Reproduction

Dr. Pragati Patel

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Vety Physiology & Biochemistry
Reproduction – Sequence of biological events leading to multiplication
(production of offsprings) to ensure continuation of species

Prenatal dev. of Reproductive system Birth Growth

Puberty
Cyclicity
Copulation
Fertilization
Embryogenesis
Implantation
Gestations
Parturition
Postpartum recovery
Cyclicity
Indifferent Stage of Development
In early embryonic life, male and female embryos look similar. They possess:

• Primitive gonads
Two duct systems:
• Mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts
• Paramesonephric (Müllerian) ducts

• External genital primordia:

• Genital tubercle
• Urogenital folds
• Labioscrotal swellings
At this stage, the embryo has the potential to become either male or female.
 Genetic Basis of Sex Differentiation

• XY chromosome → Male development

• XX chromosome → Female development

• SRY gene on Y chromosome initiates testicular development

Development of Male Reproductive System
• Gonadal Differentiation
Primitive gonad develops into testis.
• Sertoli Cells
Produce: Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH)
AMH causes regression of Müllerian ducts.
• Leydig Cells
Produce: Testosterone
Testosterone stimulates development of Wolffian ducts.
 Male Genital Duct Development
Wolffian Ducts form:

• Epididymis

• Ductus deferens (vas deferens)

• Seminal vesicles

• Ejaculatory ducts

Müllerian Ducts

• Degenerate due to AMH.

 Development of Male External Genitalia

Under the influence of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT):

• Genital tubercle → Penis

• Urogenital folds → Penile urethra

• Labioscrotal swellings → Scrotum

 Testicular Descent

Testes develop near kidneys and descend into scrotum through:

• Inguinal canal

• Guided by gubernaculum (a ligament connecting the testis to the

scrotum)

Failure of descent is called:

• Cryptorchidism
•Transabdominal Phase: The testis is pulled down from the upper abdomen to
the groin. This phase is primarily driven by the hormone INSL3 (insulin-like
peptide 3).

•Inguinoscrotal Phase: The testis moves through the inguinal canal and settles
into the scrotum. This phase is controlled by androgens (testosterone) and the
genitofemoral nerve
 Development of Female Reproductive System

Genetic Basis
• Presence of XX chromosomes
• Absence of SRY gene
• Without testicular hormones, female development occurs naturally.
Gonadal Differentiation
• Primitive gonad develops into ovary.
• No AMH and little testosterone are produced.
 Female Genital Duct Development
Müllerian Ducts form:
• Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
• Uterus
• Cervix
• Cranial vagina

Wolffian Ducts
• Mostly degenerate.
 Development of Female External Genitalia

• Genital tubercle → Clitoris

• Urogenital folds → Vulva

• Labioscrotal swellings → Labia

 Development of Vagina

• Cranial vagina develops from Müllerian ducts

• Caudal vagina develops from urogenital sinus

 Hormonal Control
Hormone Function
AMH Regression of Müllerian ducts
Testosterone Development of Wolffian ducts
Development of male external
DHT
genitalia
Female tract development mainly
Estrogen (minimal role
occurs by absence of male
embryonically)
hormones
 Summary
Male Pathway
• XY chromosome → Testis formation → AMH + Testosterone → Wolffian
duct development + Müllerian regression → Male genitalia

Female Pathway
• XX chromosome → Ovary formation → No AMH/Testosterone →
Müllerian duct development → Female genitalia
 Key Concepts
•Both sexes start with identical embryonic structures.
•Presence of testes determines male differentiation.
•Absence of testicular hormones leads to female development.
•Wolffian ducts are male ducts.
•Müllerian ducts are female ducts.
 Male Reproductive physiology

[Link] sexual organs: - Testis

- Scrotum

[Link] sexual organs:- Spermatic cord, Epididymis,

Vas deferens (Ductus deferens), Urethra

3. Accessory sex glands:- Seminal vesicles (vasicular glands)

- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral gland(Cowper’s gland)

4. External genitalia - Penis

- Prepuce
 Scrotum

• A pouch of skin containing the testicles.

• It is located between the thigh except boar and cat where it is located
caudal to thigh

• It protects the testes and regulates temperature for sperm production.

• Located outside the abdominal cavity.
• Composed of skin, dartos muscle, fascia, and tunics.
• Divided into two compartments by a septum.
Layers of the Scrotum

• Different layer of tissues that are present in between the scrotal skin
(outer protective layer) and testis

1 .Tunica dartose : smooth muscle regulating surface area.

2. Loose connective tissue

3. Vaginal process layer: TV Communis & TVPropria (I)

4. Tunica albuginea: Fibromuscular tissue : support and protection.

 Functions of the Scrotum
Function Details
Thermoregulation Maintains temperature ~2–4°C below body
temp for optimal spermatogenesis

Protection of Testes Acts as a physical barrier and shock absorber

Sperm Maturation Environment Supports testicular function for sperm

development

Reflex Contraction Cremaster and dartos muscles contract to

regulate position & temperature
 Temperature Regulation
• Scrotal temperature is usually 2–6°C lower than body temperature.
• Achieved through sweat glands, dartos muscle and pampiniform
plexus.
• Essential for normal sperm production.
• During the hot season, the thermoregulatory action of the tunica dartos
muscles causes it to relax, allowing the scrotum to elongate, dropping
the testes far from the body.
• During the cold season, the scrotal muscle contracts, retracting the
scrotum and bringing the testes nearer to the body.
 Blood Supply and Innervation
• Supplied mainly by external pudendal arteries.
• Venous drainage through pampiniform plexus.
• Innervated by genitofemoral and pudendal nerves.
Species Differences
• Bull: pendulous scrotum with vertical orientation.
• Stallion: less pendulous with horizontal testes.
• Boar: scrotum located near the perineal region.
• Dog: positioned between hind limbs.
 TESTES

• Paired, Lie outside the abdominal cavity.

• The position and orientation varies with species.

• In all domestic animals, it is located between thighs.

• In cats and boar – Caudal to thighs

Primary Functions of the Testes:

• Exocrine Function: Produce spermatozoa (male gametes)

• Endocrine Function: Secrete testosterone and other androgens

• Temperature Regulation: Maintain optimal environment for

spermatogenesis

Key Fact: Testes require temperatures 4-5°C below body temperature

for efficient sperm production
Anatomical Position - Species Comparison
Species Testis Position Shape Approx. Weight

Inguinal region,
Horse Globular 250-300g
pendulous

Scrotal, further
Bull Oval, pendulous 300g
forward

Between inguinal Small, rounded

Dog ~250g
region and anus oval

Boar Perineal region Oblique orientation Varies

 Gross Anatomy of the Testis

External Features:

• Tunica albuginea: Dense white connective tissue capsule

• Mediastinum testis: Axial connective tissue strand (present in most species)
• Septula testis: Connective tissue partitions dividing testis into lobules

Vasculature:

• Testicular artery (from aorta)

• Pampiniform plexus (venous network for heat exchange)
• Cremaster muscle (elevates testes for temperature control)
Spermatic cord
The spermatic cord is the name given to the cord
like structure in males formed by the vas deferens and
surrounding tissue that run from the abdomen down to
each testicle.

Spermatic cord
1. Spermatic nerve
2. Spermatic artery
3. Spermatic vein
4. Lymphatics
5. Vas deferens (ductus deferens)
6. Cremaster m.
• The main functions of spermatic cord are:
• Provide vascular , lymphatic and neural connection
• Provide heat exchanger- pampiniform plexus- (network
of many small veins found in spermatic cord )
• Counter Current Heat Exchange
➢ 39°C - 34°C

• cremaster muscles.
• Spermatic cord suspends the testis.
Histological Organization
TESTIS STRUCTURE

├── Seminiferous Tubules (70-80% of volume)

├── Seminiferous epithelium
├── Spermatogenic cells
└── Sertoli cells
├── Interstitial Tissue (20-30% of volume)
├── Leydig cells
├── Blood vessels
└── Lymphatics

└── Excurrent Duct System

├── Tubuli recti
── Rete testis
└── Efferent ducts
The Seminiferous Tubule
• Highly coiled tubules producing sperm
• Basement membrane with peritubular myoid cells
• Two cell populations:

Cell Type Location Primary Function

Spermatogenic cells Between Sertoli cells Produce sperm

Sertoli cells Basement membrane to Support/nurse germ cells

lumen
 Sertoli Cells - The "Nurse Cells"
Structure:
• Tall columnar cells from basement membrane to lumen
• Irregular nucleus with prominent nucleolus
• Cytoplasmic processes enveloping germ cells
Functions:
• Provide structural and nutritional support to developing germ cells
• Form blood-testis barrier (occluding junctions)
• Phagocytose residual bodies and degenerating cells
• Secrete:
• Androgen-binding protein (ABP)
• Inhibin
• Plasminogen activator
• Release mature spermatids (spermiation)
•
 Leydig (Interstitial) Cells
Location: In connective tissue between seminiferous tubules

Morphology:
• Large, polyhedral cells
• Eosinophilic cytoplasm
• Round, centrally-placed nucleus
• Lipid droplets present

Primary Function: Testosterone synthesis under LH stimulation

• Clinical Note: Leydig cells are located close to seminiferous tubules
because developing germ cells require 100x higher testosterone
concentration than other cells
Basal Compartment
Adluminal Compartment
RETE TESTES EPIDIDYMIS

• Convoluted seminiferous tubules joins with straight tubules

called Rete testes

• Rete testes come out of testes and joins with efferent duct

which converge to form epididymis

• It is closely attached to the testes

 EPIDIDYMIS

• It is composed of three parts caput ( head) , corpus ( body) and cauda

( tail)

• Caput epididymis – Flattened at proximal part of testes

• Corpus epididymis – Narrowed portion

• Cauda epididymis – It terminate at distal part of testes

• Motile ability of spermatozoa is acquired in epididymis during transit

Transport of spermatozoa is about 9 – 13 days

Functions of Epididymis

• Transportation of spermatozoa

• Storage of spermatozoa

• Maturation of spermatozoa

• Absorption of fluid in the caput epididymis

 VAS DEFERENS

• The vas deferens is a tube emerging from the tail end

of the epididymis
• The muscles of the vas deferens contract involuntarily
during ejaculation of semen and help in the expulsion
of spermatozoa
 Urethra

• The urethra is the common passage for the excretion of urine and
semen.
• It extends through the pelvis and the penis and ends at the tip of the
glans penis as the external urethral orifice.
• In the urethra, spermatozoa mix with the seminal plasma of the
accessory sex fluids at the time of ejaculation.
• Ext. Genitalia – 1. Penis 2. Prepuce
Copulatory organ
• Function [Link] of urine.
2. Semen deposition.
• 3 parts –
• Root – In muscles of pelvic area.
• Body – Erectile tissue –
Sigmoid flexure in bull, boar and Ram
• Retractor penis muscle – ----Inside body.
 Penis

• Male copulatory organ

• The penis is a cylindrical organ opens at sheath.
• When the bull is not sexually excited, the penis is in a "S" - shaped
from known as a sigmoid flexure.
• During erection, the longitudinal flexure straightens, thereby
increasing the length of the organ.
• The retractor muscles help to return the extended penis to flexed state.
Ampulla
• Terminal portion of vas deferens is enlarged and
glandular called ampulla

• It contributes fluid to semen

• Well developed in stallion

• Contribute Ergothione to ejaculate

 Seminal vesicles (Vesicular glands)
• Paired gland and located in floor of the pelvis
• Duct of vesicular gland and ductus deference share a
common ejaculating duct that opens into urethra
• Absent in dog and cat
• Function : contribute 50% of the total semen ejaculate
• The secretion of seminal vesicle contents protein
fructose, citric acid , potassium bicarbonate and
several enzyme.
• In stallion its secretion contribute gel to the ejaculate

• In boar the secretion are milky and highly viscous and

contain high Inositol content and also contain
Ergothione

• In bulls secretion are yellow due to high riboflavin

content.
 Prostate gland
• Unpaired

• Located on the pelvic floor, or around the neck of the bladder

• The secretion are rich in enzymes

• Contribute Zn to the semen

• Its secretion give characteristic odour to semen

• Its fluid by its alkaline nature, neutralize the acidity of vaginal

secretion

• It adds its secretion to semen at the time of ejaculation

 Cowper’s gland (Bulbourethral glands)

• Paired gland

• It is located on either side of pelvic urethra

• Absent in dogs

• In boar, its secretion is white and viscous that forms gel in the
ejaculation

• The secretion of accessory glands are mixed with fluid

suspension of spermatozoa at the time of ejaculation
UNIQUE FEATURES OF REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF
MALE ANIMALS

• In ram, the penis is characterized by a filiform appendage

containing urethra

• In pigs, accessory glands are larger in size which contribute

remarkable large volume of semen

• In penis of stallion, the urethra protrudes few centimeters from

the surface of glans penis

• Penis of bull, ram and boar contains sigmoid flexure that is

straightened during erection and extension of penis
• In dogs, remarkable feature is os penis, locking of penis during
coitus
• In dogs except prostate and ampulla, all other accessory glands are
absent
• The presence of spines in the penis of cat
 Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which male germ cells develop into
mature spermatozoa within the seminiferous tubules of the testes. It is
essential for male fertility in domestic animals.

Three Phases :
• Spermatocytogenesis : Mitosis of spermatogonia
• Meiosis: Primary → secondary spermatocytes
• Spermiogenesis : Spermatids → spermatozoa
 Stages of Spermatogenesis

1. Spermatocytogenesis (Mitotic Phase)

• Begins with spermatogonia located on the basement membrane of

seminiferous tubules.

• Spermatogonia undergo mitotic divisions.

• Some remain as stem cells, while others differentiate into primary

spermatocytes.
 Spermatocytogenesis
Process
• Spermatogonia (stem cells) divide mitotically
• Type A spermatogonia: Self-renewing stem cells
• Type B spermatogonia: Committed to differentiation

• Key Points:
• Produces primary spermatocytes
• Maintains stem cell pool for continuous production
• Occurs in basal compartment of seminiferous epithelium
2. Meiosis (Maturation Phase)
• Primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division to form
secondary spermatocytes.
• Secondary spermatocytes rapidly undergo the second meiotic division to
produce spermatids.
• This process reduces the chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid
(n).
 Meiosis
Purpose: Reduce chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (1n)
Stages:
• Primary Spermatocyte (2n)
• Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene
• Longest phase
• Secondary Spermatocyte (1n)
• Short-lived, rarely seen in histology sections
• Spermatid (1n)
Unique Feature: Exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes (crossing over)
 SPERMIOGENESIS
• Transformation of round, non motile spermatids into potentially spermatozoa by
a series of progressive morphologic changes is called as spermiogenesis.

• These changes include

• Development of an organelle, the acrosome that allows penetration of the

oocyte

• Development of mitochondria to furnish energy during movement in the

female tract

• Formation of a tail to aid movement within the female reproductive tract

• A considerable amount of the cytoplasm is extruded from the
cell during spermatogenesis.

• Remnants of the cytoplasm are sometimes observed attached to

the spermatozoa and are referred to as cytoplasm droplets.

• Spermiogenesis starts in the seminiferous tubules and

completes in the epididymis.

• The various stages of development of spermatid transformation

of are divided into 4 phases
3. Spermiogenesis (Transformation Phase)

• Spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa without further cell division.

• Major changes include:

• Formation of the acrosome.

• Condensation of the nucleus.

• Development of the tail (flagellum).

• Arrangement of mitochondria in the middle piece.

• Removal of excess cytoplasm.

 Phase Key Events

Spermiogenesis - Golgi phase

Acrosome formation from Golgi
vesicles
Spermatid Cap phase Acrosome spreads over nucleus
Differentiation Nuclear condensation,
Acrosomal phase
elongation

Excess cytoplasm shed as

Maturation phase
Four Phases residual bodies
4. Spermiation

• Mature spermatozoa are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of
the seminiferous tubules.

• They then pass to the epididymis for maturation and storage.

Structural Changes

• Nucleus elongates and condenses

• Flagellum develops
• Mitochondria aggregate in middle piece
• Manchette (transient microtubule structure) guides elongation
 Spermatozoon Structure
Head
── Nucleus (condensed chromatin)
── Acrosome (hydrolytic enzymes)
Neck (connecting piece)
Middle Piece
└── Mitochondrial sheath (energy production)
Principal Piece (fibrous sheath)
End Piece (axoneme only)
 Species Differences

The duration of spermatogenesis varies among domestic animals:

• Bull: ~61 days

• Ram: ~49 days

• Boar: ~39 days

• Stallion: ~57 days

• Dog: ~62 days

 Hormonal Control

• GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates release of gonadotropins.

• FSH acts on Sertoli cells and supports spermatogenesis.

• LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone.

• Testosterone is essential for normal sperm production.

• Inhibin from Sertoli cells negatively regulates FSH secretion.

Androgens

• Secreted from the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) of testis

• Includes testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and
androstenedione
• Testosterone is more abundant than the other two
• Adrenal cortex, ovaries, placenta secrete very less
quantity of androgen
• Lack of testosterone causes low sex drive (or) lack of
libido
Testosterone
• Maintains spermatogenesis - Supports meiosis
• Causes differentiation of fetal male reproductive tract and
testicular descend
• Developing and maintaining libido (sex drive)
• Maintains secretory activity of the accessory glands
• Develops and maintains secondary male sexual
characteristics
• Heavier bones;
• Greater muscling;
• thicker skin;
• deeper voice,
• aggressiveness (especially bull)
• Anabolic hormone – positive nitrogen balance, Stimulates
erythropoesis, increases BMR Stimulates pheromone
secretion (cat, boar and many animals)
• Dihydroxytestosterone (DHT)
• Testosterone is converted to DHT in androgen sensitive cells

• DHT is the actual steroid that binds to the androgen receptor to

elicit and action

• C-16 unsaturated androgens - 5α-androstenone

• Produced from Leydig cells

• Primarily in the boar

• Acts as a pheromone in saliva and urine

• Responsible for boar taint

 Blood-Testis Barrier
Structure: Occluding junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. The Sertoli cells develop tight

junctions that create a physical barrier between the bloodstream and the testicular tubules.

Location: Divides seminiferous epithelium into:

• Basal compartment: Contains spermatogonia

• Adluminal compartment: Contains primary spermatocytes, spermatids

Functions:

• Prevents autoimmune response against developing germ cells

• Creates specialized microenvironment for meiosis

• Controls entry of substances into adluminal compartment.

 Hormonal Control of
Spermatogenesis

Hormone Source Target Cell Effect

GnRH Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Stimulates FSH/LH release

Supports
FSH Anterior pituitary Sertoli cells spermatocytogenesis,
spermiation

Stimulates testosterone
LH Anterior pituitary Leydig cells
production

Testosterone Leydig cells Sertoli cells, germ cells Promotes meiosis

Inhibin Sertoli cells Anterior pituitary Negative feedback on FSH