<h1 class="thick">Class‑Work Notes – Electrostatic Potential & Capacitance</h1>

<h2 class="thick">1. Introduction – Conservative Forces & Potential Energy</h2>

Key ideas

Conservative force – work depends only on end points, not on the path. (\displaystyle \oint
\mathbf{F}!\cdot d\mathbf{r}=0).
Potential energy (U) – work done by an external agent against a conservative force from A to B equals
the increase in potential energy: (W_{\text{ext}}(A!\to!B)=U_B-U_A).
Electrostatic force – Coulomb’s law (\displaystyle \mathbf{F}_{C}=k\frac{q_1q_2}
{r^{2}}\hat{\mathbf r}) ((k=1/4\pi\varepsilon_0)). It is conservative ⇒ a potential energy exists.

Why external work?

If the external agent applies (\mathbf{F}_{\text{ext}}=-\mathbf{F}_C), the net force on the test
charge is zero, the charge moves quasi‑statically and all supplied work is stored as potential energy.

<h2 class="thick">2. Electrostatic Potential (V)</h2>

2.1 Definition from work

Consider a unit positive test charge moved from a reference point R (usually infinity) to a point P against the
electrostatic force.

$\boxed{V_P - V_R = W_{\text{ext}}(R!\to!P)}$

Choosing (V_{\infty}=0) gives (V_P = W_{\text{ext}}(\infty!\to!P)).

Note: Only differences in potential have physical meaning.

2.2 Path‑independence (conservative property)

For any two points (A,B):

$W_{\text{ext}}(A!\to!B)=\int_A^B!(-\mathbf{F}_C)!\cdot d\mathbf r = U_B-U_A$

Hence the work is independent of the chosen trajectory.

2.3 Relation between field and potential

Since (\mathbf{F}_C = q\mathbf{E}),

$\mathbf{E}= -\nabla V$

The electric field points in the direction of decreasing potential.

<h2 class="thick">3. Potential of a Point Charge</h2>

Setup

Place a point charge (Q) at the origin. The electric field at distance (r) is:

$\mathbf{E}(r)=k\frac{Q}{r^{2}}\hat{\mathbf r},\qquad k=\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}.

$

Work from (\infty) to (r)

Choosing a radial path:

$\begin{aligned}
dW_{\text{ext}}&=-\mathbf{E}\cdot d\mathbf r =-k\frac{Q}{r^{2}}dr\
W_{\text{ext}}(\infty\to r)&=\int_{\infty}^{r}!-k\frac{Q}{r^{2}}dr = k\frac{Q}{r};.
\end{aligned}$

Resulting potential

$\boxed{V(r)=k\frac{Q}{r}=\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\frac{Q}{r}}$

The potential energy of a test charge (q) at that point is (U=qV).

<h2 class="thick">4. Potential of an Electric Dipole</h2>

A dipole consists of charges (+q) and (-q) separated by (2a). The dipole moment is (\mathbf p =
q(2a),\hat{\mathbf n}).

Using superposition and expanding for (r\gg a):

$\boxed{V_{\text{dipole}}(\mathbf r)=\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\frac{\mathbf p\cdot\hat{\mathbf r}}

{r^{2}}}
$

The field of a dipole falls off as (1/r^{3}).

<h2 class="thick">5. Superposition for Arbitrary Distributions</h2>

For point charges (q_i) at (\mathbf r_i):

$\boxed{V(\mathbf r)=\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\sum_i\frac{q_i}{|\mathbf r-\mathbf r_i|}}$

For a continuous charge density (\rho(\mathbf r')):

$V(\mathbf r)=\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\int\frac{\rho(\mathbf r')}{|\mathbf r-\mathbf r'|},d\tau'.$

<h2 class="thick">6. Equipotential Surfaces</h2>

Definition: All points where (V=\text{constant}).

Property: (\mathbf E) is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface (because (\mathbf E=-\nabla V)).
For a point charge: Equipotentials are concentric spheres.

Moving a charge along an equipotential requires no work.

<h2 class="thick">7. Capacitance</h2>

Definition

A capacitor stores charge (\pm Q) on two conductors separated by an insulator. By definition:

$\boxed{C=\frac{Q}{V}}$

Unit: farad (F).

Parallel‑Plate Capacitor (vacuum)

Plate area (A), separation (d).

Surface charge density (\sigma = Q/A).
Field between plates: (E = \sigma/\varepsilon_0 = Q/(\varepsilon_0 A)).
Potential difference: (V = Ed = Qd/(\varepsilon_0 A)).
Hence
$\boxed{C = \frac{\varepsilon_0 A}{d}}$

Energy Stored

$U = \frac12 C V^{2}=\frac12 QV=\frac{Q^{2}}{2C}$

Energy Density

$u = \frac12 \varepsilon_0 E^{2}\quad\text{(J m}^{-3}\text{)}$

Dielectrics

If the gap is filled with a dielectric of relative permittivity (K):

$C = K\frac{\varepsilon_0 A}{d}=K C_{0}$

The field inside is reduced, allowing more charge for the same voltage.

Combination of Capacitors

Series: (\displaystyle \frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \sum \frac{1}{C_i}).

Parallel: (\displaystyle C_{eq}=\sum C_i).

<h2 class="thick">8. Worked Example – Charging a Parallel‑Plate Capacitor</h2>

Given: (C=900,\text{pF}), connected to (100,\text{V}).

Charge: (Q = CV = 9.0\times10^{-8},\text{C}).
Energy: (U = \tfrac12 CV^{2}=4.5\times10^{-6},\text{J}).

<h2 class="thick">9. Energy Loss When Two Capacitors Share Charge</h2>

Two identical (C=900,\text{pF}) caps are first charged to (100,\text{V}). After the battery is removed, the like
plates are connected together.

1. Initial energy: (U_i = C V^{2}=9.0\times10^{-6},\text{J}).

2. Total charge conserved: (Q_{\text{tot}} = 2CV = 1.8\times10^{-7},\text{C}).
3. After joining (parallel): (C_{eq}=2C),( V_f = Q_{\text{tot}}/C_{eq}=50,\text{V}).
 4. Final energy: (U_f = \tfrac12 C_{eq}V_f^{2}=2.25\times10^{-6},\text{J}).
5. Loss: (\Delta U = 6.75\times10^{-6},\text{J}) (heat + radiation).

<h2 class="thick">10. Quick Reference Sheet</h2>

Quantity Symbol Formula

(k = \dfrac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}=8.99\times10^{9},\rm
Coulomb constant (k)
N,m^{2}C^{-2})

Electric field (point (\mathbf

(\displaystyle \mathbf E = k\frac{Q}{r^{2}}\hat{\mathbf r})
charge) E)

Potential (point charge) (V) (\displaystyle V = k\frac{Q}{r})

Potential (dipole, (r\gg

(V) (\displaystyle V = k\frac{\mathbf p!\cdot!\hat{\mathbf r}}{r^{2}})
a))

Superposition (V) (\displaystyle V = k\sum_i\frac{q_i}{r_i})

Parallel‑plate
(C) (\displaystyle C = \frac{\varepsilon_0 A}{d})
capacitance

With dielectric (C) (\displaystyle C = K\frac{\varepsilon_0 A}{d})

(\displaystyle U = \tfrac12 C V^{2}= \tfrac12 QV = \frac{Q^{2}}

Stored energy (U)
{2C})

Energy density (u) (\displaystyle u = \tfrac12 \varepsilon_0 E^{2})

Series combo – (\displaystyle \frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \sum \frac{1}{C_i})

Parallel combo – (\displaystyle C_{eq}= \sum C_i)

Equipotential – (V(\mathbf r)=\text{constant}) (\Rightarrow) (\mathbf E \perp) surface

<h2 class="thick">11. Exercise List (NCERT)</h2>

1. 2.1 – Find points on the line joining (5\times10^{-8},\text{C}) and (-3\times10^{-8},\text{C}) (16 cm
apart) where the net potential is zero.
2. 2.2 – Potential at the centre of a regular hexagon (side = 10 cm) with each vertex holding (5,\mu\text{C}).
3. 2.3 – (a) Identify an equipotential surface for two opposite charges (+2,\mu\text{C}) and (-2,\mu\text{C})
6 cm apart. (b) State the direction of E on that surface.
4. 2.4 – Spherical conductor (radius = 12 cm, charge (1.6\times10^{-7}) C): find E inside, just outside, and at
18 cm.
5. 2.5 – Parallel‑plate cap, (C=8) pF. New capacitance when spacing is halved and a dielectric with (K=6)
fills the gap.
6. 2.6 – Three 9 pF caps in series: total (C) and voltage across each for 120 V supply.
7. 2.7 – Caps 2 pF, 3 pF, 4 pF in parallel: total (C) and charge on each for 100 V.
8. 2.8 – Parallel‑plate cap ((A=6\times10^{-3},\text{m}^{2}), (d=3) mm) at 100 V: compute (C) and plate
charge.
9. 2.9 – Same as 2.8 but insert a 3 mm mica sheet ((K=6)). (a) Battery still connected, (b) after battery
removed.
10. 2.10 – Energy stored in a 12 pF capacitor charged by 50 V.
11. 2.11 – Two 600 pF caps: one charged at 200 V, then disconnected and connected together. Find energy
loss.
12. 2.12 – 2.36 – Advanced problems on work, potentials of charge arrays, fields of cylinders, dielectric
 effects, shielding, Gauss’s law, etc. (Refer to textbook for full statements.)

Exam tip: Write every formula clearly, underline it, and substitute numbers exactly as asked. Show
each algebraic step – the strict teacher will check the logical flow.

Prepared with eye‑catching headings, clear spacing, and concise tables for quick revision.