glucose) are chemically combined with oxygen.
b) This is similar to burning a fuel, but it occurs in a controlled, stepwise manner inside
the cell.
c) The main products of this oxidation are:
i. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A waste product that is removed from the body.
ii. Water (H2O): Also released, often used by the cell.
iii. Energy: The essential product, which is used for all life processes.

7.2 HOW THE BODY USES THE ENERGY FROM RESPIRATION

1. The energy released from the breakdown of glucose is temporarily stored in a special molecule
called ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP acts like the cell's energy 'currency', transferring
energy from the respiration process to where it is needed in the cell.
2. This released energy is used to power a vast number of crucial cellular activities, including:
a) Movement and Muscle Contraction

In animals, energy is needed for the contraction and relaxation of muscle cells, which
allows for movement of limbs, pumping of blood by the heart, and movements of the
digestive system.

b) Active Transport
i. This is the process of moving molecules or ions across a cell membrane against
their concentration gradient (from an area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration).
ii. This process requires a significant input of energy from respiration.
c) Synthesis of Large Molecules (Anabolism)
Energy is required to build complex substances from simpler ones, such as
synthesising proteins from amino acids, forming DNA for cell division, or making
glycogen (a storage carbohydrate) from glucose.
d) Cell Division
The energy enables cells to divide (mitosis and meiosis) for growth, repair, and
reproduction.

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e) Maintaining Body Temperature

i. In warm-blooded animals (mammals and birds), some of the energy released
during respiration is lost as heat.
ii. This heat is essential for maintaining a constant internal body temperature,
especially in cold environments.

7.3 AEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. Definition
a) Aerobic respiration is the type of respiration that requires the presence of oxygen (O2).
b) The term 'aerobic' means 'with air' or 'with oxygen'.
2. Efficiency and Location
a) This process is highly efficient because the glucose molecule is completely broken
down.
b) It releases the maximum amount of energy from a glucose molecule.
c) The initial stages of glucose breakdown occur in the cytoplasm, but the later, oxygen-
requiring, and high-energy-releasing steps occur inside specialised organelles called the
mitochondria.
d) Mitochondria are often called the 'powerhouses' of the cell because they are the main
site of aerobic respiration.
3. The Chemical Equations
a) Word Equation: This describes the reactants and products using common names.

b) Balanced Chemical Symbol Equation: This uses chemical formulas and shows the ratio
of molecules involved.

7.4 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. Definition
a) Anaerobic respiration is the type of respiration that occurs without oxygen.
b) The term 'anaerobic' means 'without air'.
2. Efficiency and Advantage
a) Since no oxygen is used, the glucose is not completely broken down.
b) This means that anaerobic respiration releases significantly less energy compared to
aerobic respiration.

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c) The main advantage is that it allows organisms or cells to continue releasing energy for
a short period when oxygen is in short supply or entirely unavailable.
3. Anaerobic Respiration in Animals (Muscle Cells)
a) This occurs in your muscle cells when you perform intense, vigorous exercise, such as
sprinting or lifting heavy weights.
b) During such activity, the blood cannot deliver oxygen to the muscles fast enough to
meet the demand, creating an oxygen deficit.
c) The muscles switch to anaerobic respiration to provide extra, rapid energy. (d) Word
Equation (in muscle cells):

d) The Role of Lactate:

i. Lactate (lactic acid) is the waste product.
ii. It is carried away by the blood.
iii. The build-up of lactate in the muscles and bloodstream contributes to muscle
soreness and fatigue (though physiologists have shown that fatigue is also
caused by other changes).
e) The Oxygen Debt:
i. After the exercise stops, you continue to breathe deeply.
ii. This extra oxygen is required to completely break down the accumulated lactate
in the body (mostly in the liver) into carbon dioxide and water.
iii. The volume of oxygen required to do this is called the oxygen debt.
4. Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Yeast
a) Anaerobic respiration in plant cells (e.g., in waterlogged soil) and yeast (a single-celled
fungus) is often called fermentation.
b) Word Equation (in yeast and plant cells):

c) Commercial Uses (Yeast):

i. Baking: The carbon dioxide gas produced causes the bread dough to rise,
creating a light, airy texture. The ethanol evaporates during baking.
ii. Brewing/Wine-Making: The ethanol (alcohol) produced is the main component
of beer and wine. The carbon dioxide is what causes beer to be fizzy.

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7.5 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. What is the main biological function of respiration, and why is it essential for all living cells? (3)
2. State the full word equation for aerobic respiration. Explain why this process is considered
highly efficient. (4)
3. Compare the products of anaerobic respiration in a human muscle cell versus a yeast cell. (4)
4. A student is sprinting a 100-meter race.
(a) Explain why their muscle cells will start to respire anaerobically by the end of the race.
(3)
(b) (b) Define the term 'oxygen debt' and explain how the body deals with the waste
product of muscle anaerobic respiration after the race is over. (6)

[Total Marks: 17]

LESSON 8: ATP AS THE ENERGY "CURRENCY" OF THE CELL

MAIN OBJECTIVES

2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms

2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells

SUB-OBJECTIVE

Describe the structure and function of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as the immediate source of
energy for cellular activities.

8.1 THE NEED FOR AN ENERGY TRANSFER MOLECULE

1. All living organisms require a constant supply of energy to carry out the essential functions that keep
them alive. These functions, collectively called metabolic processes or metabolism, include muscle
contraction, active transport, synthesis of large molecules, and nerve impulse transmission.
2. The primary process that releases chemical energy from food (like glucose) is cellular respiration,
which mainly occurs in the mitochondria.
3. However, the energy released from breaking down glucose during respiration is not directly usable by
all the different cellular processes. Think of it like a power station (respiration) generating electricity—
the electricity needs to be delivered to homes (other cell processes) in a usable form.

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4. Cells have a special chemical molecule that acts as an intermediate or go-between to capture the
energy from respiration and then deliver it exactly where it's needed in the cell. This molecule is called
Adenosine Triphosphate, or ATP.

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8.2 WHAT IS ATP?

1. ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate.

2. It is often described as the universal energy currency of the cell because all living things,
from bacteria to humans, use it to transfer energy.

3. Structure of ATP:

a) ATP is a complex molecule composed of three main parts:

i. Adenosine: An organic molecule

ii. Three Phosphate Groups (Triphosphate): These groups are attached in a chain to the
adenosine part.

b) The bonds connecting these phosphate groups are high-energy bonds.

c) When the outermost phosphate group is removed, a significant amount of energy is

released.

8.3 HOW ATP TRANSFERS ENERGY

1. ATP acts like a rechargeable battery in the cell, cycling between its charged and discharged
forms.

2. Releasing Energy (Discharging the Battery):

a) When a cell process (like muscle contraction or active transport) requires energy, the
ATP molecule is broken down.

b) An enzyme breaks the bond holding the outermost (terminal) phosphate group to the
molecule.

c) This reaction releases a large, usable burst of chemical energy which drives the
required cell process.

d) The products of this reaction are Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and a free inorganic
phosphate group.

e) The word equation for the breakdown of ATP is:

f) ADP stands for Adenosine Diphosphate (since it now only has two phosphate groups).

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3. Making ATP (Charging the Battery):

a) During cellular respiration, the energy released from the oxidation of glucose is used to
re-form the high-energy bond.
b) An inorganic phosphate group is added back onto the ADP molecule.
c) This process is called phosphorylation.
d) The energy released by respiration is essentially "trapped" or "stored" in the new high-
energy bond of the ATP molecule.
e) The word equation for the synthesis (making) of ATP is:

8.4 THE ATP CYCLE AND ITS ROLE

1. The continuous process of breaking down ATP into ADP and P (releasing energy) and then
synthesising ATP from ADP and P (using energy from respiration) is known as the ATP Cycle.
2. ATP as the Energy Currency:
a) Respiration is the "money-making" factory. It takes the "raw materials" (glucose) and produces the
"money" (ATP).
b) The cell uses the "money" (ATP) to "pay for" all the energy-requiring processes like movement,
growth, and synthesis.
c) Because ATP is present in all cells and can quickly release a small, manageable packet of energy
exactly where it's needed, it is a much more efficient and immediate source of energy than having
to break down glucose every time a tiny amount of energy is required.

8.5 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Name the chemical molecule described as the universal energy currency of the cell. (1)
2. State the process in the cell that releases the energy needed to make ATP. (1)
3. Describe the structure of ATP, including the names of the three main components. (3)
4. Explain what happens to an ATP molecule when energy is needed for a cell process, including the
products formed and where the energy comes from. (4)
5. Write the word equation for the breakdown of ATP. (2)
6. Explain why ATP is a better immediate source of energy for the cell's activities than glucose. (3)

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LESSON 9: PRACTICALS: DEMONSTRATION OF CO2

PRODUCTION BY SMALL LIVING ORGANISMS AND
PRODUCTION OF HEAT DURING RESPIRATION

MAIN OBJECTIVE:

2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other
suitable living organisms.

SUB-OBJECTIVE:

To plan and perform investigations demonstrating that CO2 and heat are products of respiration in
small living organisms.

9.1 INVESTIGATING CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION DURING

RESPIRATION
A. Background Information on Respiration and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
1. Respiration is the chemical process carried out by all living cells to release energy from
food (like glucose).
2. Aerobic respiration (which uses oxygen) is the most common form, and it produces carbon
dioxide (CO2) as a waste product, along with water and a large amount of energy (ATP).
B. The Role of Hydrogen Carbonate Indicator Solution
1. Hydrogen carbonate indicator solution is a chemical used to show the presence and
relative concentration of carbon dioxide gas.
2. The colour of the indicator changes depending on the CO2 concentration:
a) Normal Air Concentration: The solution is typically orange-red.
b) Increased CO2 Concentration (More Acidic): The solution turns yellow. The increase
in CO2 dissolves in the water to form a weak acid (carbonic acid), which lowers the
pH.
c) Decreased CO2 Concentration (More Alkaline): The solution turns purple-red. This
happens if CO2 is absorbed or used up, causing the pH to rise.
3. The indicator is very sensitive and can detect small changes in the concentration of CO2

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C. Experimental Setup for CO2 Production

1. The experiment uses small living organisms (like woodlice, maggots, or germinating
seeds) and the hydrogen carbonate indicator.

Diagram 9.1 Testing for carbon dioxide production by small organisms.

2. Apparatus:
a) Stoppered Boiling Tube: Provides a closed environment so that the CO2
produced by the organisms cannot escape and concentrates in the air above
the indicator.
b) Gauze Platform: This is essential to support the organisms and, crucially, to
prevent them from coming into direct contact with the hydrogen carbonate
indicator solution. Direct contact could harm the organisms or affect the
chemical reaction of the indicator.
c) Hydrogen Carbonate Indicator Solution: Placed at the bottom of the tube to
detect the presence of CO2

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3. Procedure and Expected Results:

a) Setup: A small number of living organisms are placed on the gauze platform
above the orange-red indicator solution.
b) Observation:
After a period of time (e.g., a few hours), the organisms respire, releasing CO2
into the air in the tube. This CO2 dissolves into the indicator solution.
c) Result: The indicator solution in the tube containing the living organisms is
expected to turn yellow (from orange-red) due to the increased concentration
of CO2
4. The Importance of a Control Experiment:
a) A control is vital to prove that the change in indicator colour is solely due to
the living organisms and their respiration, and not due to the apparatus or
environmental conditions.
b) Control Setup: A fourth boiling tube (in addition to tubes for woodlice,
maggots, and seeds) should be set up identically, but containing no living
organisms (perhaps just the gauze and the indicator solution).
c) Control Result: The indicator in the control tube should remain orange-red
throughout the experiment, confirming that the air initially contained a normal
level of CO2 and that nothing else in the setup caused the colour change.
5. Considering Variables in an Investigation

If you were to investigate which organism (woodlice, maggots, or germinating seeds)

changes the indicator colour the fastest, you would need to control several variables to
ensure a fair test:

a) Controlled Variables (must be kept the same):

i. The volume of hydrogen carbonate indicator solution used in each tube.
ii. The temperature at which all tubes are kept (e.g.25°C).
iii. The mass or number of organisms used in each tube (to ensure a fair
comparison of their respiration rates).
iv. The time allowed for the experiment before checking the results.
b) Independent Variable (the factor you change):
i. The type of organism (woodlice, maggots, or germinating seeds).
c) Dependent Variable (the factor you measure/observe):
i. The time taken for the indicator to turn a specific shade of yellow, or the
final colour of the indicator after a set time.

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9.2 INVESTIGATING HEAT PRODUCTION DURING RESPIRATION

A. Background Information on Respiration and Heat
1. Respiration is an exothermic reaction, meaning it releases energy into the
surroundings, primarily in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell's use,
but also as heat.
2. This heat production is what helps to keep mammals and birds warm (they are
endotherms), but it also occurs in all living cells, including those of plants, insects, and
microorganisms.
3. The experiment uses germinating peas (which are actively respiring) and boiled peas
(which are dead and therefore not respiring) to demonstrate this heat release.

B. Experimental Setup for Heat Production

1. The experiment uses two vacuum flasks to compare the temperature of respiring
(living) seeds with non-respiring (dead) seeds.

Diagram 9.2 Experiment to show that heat is produced during respiration in germinating peas.

2. Preparation of Seeds:
a. Living Seeds (Germinating Peas): The peas are soaked in water for 24 hours to
encourage them to start germinating.
b. Germination is a period of very active growth and metabolism, requiring a high
rate of respiration.

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c. Dead Seeds (Boiled Peas): A second batch of peas is boiled to kill the embryos
inside and stop all metabolic processes, including respiration.
3. Importance of Disinfecting the Seeds:
a. The seeds are washed in a 1% bleach solution (disinfectant) and then rinsed in
distilled water.
b. Reason: This step is crucial to kill any bacteria or fungi (microorganisms) on the
surface of the peas. If microorganisms were present, they would also respire and
release heat. This extra heat would contaminate the results, making it impossible
to be sure that the heat measured was only from the peas themselves.
4. Apparatus:
a) Vacuum Flasks (Thermos Flasks): These are used because they are excellent
insulators. They prevent heat from escaping into the surroundings or being
absorbed from the surroundings. This allows even a small amount of heat
produced by respiration to be trapped and measured.
b) Thermometers: Inserted into the centre of the seeds in each flask to measure
the temperature change accurately.
c)Inverted Flasks and Cotton Wool: The flasks are inverted, and cotton wool is
loosely placed in the opening. The seeds produce CO2 (denser than air) as a
waste product. The inverted flask and loose plug allow the excess CO2
(preventing it from building up to toxic levels and killing the peas) while still
maintaining good insulation.
5. The Importance of the Control Flask (Dead Peas):
a. The flask with the dead (boiled) peas is the essential control experiment.
b. Purpose: It allows scientists to prove that the rise in temperature is a result of
the life process of respiration (which only occurs in the living peas).
c. Other Factors: This control accounts for any other factors that might cause a
temperature change, such as heat from the surrounding environment. Since
the dead peas are in the same environment and apparatus, the control
baseline confirms that the change observed in the living pea flask is due to
respiration.

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6. Analysis of Results:

Temperature
Flask Contents Explanation
Change (°C)

No respiration occurs in dead peas,

Dead (Boiled) Peas (Control) 0
so no extra heat is produced.

Active respiration occurs, releasing

Living (Germinating) Peas +3 energy as heat, which is trapped and
measured by the insulating flask.

7. Conclusion:
The temperature rise in the flask with the living (germinating) peas demonstrates that
respiration is an exothermic process that releases heat energy.

9.3 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Carbon Dioxide Practical:

(a) State the colour change expected for the hydrogen carbonate indicator solution in the tube
containing respiring organisms. (1)

(b) Explain the reason for this colour change in terms of a chemical change. (2)

(c) State one variable that must be kept the same when comparing the CO2 production of different
organisms like woodlice and maggots. (1)

2. Heat Production Practical:

(a) Explain why the peas must be washed in a disinfectant (like bleach) before setting up the
experiment. (2)

(b) Why is it essential to use a vacuum flask for this experiment? (2)

(c) Explain the purpose of setting up a control flask with dead (boiled) peas. (2)

Total Marks: 10 Marks

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LESSON 10: MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS IN AND OUT OF

CELLS
MAIN OBJECTIVES:

2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move
into and out of cells.

2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells,
including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration
gradient

Sub-Objective:

1. Describe and explain the three main processes—diffusion, osmosis, and active transport—by
which substances cross the cell membrane, and understand the role of the selectively
permeable membrane.
2. Explain how different factors influence the rate of movement of substances across the cell
membrane.

10.1 THE NEED FOR TRANSPORT AND THE CELL MEMBRANE

1. Why do cells need transport?
a) All living cells carry out life processes, such as respiration, which continuously take
place inside the cell.
b) Respiration requires the cell to constantly take in substances like glucose and oxygen
from its surroundings.
c) This process also produces waste products, such as carbon dioxide and water, that
must be removed from the cell before they build up to toxic levels.
d) Therefore, cells need ways to continuously move essential materials in and waste
materials out.
2. The Role of the Cell Membrane
a) The cell surface membrane (or plasma membrane) is the boundary that separates the
cell's internal contents (the cytoplasm) from its external environment.
b) The membrane is often described as selectively permeable (or partially permeable),
which means it controls which substances can pass through it and when.
c) This control is essential for maintaining the cell's internal environment, a stable state
known as homeostasis.
3. Three Main Methods of Transport
a) There are three principal ways that molecules and ions can move across the cell
membrane:

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i. Diffusion
ii. Osmosis
iii. Active Transport

10.2 DIFFUSION
1. Definition of Diffusion
a) Diffusion is the net movement of particles (which could be molecules or ions) from a
region where they are at a high concentration to a region where they are at a low
concentration.
b) This movement happens because the particles are constantly moving randomly due to
their kinetic energy.
c) The overall movement is said to be down a concentration gradient (from high to low
concentration).
2. Explaining the Process
a) Imagine an area with many carbon dioxide molecules (high concentration) next to an
area with few carbon dioxide molecules (low concentration).
b) Because the molecules are constantly in random motion, they will move in all
directions.
c) However, since there are many more molecules on the high-concentration side, it is
statistically more likely that more molecules will move to the low-concentration side
than will move back.
d) The net movement is the overall, resulting change in position, and it is in the direction
of the low concentration.
e) Diffusion continues until the concentration of the substance is equal in both areas—the
molecules are still moving, but there is no net change in concentration.

Diagram 10.1 Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration, so its concentration builds up inside the
cell. Although the carbon dioxide molecules diffuse in both directions across the cell membrane, the
overall (net) movement is out of the cell, down the concentration gradient

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3. Diffusion in Cells - Examples

a) Diffusion is a simple, effective way to transport substances across the cell membrane if
the substance is small and the membrane is permeable to it.
b) (a) Oxygen Uptake: Oxygen is used up in respiration, so its concentration inside the cell
is lower than in the blood or surroundings. Oxygen diffuses into the cell.
c) (b) Carbon Dioxide Removal: Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration, so its
concentration inside the cell becomes higher than outside. Carbon dioxide diffuses out
of the cell.
4. Energy Requirement
a) Diffusion is a passive process. It does not require the cell to use extra energy from
respiration (in the form of ATP) because it relies only on the natural kinetic energy of
the particles.

10.3 OSMOSIS
1. Definition of Osmosis
a) Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that only involves water molecules.
b) Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a dilute solution (which has a
high concentration of water molecules) to a more concentrated solution (which has a
low concentration of water molecules) across a partially permeable membrane.
c) The movement of water is effectively down a concentration gradient of water
molecules.
2. Explaining the Concept of Water Concentration
a) A dilute solution means there are a lot of water molecules and only a small amount of
dissolved substance (solute).
i. High concentration of water.
b) A concentrated solution means there is a lot of dissolved substance (solute) and
therefore relatively fewer water molecules.
i. Low concentration of water.
c) The partially permeable membrane allows the tiny water molecules to pass through,
but not the larger solute molecules (like sugar or salt). This creates the condition
necessary for osmosis.
3. Osmosis in Cells - Importance
a) Osmosis is extremely important for:
i. Maintaining the correct water balance inside the cell.
ii. The movement of water from cell to cell, for example, the uptake of water from
the soil by the root hair cells in plants.

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10.4 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. Definition of Active Transport
a) Active transport is the movement of substances (molecules or ions) against a
concentration gradient (from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration).
b) Because the movement is against the natural flow (uphill), this process requires energy
from respiration (provided by ATP).
2. Explaining the Process
a) Imagine a cell already has a high concentration of glucose inside it, but it still needs to
take in more glucose from the surroundings where the concentration is low.
b) Diffusion would cause the glucose to move out, so diffusion cannot be used.
c) The cell uses special large protein molecules embedded in the cell membrane, which
act like "pumps".
d) These protein pumps bind to the substance on the low-concentration side.
e) The pump uses energy from the breakdown of ATP (produced by respiration) to change
its shape and physically transport the substance across the membrane to the high-
concentration side.
3. Active Transport in Cells - Examples
a) This process is vital when an organism needs to absorb materials quickly and
completely, even if the external concentration is very low.
b) Absorption in the Small Intestine: Cells lining the human small intestine use active
transport to absorb the last remaining glucose and amino acids from digested food
into the blood, ensuring none is wasted.
c) Mineral Uptake in Plants: Plant root hair cells use active transport to take in essential
mineral ions (like nitrates) from the soil, where the concentration is usually much
lower than inside the cell.

10.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF MOVEMENT

The rate at which substances move in and out of cells (by diffusion, osmosis, or active transport) can
be affected by several physical factors:

1. Concentration Gradient
a) Effect: The steeper the concentration gradient (the bigger the difference between the
high and low concentration areas), the faster the rate of diffusion or osmosis.
b) Explanation: A steeper gradient means there is a much greater chance of particles
moving from the high side to the low side, resulting in a faster net movement. This
does not apply to active transport, which is defined by working against the gradient.

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2. Temperature
a) Effect: An increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion, osmosis, and the
supply of energy for active transport.
b) Explanation: Higher temperatures give the particles more kinetic energy, causing them
to move and collide faster and more often. This speeds up the overall movement.
c) Example: Warm-blooded animals (like mammals) maintain high internal temperature
to speed up metabolic processes including diffusion
3. Surface Area
a) Effect: A larger surface area of membrane allows more substances to pass through at
the same time.
b) Explanation: Think of the membrane as a doorway. A wider door allows more people
to pass through per minute. Similarly, a bigger surface lets more molecules move
across simultaneously
4. Surface Area to Volume Ratio (SA: V)
a) Effect: A larger surface area to volume ratio leads to a faster overall rate of movement
relative to the cell's needs.
b) Explanation: The surface area is where the movement of substances takes place (the
cell membrane). The volume represents the amount of material inside the cell that
needs to be supplied (or have waste removed).
i. Smaller cells have a larger SA: V ratio (e.g., a tiny cube vs. a very large cube).
This means the surface area is large enough, relative to the volume, to supply
the cell's needs quickly.
ii. Larger cells have a smaller SA: V ratio. This means the relative surface area is
too small to move materials in and out fast enough to meet the demands of the
large volume, slowing down life processes.
5. Distance
a) (a) Effect: The shorter the distance the particles have to travel, the faster the rate of
movement.
b) (b) Explanation: Movement by diffusion is very effective over short distances (like the
thickness of a cell membrane or the width of a small cell). Over longer distances, the
process of diffusion becomes too slow to be useful for large, complex organisms.

10.6 SPECIALIZED RESPIRATORY AND ABSORPTION SURFACES

1. Some body structures are specially adapted for rapid exchange by having very large surface
area, thin membranes, and rich blood supply (in animals) or water flow (in plants).
2. In Animals:
a) Alveoli of lungs
i. Millions of tiny air sacs increase surface area for gas exchange
ii. Oxygen diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out

b) Villi of the small intestine

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i. Finger-like projections increase absorption surface

ii. Nutrients diffuse or are actively transported into blood
3. In plants:
a) Spongy mesophyll cells (inside leaf)
i. Large air spaces increase surface area for gas diffusion
ii. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move for photosynthesis and respiration

b) Root hair cells

i. Long, thin extensions that provide enormous surface area for absorption of
water and minerals
ii. Osmosis transports water
iii. Active transport moves mineral ions

10.6 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Define the term selectively permeable as it relates to the cell surface membrane. (2)
2. Explain the key difference between active transport and diffusion in terms of energy
requirements and the concentration gradient. (4)
3. Describe the process of osmosis using the terms net movement, water molecules, partially
permeable membrane, dilute solution, and concentrated solution. (4)
4. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration. Explain, using the concept of the concentration
gradient, why carbon dioxide moves out of the cell. (3)
5. A large, single-celled organism has a smaller surface area to volume ratio than a small, single-
celled organism. Explain why this makes the transport of materials less efficient for the larger
organism. (3)
6. A cell is actively respiring, using up oxygen and producing carbon dioxide.

(a) Explain how the concentration gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide is established
between the cell and its surroundings. (2)

(b) State the effect of a steeper concentration gradient on the rate of gas exchange via
diffusion. (1)

7. Explain why a large, spherical cell would have more difficulty absorbing enough nutrients to
survive compared to a small, spherical cell. Your answer must use the concept of the surface
area to volume ratio (SA: V). (3)

[Total: 22 Marks]

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LESSON 11: PRACTICAL: DEMONSTRATING DIFFUSION IN

AGAR JELLY (SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO)
Main Objectives

2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move
into and out of cells.

2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells,
including the effects of surface area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration
gradient

Sub-Objective

To investigate and understand how the surface area-to-volume ratio (SA:V ratio) affects the rate of
diffusion into a model cell (agar cube).

11.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF SURFACE AREA-TO-VOLUME RATIO

A. Introduction to Diffusion and Cell Size

1. Diffusion is the net movement of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This process is passive, meaning it
doesn't require the cell to use energy.
2. Diffusion is the primary way that small, essential substances like oxygen, glucose, and
carbon dioxide move across the cell membrane to enter or leave a cell.
3. As an organism grows, its cells divide. However, cells cannot grow indefinitely large.
There's a limit to how big a cell can be before its ability to carry out life processes is
compromised. This limit is due to the surface area-to-volume ratio (SA: V ratio).

B. Surface Area and Volume

1. The volume of a cell determines the rate at which nutrients are used up and waste
products are produced within the cell (metabolic rate). A larger volume means more
chemical reactions are happening and more materials are needed or waste is made.
2. The surface area of a cell (specifically the cell membrane) determines the rate at which
substances can enter or leave the cell by processes like diffusion.
3. The Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio (SA: V ratio) is the relationship between the cell's outer
surface area and its internal volume, calculated by dividing the surface area by the volume
(Surface Area/ Volume).

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a) As a cell (or any 3D object) gets bigger, its volume increases much faster than its
surface area.
b) This means a large cell has a smaller SA: V ratio compared to a small cell.

C. The Problem with a Small SA: V Ratio

1. For a cell to survive, the surface area must be large enough to allow essential substances
to diffuse into the entire volume of the cell at a fast enough rate, and for waste products
to leave quickly.
2. If the cell is too large (meaning it has a small SA: V ratio):
a) There is not enough surface area (cell membrane) relative to the large volume.
b) Diffusion becomes too slow to supply the needs of the entire cell volume.
Nutrients might not reach the centre of the cell quickly enough, and waste might
build up.
3. This is why most cells are very small. Small cells have a large SA: V ratio, which is essential
for efficient movement of materials into and out of the cell.

11.2 INVESTIGATING SA: V RATIO USING AGAR CUBES

This practical demonstrates the concept of the SA: V ratio using agar cubes as a simple, safe model of
a living cell.

A. Materials and Method

1. The Model: We use agar jelly because its consistency and high water content are similar to
the cytoplasm inside a cell.
2. The Dye: The agar is dyed with potassium permanganate, which is purple. This acts as a
substance that is present throughout the "cell" (the cube).
3. The Diffusing Substance: The cubes are placed into a beaker of dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl). The acid represents a substance moving into the cell from the surroundings.
4. The Reaction: When the hydrochloric acid (colourless) diffuses into the purple agar, it
reacts with the potassium permanganate, causing the purple colour to disappear (it turns
colourless).
5. The Cubes: Three cubes of different sizes are cut:
a) Large Cube: e.g., 2cm X 2cm X 2 cm
b) Medium Cube: e.g., 1cm X 1cm X 1 cm
c) Small Cube: e.g., 0.5cm X 0.5cm X 0.5cm

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6. The Experiment:
a) The cubes are placed into the dilute hydrochloric acid at the exact same time.
b) The time taken for the acid to diffuse all the way to the centre of each cube—
meaning the time until the entire cube turns colourless—is recorded.

B. Calculating Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio (SA: V)

1. The table below shows how the surface area, volume, and the ratio are calculated for each
cube.

Cube Size (Side Surface Area to Volume

Volume (cm3)= L×W×H Surface Area =(cm2) (L×W)×6
Length / cm) Ratio (SA:V)

24
2 2X2 X2 = 8 2 X2X 6 = 24 =3
8
6
1 1X1 X1 = 1 1 X1X 6 = 6 =6
1
1.5
0.5 0.5X 0.5X0.5 = 0.125 0.5 X0.5X 6 = 1.5 = 12
0.125

2. Observation: Notice that the smallest cube (0.5 cm) has the largest SA: V ratio (12), and the
largest cube (2 cm) has the smallest SA: V ratio (3).

Diagram 11.1 Investigating diffusion in a jelly.

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C. Prediction and Explanation

1. Prediction: The smallest cube (0.5cm) will be the first to turn completely colourless. The
largest cube (2 cm) will be the last to turn colourless.
2. Explanation (Why):
a) The smallest cube has the highest SA: V ratio (12:1). This means that for every
small unit of volume that needs the acid, there are 12 units of surface area
available for the acid to enter. The diffusion distance to the centre is also the
shortest. Therefore, the acid can diffuse into and react with the entire volume
most quickly.
b) The largest cube has the lowest SA: V ratio (3:1). This means there is less surface
area available relative to the large volume. The acid has a much further distance to
travel to reach the centre of the cube. Therefore, the acid diffuses into the centre
most slowly, and this cube takes the longest time to become completely
colourless.
3. Conclusion: A larger SA: V ratio allows for a faster, more efficient rate of diffusion to
supply the entire volume of a cell. This is why living cells are typically small. The largest cell
(smallest SA: V ratio) would have the most difficulty in obtaining substances by diffusion.

11.3 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. Define the term diffusion. (2)
2. Explain why a large cell has a small surface area-to-volume ratio compared to a small cell. (3)
o Hint: Consider how the surface area and volume change as the size increases.
3. In the agar cube experiment:

(a) What does the agar jelly represent in a living cell? (1)

(b) What does the dilute hydrochloric acid represent in this model? (1)

(c) Explain why the smallest cube (0.5 cm) changed colour completely faster than the
largest cube (2 cm). Use the term SA: V ratio in your answer. (4)

4. If a cell has a volume of 400 μm3and a surface area of 80 μm2, calculate its surface area-to-
volume ratio. Show your working. (2)

Total Marks: 13

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LESSON 12: CELL DIVISION, CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND

SPECIALIZED CELLS
MAIN OBJECTIVES:

2.5B explain the importance of cell differentiation in the development of specialised cells

2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems

2.6B understand the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in Medicine.

SUBOBJECTIVE:

To describe the process by which a single fertilised egg cell develops into a complex organism with
many different types of cells, and to understand the unique structures and functions of these
specialised cells.

12.1 CELL DIVISION: FROM ZYGOTE TO MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM

1. The Start of Life:
a) All multicellular organisms, whether they are animals like humans or plants like trees,
begin their life as a single cell.
b) This single starting cell is called a zygote. It is formed when a sperm cell and an egg cell
fuse (fertilisation).
2. The Role of Mitosis:
a) The zygote must divide many times to grow into a fully formed embryo and eventually
an adult organism.
b) This main type of cell division responsible for growth and repair is called mitosis.
c) Mitosis is a process of producing genetically identical cells. It allows the cell number to
increase exponentially (1 → 2→ 4→ 8, and so on).

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Diagram 12.1 showing animals and plants grow by cell division.

3. What Happens During Mitosis:

a) Copying the DNA: Before the cell divides, the entire set of chromosomes (which
contain the genetic information, DNA) in the nucleus is carefully copied, or duplicated.
b) Splitting the Nucleus: The nucleus then divides into two identical nuclei, ensuring that
the copied genetic information is shared equally and identically between the two new
cells.
c) Dividing the Cell Body: The cytoplasm (the jelly-like substance outside the nucleus) and
the cell membrane then divide to form two separate, smaller 'daughter' cells. In plant
cells, a new, strong cell wall develops between the two daughter cells.
d) Growth: These smaller daughter cells then take in nutrients and water, grow to their
full size, and the whole process is repeated millions of times to build the complex body
of an organism.

12.2 DIFFERENTIATION: MAKING CELLS UNIQUE

1. Definition of Differentiation:
a) As the embryo grows and develops through repeated cell division (mitosis), the new
cells must become different from each other to carry out specific jobs.
b) Differentiation is the process where a cell changes from being a general, unspecialised
cell into a cell that is specialised to carry out a particular function.
c) Once a cell has differentiated and become specialised (e.g., a nerve cell or a muscle
cell), it usually cannot change back.

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2. Importance of Specialisation:
a) The bodies of complex organisms require a huge variety of tasks to be performed, such
as moving, sensing the environment, digesting food, transporting oxygen, and
protecting from disease.
b) Cell specialisation ensures that each task is performed very efficiently by cells that are
uniquely designed for that purpose. For instance, a sperm cell is specialised for
movement, while a leaf cell is specialised for light absorption.
3. How Genes Control Differentiation:
a) Every single cell in your body, from your brain cells to your skin cells (except for sex
cells), contains the exact same set of genes (the same DNA).
b) To become specialised, cells must produce different proteins (which carry out all the
work in a cell).
c) Different genes code for the production of different proteins.
d) Differentiation happens because certain genes are 'switched on' while others are
'switched off' in a particular cell.

(a) For example, in a muscle cell, the genes for producing muscle-specific
proteins are switched on, while the genes for producing nerve-signalling
chemicals are switched off.

(b) In a nerve cell, the opposite occurs.

e) The location of the cell in the developing embryo often determines which genes are
switched on, directing it to become a specific cell type.

12.3 SPECIALISED ANIMAL CELLS:

1. Red Blood Cell
a. Modification (How they look different): They are tiny, flexible, and have a unique
biconcave disc shape (pinched in the middle). Crucially, they lack a nucleus (once
mature).
b. Function (Adaptation): Their main job is to transport oxygen.
i. Adaptation: Lacking a nucleus allows them to have more space to pack in the
oxygen-carrying protein, haemoglobin.
ii. Adaptation: The biconcave shape gives them a very large surface area to
volume ratio for rapid diffusion of oxygen both into and out of the cell.

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2. Nerve Cell (Neurone)

a. Modification (How they look different): They are extremely long and thin (sometimes
over a metre in length) and have branched endings called dendrites.
b. Function (Adaptation): To transmit electrical signals (nerve impulses) quickly over long
distances:
i. Adaptation: The long axon (the main body of the cell) allows impulses to travel
rapidly from one part of the body to another.

ii. Adaptation: The branched dendrites allow the neurone to connect with many
other nerve cells or muscle cells.
3. Sperm Cell
a. Modification (How they look different): They have a distinct head, a middle section,
and a long tail (flagellum).
b. Function (Adaptation): To swim to the egg cell and pass on the male genetic
information:
i. Adaptation: The tail is used for locomotion (swimming), allowing it to move
quickly.
ii. Adaptation: The middle section is packed with mitochondria (the
'powerhouses' of the cell) to provide the energy (ATP) needed for the tail to
move.

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4. Smooth Muscle Cell

a. Modification (How they look different): They are elongated, spindle-shaped cells.
b. Function (Adaptation): To contract and relax to cause movement of internal organs
(like pushing food through the gut or regulating blood flow).
c. Adaptation: They contain special protein filaments (fibres) that can slide past each
other, allowing the cell to shorten (contract) and generate force.

5. Ciliated Epithelial Cell (Lining the breathing tubes)

a. Modification (How they look different): These cells are typically column-shaped and
have tiny, hair-like projections called cilia on their outer surface.
b. Function (Adaptation): To sweep mucus, dust, and bacteria out of the breathing
passages (trachea and bronchi).
c. Adaptation: The cilia constantly beat in a coordinated, wave-like motion, moving a
layer of mucus upwards and out of the lungs (often called the 'mucus escalator').

12.4 SPECIALISED PLANT CELLS:

1. Root Hair Cell
a) Modification (How they look different): They are found on the outer layer of the plant
root and have a long, thin, microscopic extension (the 'root hair').
b) Function (Adaptation): To absorb water and mineral ions from the soil.
c) Adaptation:
i. The root hair extension dramatically increases the surface area to volume ratio for
maximum absorption of water by osmosis and mineral ions by active transport.
ii. They often contain many mitochondria to provide the energy needed for active
transport of ions.

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2. Palisade Mesophyll Cell

a) Modification (How they look different): They are long, cylindrical cells located directly
below the upper surface of the leaf (where they get maximum sunlight).
b) Function (Adaptation): To carry out photosynthesis.
c) Adaptation:
[Link] are packed full of chloroplasts (the organelles where photosynthesis takes place)
and are positioned to capture as much sunlight as possible.
[Link] large, regular shape allows them to be packed closely together in the leaf, forming
a continuous layer for maximum light absorption.

3. Guard Cell
a) Modification (How they look different): They are found in pairs on the leaf surface and
have a distinct, curved or bean-like shape.
b) Function (Adaptation): To control the opening and closing of the stomata (pores) to
regulate gas exchange (carbon dioxide, oxygen) and water loss.
c) Adaptation:

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[Link] unique curved shape allows a gap (the stoma) to form between them when they
swell with water, and close the gap when they lose water.
[Link] contain chloroplasts and can use energy to actively move ions and control water
movement, influencing their shape.
4. Xylem Vessel Element:
a) Modification (How they look different): They are long, dead, hollow tubes. The end walls
between adjacent cells have completely broken down. Their walls are strengthened by a
tough material called lignin.
b) Function (Adaptation): To transport water and mineral ions from the roots up to the
leaves.
c)Adaptation:
i. Being hollow and having no end walls means they form a continuous, uninterrupted
tube, allowing water to flow freely as a column.
ii. The lignin strengthens the cell walls, helping the tube to withstand the water pressure
and providing structural support for the plant.
5. Phloem Sieve Tube Element
a) Modification (How they look different): They are living cells arranged end-to-end to form
a tube, but they have few internal organelles (no nucleus). The end walls between cells
have holes, forming a sieve plate.
b) Function (Adaptation): To transport dissolved sugars (made during photosynthesis)
throughout the plant.
c)Adaptation:
i. The sieve plates allow sugars to pass easily from one cell to the next.
ii. They are associated with companion cells which contain all the necessary organelles
(like mitochondria) to actively load and unload the sugars, providing the energy and
control the sieve tube cell cannot provide itself.

12.5 STEM CELLS AND THEIR ROLE IN MEDICINE

1. What are Stem Cells?
a) Stem cells are special, unspecialised cells that are found in both animals and plants.
b) They are unspecialised, meaning they have not yet differentiated to carry out a specific
function.
c) They have the ability to divide by mitosis repeatedly to produce more stem cells (self-
renewal).
d) They have the potential to differentiate (turn into) various types of specialised cells
(like a blood cell, nerve cell, or muscle cell).
2. Where are Stem Cells Found?
a) Embryonic Stem Cells: Found in very early embryos; these are pluripotent, meaning
they can differentiate into any type of cell in the body.
b) Adult Stem Cells: Found in specific organs and tissues (like bone marrow or fat tissue)
in adults; these are typically multipotent, meaning they can only differentiate into a
limited range of cell types, usually to replace old or damaged cells in that tissue.

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3. Advantages of Using Stem Cells in Medicine (Stem cell therapy):

a) (a) Treating Blood Diseases: Stem cells from bone marrow can be transplanted into
patients with blood disorders (like leukaemia) to replace their faulty blood cells with
healthy new ones.
b) (b) Replacing Damaged Tissue: They could potentially be used to grow new tissues and
organs to treat conditions like spinal cord injuries (growing new nerve cells), heart
damage (growing new heart muscle), or type 1 diabetes (growing new insulin-
producing cells). This field is called regenerative medicine.
c) (c) Drug Testing and Research: Scientists can grow human tissues (like liver or brain
tissue) from stem cells in the lab to test new drugs safely and to better understand how
diseases work.
4. Disadvantages and Ethical Issues of Using Stem Cells in Medicine:
a) (a) Risk of Cancer: If the stem cells divide uncontrollably after transplantation, there is
a risk that they could form a tumour (mass of cells) or cancer.
b) (b) Risk of Rejection: The patient's immune system might recognise the transplanted
stem cells as foreign and try to attack and destroy them (like any organ transplant).
c) (c) Ethical Concerns (Embryonic Stem Cells): The use of stem cells taken from human
embryos raises serious ethical and moral concerns for many people, as it involves
destroying the embryo.
d) (d) Difficulty in Control: It is challenging for scientists to completely control the exact
path of differentiation and ensure the stem cells only turn into the desired cell type
after injection into the body.

12.6 HOMEWORK
1. Define the term 'cell differentiation' and explain why it is essential for the development of a
complex, multicellular organism. (3)
2. List the five main levels of organisation in a multicellular organism, starting with the smallest
unit. (5)
3. Explain how a root hair cell is structurally adapted to its function of absorbing water and
mineral ions from the soil. (4)
4. State two advantages and two disadvantages of using stem cells in medical treatments. (4)
5. Compare the structure of a red blood cell with that of a nerve cell, relating the structural
differences to their specific functions in the body. (6)
o Structure (2 marks), Function (2 marks), Comparison/Linking structure to function (2
marks)

Total Marks: 22

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LESSON 13: LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

Main Objective(s):

2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems

Sub-Objective:

Define and provide detailed examples for each level of organisation, from organelles to organ
systems, and explain how they work together.

13.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATION IN MULTICELLULAR

LIFE
All living things are structured in a highly organised way. In multicellular organisms (organisms made
up of many cells), the cells are arranged in a specific hierarchy. This layered organisation allows the
body to perform complex tasks very efficiently. Think of it like a successful factory, where every
worker and department has a specific, well-defined role.

1. Organelles:
a) Definition:
i. Organelles are the tiny, specialized structures found suspended within the
cytoplasm of a cell.
ii. The word literally means "little organs."
b) Function: Each type of organelle has a distinct and crucial job, allowing the cell to carry
out all the basic life processes (like getting energy, growing, and making new
substances).
2. Cells:
a) Definition:
i. The cell is the fundamental (most basic) unit of structure and function in every
living thing.
ii. Nothing smaller than a cell can carry out all eight characteristics of life (MRS
GREN).
b) Specialisation (Differentiation):
i. In multicellular organisms, cells become specialised to perform a unique job.
ii. This process is called cell differentiation.
iii. Once a cell differentiates, it usually develops specific shapes and features that
allow it to be extremely good at its single function.

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3. Tissues:
a) Definition: A tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure (often the same
specialised type) and work together to perform a specific shared function.
b) Function: Grouping cells into a tissue allows for the coordination of effort, making the
function much more effective and powerful than a single cell could manage.
c) Examples of Tissues:
i. Muscle Tissue:
• Consists of millions of identical muscle cells which are long and slender.
• Their only job is to contract (shorten) forcefully, generating the power
needed to move your skeleton or pump blood (in the heart).
ii. Nervous Tissue:
• Made up of a dense network of nerve cells (neurons). Its function is to
rapidly transmit electrical signals (impulses) from one part of the body
to another.
iii. Epidermal Tissue (Plant):
• This is a single layer of cells that covers the upper and lower surfaces of
a leaf.
• Its main function is to protect the inner tissues and prevent water loss.

Diagram 13.1 showing different types of tissues

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4. Organs:
a) Definition:
i. An organ is a structure that is made up of several different types of tissues that
are organised together to carry out a complex, overall function.
b) Teamwork:
i. The different tissues within an organ are essential for its function.
ii. For example, a heart needs muscle tissue to pump, nervous tissue to control the
rate, and blood vessels (which are tissues themselves) to allow blood to flow in
and out.
iii. Examples of Organs in Animals:
• The Lung: Its function is gas exchange. It includes epithelial tissue (lining
the air sacs), muscle tissue (to control the air passages), nervous tissue,
and blood tissue (in capillaries).
• The Stomach: Its main job is to churn and partially digest food. It is
made of glandular tissue (to produce digestive acid and enzymes),
muscle tissue (to mix the food), and epithelial tissue (to line the inside).
iv. Examples of Organs in Plants:
• The Root: Made of different tissues like the epidermis (for absorption),
xylem and phloem (for transport), and parenchyma (for storage). Its
overall functions are anchorage and absorption.
• The Stem: Provides support for the leaves and flowers and transports
substances between the roots and leaves.
5. Organ Systems:
a) Definition:
i. An organ system is a group of organs that work together in a coordinated
manner to carry out a major, life-sustaining function for the entire organism.
b) The Biggest Job: This is the highest and most complex level of organisation. Each
system is responsible for one of the body's main processes.
c) The seven main organ systems in the human body:
i. Digestive System:
• Organs: Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach, Small and Large Intestines, Liver,
Pancreas.
• Overall Function: To break down (digest) large, complex food molecules
into smaller, simpler molecules that can be absorbed into the blood and
used by the cells.
ii. Gas Exchange (Respiratory) System:
• Organs: Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Lungs.
• Overall Function: To take in oxygen needed for respiration and remove
carbon dioxide produced as a waste product.

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Diagram 13.2 showing some of the main organs of the human body.

iii. Circulatory System:

• Organs: Heart, Blood Vessels (Arteries, Veins, Capillaries).
• Overall Function: To transport essential materials (oxygen, nutrients,
hormones) to every cell in the body and carry away waste products (like
carbon dioxide and urea).
iv. Nervous System:
• Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves.
• Overall Function: To detect changes in the environment (stimuli),
process the information, and send rapid electrical signals to coordinate
the body's responses.
v. Excretory System (often focused on the Urinary System):
• Organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra.

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• Overall Function: To filter the blood to remove toxic metabolic waste

products (especially urea from protein breakdown) and excess water,
maintaining the body's balance.
vi. (v) Nervous System:
• Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerves.
• Overall Function: This system acts like the body's electrical wiring. It
allows the body to rapidly detect changes (stimuli) in the internal or
external environment, process the information in the brain/spinal cord,
and send immediate electrical signals (impulses) to muscles or glands to
coordinate a quick response.
vii. Endocrine System (Slow Communication):
• Organs: Glands (e.g., Pancreas, Thyroid Gland, Adrenal Glands, Pituitary
Gland).
• Overall Function: This system controls long-term functions and
regulation. The glands produce and secrete hormones (chemical
messengers) directly into the blood. These hormones travel through the
circulatory system to reach specific target cells or organs, causing a
slow, widespread change.

13.2 HOMEWORK QUESTIONS

1. List the five main levels of organisation in a multicellular organism, starting from the
smallest unit and progressing to the largest. (5)
2. Define the following terms, ensuring you mention both the structure and its function:
(a) Tissue (2) (b) Organ (2) (c) Organ System (2)
3. Name the organelle known as the 'powerhouse' of the cell and state the life process
that occurs there. (2)
4. Explain what is meant by cell specialisation (or differentiation) and give one example of
a specialised cell in the human body, stating how its structure helps its function. (4)
5. Compare and contrast the function of the Nervous System and the Endocrine System
in coordinating body actions, mentioning the method of communication for each and
the speed of their responses. (6)
6. The kidney is an organ of the Excretory System. Explain the major overall function of
the Excretory System. (1)

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