Chapter-II

AC-DC converters
UNIT-II AC-DC converters

✓ Single phase fully controlled converters with RL load–

Evaluation of input power factor and harmonic factor-
Continuous and Discontinuous load current.
✓ Power factor improvements, Extinction angle control,
symmetrical angle control, PWM control.
✓ Three Phase AC-DC Converters, fully controlled converters
feeding RL load with continuous and discontinuous load
current, Evaluation of input power factor and harmonic
factor-
✓ Three Phase Dual Converters.
 Introduction
➢ Power electronic devices are most widely used in rectification.
Rectification refers to the process of converting an ac voltage
and current to dc voltage and current.
+
AC Line DC Output
Input Commutated V0(dc)
Voltage Converter
-

➢ Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply.

➢ Type of output: Variable dc output voltage

 Introduction
➢ Uncontrolled rectifier: it converts fixed ac voltage to fixed
pulsed dc voltage.
➢ Controlled rectifier : it converts fixed ac voltage to variable
pulsed dc voltage
➢ Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power
converters which are used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed
frequency ac power supply into variable dc output voltage.
➢ The phase controlled converters are designed by using
thyristors.
➢ The dc output voltage by varying the firing angle of thyristors
 Applications
➢ DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills
employing dc motor drives.
➢ AC fed traction system using dc traction motor.
➢ Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes.
➢ Reactor controls.
➢ Portable hand tool drives.
➢ Variable speed industrial drives.
➢ High voltage DC transmission.
➢ Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS).
 Classification
➢ Based on the type of input power supply
➢ Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers.
➢ Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers.
➢ Based on rectification process, 1-phase rectifiers classified as
➢ Half wave controlled rectifier
➢ Full wave controlled rectifiers
➢ Based on construction of power circuit full wave rectifiers classified as
➢ Full wave mid point controlled rectifier using a center tapped
transformer
➢ Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require
transformer)
➢ Based on quadrant operation Full wave bridge controlled rectifier
classified as
➢ Single phase Full Converter (two quadrant converter ).
➢ Single phase Semi-Converter (single quadrant converter).
 Single-Phase half wave controlled converters with R load

The value of average output voltage is equal to

The rms value of output voltage across load is

Fig. Input voltage, triggering pulse of T1, output voltage, output

current and voltage across T1 for half wave controlled rectifier
with R load
➢ The dc output power is equal to

➢ The ac output power is equal to

➢ The from factor of load current is

➢ The ripple factor of load current is

➢ The volt ampere rating of transformer is

➢ Transformer utilisation factor is

 Single -Phase half wave controlled converters with RL load

➢ The average output voltage can be determined from

➢ The rms value of output voltage is

Single -phase half Wave controlled converters with RL
load and free wheeling diode
The advantages of free wheeling diode in single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier
with RL load are given below:
1. Output voltage is increased
2. Input power factor can be improved
3. Load current wave form is improved
4. Performance of controlled rectifier is better
5. Since the stored energy in inductance L is transferred to R when the free-wheeling
diode conducts, the converter efficiency is improved.
 1-Ф Fully controlled converters
➢ Single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit combines two half wave
controlled rectifiers in one single circuit so as to provide two pulse
output across the load.
➢ Both the half cycles of the input supply are utilized and converted into a
uni-directional output current through the load so as to produce a two
pulse output waveform.
➢ Hence a full wave controlled rectifier circuit is also referred to as a two
pulse converter.
➢ Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types
➢ Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped
transformer (two pulse converter with mid point configuration).
➢ Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier
➢ Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter).
➢ Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
 1-Ф Fully controlled converters with RL Load
A
iS T1
+
vO
vS
R L
AC O iO
Supply

FWD

B
T2
Vs= Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary
winding v = v = V sin  t
S AO m

vBO = −v AO = −Vm sin  t = supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer
secondary winding.
 1-Ф Fully controlled converters with RL Load
➢ This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center
tapped transformer and two thyristors T1 and T2.
➢ The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer,
the primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line
voltage which is available (normally the primary supply voltage
is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply frequency in
India).
➢ The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the
center point of the transformer (center line) is used as the
reference point to measure the input and output voltages.
 1-Ф Fully controlled converters with RL Load
➢ The upper half of the secondary winding and the thyristor
along with the load act as a half wave controlled rectifier, the
lower half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T1 with
the common load act as the second half wave controlled
rectifier so as to produce a full wave load voltage waveform.
➢ There are two types of operations possible.
➢ Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a
purely resistive load or an RL load with low inductance
value.
➢ Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL
type of load with large load inductance.
 Discontinuous Load Current Operation
➢ Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely
resistive or when the RL load has a low value of inductance.
➢ During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the
secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the center
point ‘O’ the thyristor T1 is forward biased and it is triggered at a delay
angle of α.
➢ The load current flows through the thyristor T1, through the load and
through the upper part of the secondary winding, during the period α to
β, when the thyristor T1 conducts.
➢ The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that
appears across the upper part of the secondary winding from  t =  to 
➢ The load current through the thyristor T1 decreases and drops to zero at
 t =  , where    for RL type of load and the thyristor T1 naturally turns
off at  t =  .
Discontinuous Load Current Operation
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
(+) (+)
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current
Operation without FWD
 Discontinuous Load Current Operation
➢ During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at
the supply line ‘A’ becomes negative whereas the voltage at line
‘B’ (at the lower side of the secondary winding) becomes
positive with respect to the center point ‘O’.
➢ The thyristor T2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle
and it is triggered at a delay angle of ( +  )
➢ The current flows through the thyristor T2, through the load,
and through the lower part of the secondary winding when T2
conducts during the negative half cycle the load is connected to
the lower half of the secondary winding when T2 conducts.
 Discontinuous Load Current Operation
➢ For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the extinction angle β=π.
The load current falls to zero at ωt=β=π, when the input supply
voltage falls to zero at ωt=π.
➢ The load current and the load voltage waveforms are in phase
and there is no phase shift between the load voltage and the
load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive load.
➢ For low values of load inductance the load current would be
discontinuous and the extinction angle β>π but β<(π+α) .
➢ For large values of load inductance the load current would be
continuous and does not fall to zero. The thyristor T1 conducts
from α to (π+α), until the next thyristor T2 is triggered.
➢ When T2 is triggered at ωt= (π+α), the thyristor T1 will be
reverse biased and hence T1 turns off.
 Discontinuous Load Current Operation
To derive an expression for the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with RL load (without free wheeling diode (FWD))
➢ The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be
calculated by finding the average value of the output voltage waveform
over one output cycle (i.e., π radians) and note that the output pulse
repetition time is T/2 seconds where T represents the input supply time
period and T=1/f; where f = input supply frequency.
➢ Assuming the load inductance to be small so that β>π, β<(π+α) we obtain
discontinuous load current operation.
➢ The load current flows through T1 form ωt=α to β, where α is the trigger
angle of thyristor T1 and β is the extinction angle where the load current
through T1 falls to zero at ωt=β .
➢ Therefore the average or dc output voltage can be obtained by using the
expression
Discontinuous Load Current Operation
𝛽
2
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣𝑂 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜔𝑡=𝛼
𝛽
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣𝑂 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝜔𝑡=𝛼
𝛽
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝛼

𝑉𝑚 𝛽
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = −cos𝜔 𝑡ൗ
𝜋 𝛼
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 − cos𝛽
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
Therefore 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 − cos𝛽
𝜋

for discontinuous load current operation 𝜋 < 𝛽 < 𝜋 + 𝛼

 Discontinuous Load Current Operation
When the load inductance is small and negligible that L=0, the extinction
angle β=π radians. Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load
is obtained as
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 − cos𝜋 , cos𝜋 = −1
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 − −1
𝜋
𝑉𝑚 ; for resistive load, when L=0
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 1 + cos𝛼
𝜋
 Effect of Load Inductance
➢ Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage
reverses and becomes negative during the time period 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 to 𝛽
➢ This reduces the dc output voltage.
➢ To prevent this reduction of dc output voltage due to the
negative region in the output load voltage waveform, we can
connect a free wheeling diode across the load.
➢ The output voltage waveform and the dc output voltage
obtained would be the same as that for a full wave controlled
rectifier with resistive load.
 Effect of Load Inductance
➢ When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across
the load
➢ When T1 is triggered at ωt=α, during the positive half cycle of
the input supply the FWD is reverse biased during the time
period ωt=α to π.
➢ FWD remains reverse biased and cut-off from ωt=α to π.
➢ The load current flows through the conducting thyristor T1,
through the RL load and through upper half of the transformer
secondary winding during the time period α to π.
➢ At ωt=π, when the input supply voltage across the upper half of
the secondary winding reverses and becomes negative the FWD
turns-on. The load current continues to flow through the FWD
from ωt=π to β.
Effect of Load Inductance
vO Vm

t
0


iO


t
0 
  
(+) (+)
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation
with FWD
 Effect of Load Inductance
Expression for the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with RL load and FWD
𝜋
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣𝑂 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝜔𝑡=0
Thyristor T1 is triggered at ωt=α. T1 conducts from ωt=α to π
Output voltage 𝑣𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡 ; for 𝜔𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝜋
FWD conducts from 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜋 to 𝛽 and Vo=0 during discontinuous load current
𝜋
Therefore, 1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝛼
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = −cos𝜔 𝑡ൗ
𝜋 𝛼
 Effect of Load Inductance
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = −cos𝜋 + cos𝛼 ; cos𝜋 = −1
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
Therefore 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1 + cos𝛼
𝜋

The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single

phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc
output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier is two times the
dc output voltage of a half wave controlled rectifier.
 Effect of Load Inductance
CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE
CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD OR RL LOAD WITH FWD
➢ The control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the dc output
voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle α
➢ The average or dc output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled
rectifier circuit with R load or RL load with FWD is calculated by using
the equation
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1 + cos𝛼
𝜋
➢ Vdc can be varied by varying trigger angle α from 0o – 180o (i.e., the range
of trigger angle α from 0 to π radians.
➢ Maximum dc output voltage is obtained when α=0
𝑉𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 max = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1 + cos0 =
𝜋 𝜋
 Effect of Load Inductance
2𝑉𝑚
➢ Therefore 𝑉𝑑𝑐 max = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = for a single phase full wave controlled rectifier
𝜋
➢ Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, we
can write the normalized dc output voltage as
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = =
𝑉𝑑𝑐 max 𝑉𝑑𝑚
𝑉𝑚
𝜋 1 + cos𝛼 1
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = = 1 + cos𝛼
2𝑉𝑚 2
𝜋
1 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = 1 + cos𝛼 =
2 𝑉𝑑𝑚
1
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1 + cos𝛼 𝑉𝑑𝑚
2
 Effect of Load Inductance
Vm
 Effect of Load Inductance
VO(dc)
Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0 60 120 180
Trigger angle  in degrees
Fig.: Control characteristic of a single phase full wave
controlled rectifier with R load or RL load with FWD
 Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
➢ For large values of load inductance the load current flows
continuously without decreasing and falling to zero and there
is always a load current flowing at any point of time.
➢ This type of operation is referred to as continuous current
operation.
➢ Generally the load current is continuous for large load
inductance and for low trigger angles.
➢ The load current is discontinuous for low values of load
inductance and for large values of trigger angles.
Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
vO Vm

t
0

iO
   

T2 ON T1 ON
T1 ON t
0
   
(+) (+)
Fig.: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single
phase full wave controlled rectifier with RL load & without
FWD for continuous load current operation
 Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
➢ In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is
triggered at a delay angle of α conducts from ωt=α to π+α.
➢ Output voltage follows the input supply voltage across the upper half
of the transformer secondary winding 𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣𝐴𝑂 = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡
➢ The next thyristor T2 is triggered at ωt= π+α during the negative half
cycle input supply.
➢ As soon as T2 is triggered at ωt= π+α the thyristor T1 will be reverse
biased and T1 turns off due to natural commutation (ac line
commutation).
➢ The load current flows through the thyristor T2 from ωt= π+α to ωt=
2π+α .
➢ Output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage
across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding
𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣𝐵𝑂 = −𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡
➢ Each thyristor conducts for π radians (180°) in the case of continuous
current operation.
 Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
To derive an expression for the average or dc output voltage of single
phase full wave controlled rectifier with large load inductance
assuming continuous load current operation.
𝜋+𝛼
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣𝑂 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝜔𝑡=𝛼

𝜋+𝛼
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝛼

𝑉𝑚 𝜋+𝛼
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = −cos𝜔 𝑡ൗ
𝜋 𝛼

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 − cos 𝜋 + 𝛼 cos 𝜋 + 𝛼 = −cos𝛼
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 + cos𝛼
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
∴ 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼
𝜋
 Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
➢ The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control
characteristic of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier
with RL load assuming continuous load current operation.
➢ Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum
value, the normalized dc output voltage is given by
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 cos𝛼
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = = 𝜋 = cos𝛼
𝑉𝑑𝑐 max 2𝑉𝑚
𝜋
Therefore 𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = cos𝛼
Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)

V O(dc)

Vdm

0.6Vdm

0.2 Vdm

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
-0.2Vdm

-0.6 Vdm

-V dm
Trigger angle  in degrees

Fig.: Control Characteristic

 Continuous Load Current Operation (without FWD)
➢ We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle
α we can vary the output dc voltage across the load.
➢ Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by changing the trigger
angle α.
➢ For trigger angle α in the range of 0 to 90 degrees 𝑖. 𝑒. , 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 900 ; Vdc is
positive and the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac
supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to the load.
➢ For trigger angle α>90o, cos α becomes negative and as a result the
average dc output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current
flows in the same positive direction.
➢ Hence the output power becomes negative.
➢ This means that the power flows from the load circuit to the input ac
source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation.
➢ During the inverter mode operation for α>90o the load energy can be fed
back from the load circuit to the input ac source.
 Expression for RMS Output Voltage
➢ The rms value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
1
𝜋+𝛼 2
2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑣𝑂2 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝛼
1
𝜋+𝛼 2
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑉𝑚2 sin2 𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝛼
1
𝜋+𝛼 2
𝑉𝑚2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න sin2 𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝛼
1
𝜋+𝛼 2
𝑉𝑚2 1 − cos2𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = ඲ . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋 2
𝛼
 Expression for RMS Output Voltage
1
𝜋+𝛼 2
𝜋+𝛼
1
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 ඳ 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 − න cos2𝜔𝑡. 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝛼
𝛼
1
1 𝜋+𝛼 sin2𝜔𝑡 𝜋+𝛼 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝑡 ൗ − ൘
2𝜋 𝛼 2 𝛼
1
1 sin2 𝜋 + 𝛼 − sin2𝛼 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝜋+𝛼−𝛼 −
2𝜋 2
1
1 sin2𝜋 × cos2𝛼 + cos2𝜋 × sin2𝛼 − sin2𝛼 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 −
2𝜋 2
1
1 0 + sin2𝛼 − sin2𝛼 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 −
2𝜋 2
1
1 2 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 =
2𝜋 2
𝑉𝑚
Therefore 𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2 ; The rms output voltage is same as the input rms supply voltage.
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)

𝑃𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 × 𝐼𝑂 𝑑𝑐 ; i.e., 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 × 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = average or dc value of output (load) voltage

𝐼𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = average or dc value of output (load) current
Output ac power
𝑃𝑂 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 × 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆

Efficiency of Rectification (Rectification Ratio)

𝑃𝑂 𝑑𝑐 𝑃𝑂 𝑑𝑐
Efficiency 𝜂 = % Efficiency 𝜂 = × 100
𝑃𝑂 𝑎𝑐 𝑃𝑂 𝑎𝑐
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two components

➢ The dc component 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = DC or average value of output voltage

➢ The ac component or the ripple component

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = RMS value of all the ac ripple components
➢ The total RMS value of output voltage is given by

𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑉𝑂2 𝑑𝑐 + 𝑉𝑟2 𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑂2 𝑅𝑀𝑆 − 𝑉𝑂2 𝑑𝑐

 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

➢ Form Factor (FF): which is a measure of the shape of the output

voltage is given by
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 RMS output load voltage
𝐹𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 DC output load voltage
➢ The Ripple Factor (RF): which is a measure of the ac ripple content in
the output voltage waveform. The output voltage ripple factor defined for
the output voltage waveform is given by
𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑐
𝑟𝑣 = 𝑅𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑂2 𝑅𝑀𝑆 − 𝑉𝑂2 𝑑𝑐 2

𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∴ 𝑟𝑣 = 𝐹𝐹 2 − 1
𝑟𝑣 = = −1
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

➢ Current Ripple Factor defined for the output (load) current waveform is
given by

𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑎𝑐
𝑟𝑖 = = Where 𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑂2 𝑅𝑀𝑆 − 𝐼𝑂2 𝑑𝑐
𝐼𝑂 𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

Some times the peak to peak output ripple voltage is also considered to
express the peak to peak output ripple voltage as

𝑉𝑟 𝑝𝑝 = peak to peak ac ripple output voltage

The peak to peak ac ripple load current is the difference between the
maximum and the minimum values of the output load current.

𝐼𝑟 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐼𝑂 max − 𝐼𝑂 min
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

➢ Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

𝑃𝑂 𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = where 𝑉𝑆 = RMS value of transformer secondary output
𝑉𝑆 × 𝐼𝑆
voltage (RMS supply voltage at the secondary)

𝐼𝑆 = RMS value of transformer secondary current (RMS line or supply current)

 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

𝑣𝑆 = Supply voltage at the transformer secondary side

𝑖𝑆 = Input supply current (transformer secondary winding current)

𝑖𝑆1 = Fundamental component of the input supply current

𝐼𝑃 = Peak value of the input supply current

𝜙 = Phase angle difference between (sine wave components) the

fundamental components of input supply current and the input supply
voltage i.e., Displacement angle (phase angle)
For an RL load 𝜙 = Displacement angle = Load impedance angle

𝜔𝐿
∴ 𝜙 = tan −1
for an RL load
𝑅
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Displacement Factor (DF) or Fundamental Power Factor

𝐷𝐹 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙

Harmonic Factor (HF) or Total Harmonic Distortion Factor (THD)

The harmonic factor is a measure of the distortion in the output waveform
and is also referred to as the total harmonic distortion (THD)
1 1
2 2
𝐼𝑆2 − 𝐼𝑆1
2 2
𝐼𝑆
𝐻𝐹 = 2 = −1
𝐼𝑆1 𝐼𝑆1

𝐼𝑆 = RMS value of input supply current

𝐼𝑆1 = RMS value of fundamental component of the input supply current
 Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Input Power Factor (PF)

𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆1 𝐼𝑆1
𝑃𝐹 = cos𝜙 = cos𝜙
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
The Crest Factor (CF)

𝐼𝑆 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 Peak input supply current

𝐶𝐹 = =
𝐼𝑆 RMS input supply current
 Harmonic analysis of Single Phase Full converters
➢Here the performance parameters of single-phase full converter is derived from their input and
output waveforms.

➢The load, or output, current is assumed continuous during these derivations. In general, the
instantaneous current to a converter can be expressed in Fourier series as under :

i (t ) = a0 +  (an cos n t + bn sin n t )
n=1, 2,3

where
2 2
1 1
a0 =
2  i(t )d ( t ), an =   i(t ) cos n t d ( t ) and
0 0
2
1
bn =
  i(t ) sin n t d ( t )
0
• For single-phase full converter, the variation of input current, or source current (is) is shown in
below figure

is
➢Then the input current is can be expressed as
is = I o for   t   + 
is = − I o for  +   t  2 + 

➢So, the square input wave form can be expressed in Fourier transform as

is (t ) = a0 +  (an cos n t + bn sin n t )
n =1, 2,3
Where
2 +  + 2 +
1 1 1
a0 =
2  is (t )d ( t ) = 2  I o d ( t ) − 2  I o d ( t ) = 0
   +
2 +
1
an =
  is (t ) cos n t d ( t ) Where n indicates harmonic order

 + 2 +
1 1
=
  I o cos n td ( t ) −   I o cos n td ( t )
  +
 an =
Io
n
  +
sin n t  −
2 +
sin n t  + 
4Io
=− sin n for n = 1,3,5, 
n
=0 for n = 2,4,6,
2 +
1
bn =
  is (t ) sin n t d ( t )

 + 2 +
1 1
=
  I o sin n td ( t ) −   I o sin n td ( t )
  +

=
n

Io
− cos n t
 +

− − cos n t  +
2 +

4Io
= cos n for n = 1,3,5,
n
=0 for n = 2,4,6,
➢The input current can be expressed as
  4Io 4Io 
is (t ) =   − sin n cos n t + cos n sin n t  Displacement angle of nth
n =1,3,5,...  n n  harmonic current.
 4Io
is (t ) =  sin(n t − n )
➢The above equation is written as n =1,3,5,... n

➢The rms value of nth harmonic input current from above equation is
4Io 2 2Io
I sn = =
2 n n
➢The rms value of fundamental current (i.e. N=1) is

2 2Io
I s1 = = 0.90032 I o

• Displacement angle of fundamental current is
1 = −

• Negative sign for θ1 indicates that fundamental current lags the source voltage.
• Rms value of total input current , is 1/ 2
 I  
2
Is =  o  = Io
  
• The various parameters are now obtained.
• The input displacement factor (df) or fundamental power factor is
DF = cos 1 = cos(− ) = cos 
• The current distortion factor,
I s1 2 2  Io 1 2 2
CDF = =  = = 0.90032
Is  Io 
• Input power factor,
2 2
PF = CDF  DF = cos 
• Harmonic factor,  1/ 2 1/ 2
 1     2 
HF or THD =  − 1 =   − 1 = 0.48343
 (CDF )
2
  2 2  
• Only the rms fundamental component of input current contributes to the active input power
to the converter.
• Active power input,
2 2Io 2Vm
Pi = Vs  I s1  cos 1 = Vs   cos  = I o cos  = Vo I o
 
• Reactive power input,
2 2Io 2Vm
Qi = Vs  I s1  sin 1 = Vs   sin  = I o sin  = Vo I o tan 
 
 Single-Phase half-Controlled Bridge rectifier
with R load

Fig. Single-phase half controlled bridge rectifier

(a) symmetrical and (b) asymmetrical
➢ The symmetrical type half bridge converter is most commonly used
as a single triggering circuit can be used to turn ON both Thyristors
T1 and T3.
➢ The average output voltage is

➢ The average or dc load current is

➢ The rms output voltage is

➢ The rms output current is

➢ The form factor is

➢ The load ripple factor is

➢ The dc output power is

➢ The ac output power is

 Single-Phase half-Controlled Bridge rectifier
with RL load

➢ The average output voltage is

➢ The rms output voltage is

Fig. Voltage and current waveforms for discontinuous load current
Harmonic analysis of Single Phase Half controlled converters
• For single-phase semi converter, the variation of input current, or source current (is) is
shown in below figure

is
➢Then the input current is can be expressed as
is = I o for   t  
is = − I o for  +   t  2
is = 0 otherwise
➢So, input wave form can be expressed in Fourier transform as

is (t ) = a0 +  (an cos n t + bn sin n t )
where n =1, 2,3
2 +  2
1 1 1
a0 =
2  is (t )d ( t ) = 2  I o d ( t ) − 2  I o d ( t ) = 0
   +
2 +
1
an =
  is (t ) cos n t d ( t )

 2
1 1
=
  I o cos n td ( t ) −   I o cos n td ( t )
 +
 an =
n

Io 
sin n t  −
2
sin n t  + 
2Io
=− sin n for n = 1,3,5, 
n
=0 for n = 2,4,6, 
2 +
1
bn =
   is (t ) sin n t d ( t )

 2
1 1
=
  I o sin n t d ( t ) −
  I o sin n t d ( t )
  +

=
Io
n
 − cos n t


− − cos n t  +
2

2Io
= (1 + cos n ) for n = 1,3,5,
n
=0 for n = 2,4,6, 
 ➢The input current can be expressed as
  2Io 2Io 
is (t ) =   −  sin n cos n t + (1 + cos n )sin n t 
n =1,3,5,...  n n 

➢The above equation

 is written as
4Io n n
is (t ) =  cos sin(n t − )
n =1,3,5,... n 2 2

➢The rms value of nth harmonic input current from above equation is
4Io n 2 2  I o n
Is = cos = cos
2  n 2 n 2
➢The rms value of fundamental current (i.e. n=1) is
2 2  Io 
I s1 = cos
 2
 
• Displacement angle of fundamental current is 1 = −
2
• Rms value of total input current , is
1/ 2
 I  ( −  ) 
2
 −  
1/ 2
Is =  o  = Io 
     
• The various parameters are now obtained.
• The input displacement factor (df) or fundamental power factor is
 
DF = cos 1 = cos(− ) = cos
2 2
• The current distortion factor,

I s1 2 2  Io 2 2 cos
  2
CDF = = cos  =
Is  2 Io  −  ( −  )
• Input power factor, 
2 2  cos
PF = CDF  DF = 2  cos  = 2
(1 + cos  )
 ( −  ) 2  ( −  )

• Harmonic factor, 1/ 2 1/ 2
 1    ( −  ) 
HF or THD =  − 1 = − 1
 (CDF )  4(1 + cos  ) 
2


• Active power input,

2 2Io   2Vm
Pi = Vs  I s1  cos 1 = Vs  cos  cos = I o (1 + cos  )
 2 2 
= Vo I o
• Reactive power input,
2 2Io   Vm
Qi = Vs  I s1  sin 1 = Vs  cos  sin = I o sin 
 2 2 
1. The single phase full converter is connected to a 120V,
60Hz supply. The load current Ia can be assumed to be
continuous and its ripple content is negligible. The turns
ratio of the transformer is unity.
a. Express the input current in a Fourier series, determine
the harmonic factor of input current, HF; displacement
factor, DF; and input power factor, PF.
b. If the delay angle α=π/3 calculate Vdc, Vn, Vrms, HF, DF and
PF
Performance Parameters of Phase Controlled Rectifiers
 Power Factor Improvements
➢ The power factor of phase controlled converters depends on delay angle
α, and is general low, especially at the low output voltage range.
➢ These converters generate harmonics into the supply.
➢ Forced commutation can improve the input power factor and reduce the
harmonics levels.
➢ These force commutation techniques are becoming attractive to ac-dc
conversion.
➢ With the advancement of power semiconductor devices Ex. GTO, the
forced commutation can be implemented in practical systems.
 Power Factor Improvements
➢ In this section the basic techniques of forced commutation for ac-dc
converters are discussed and can be classified as follows:
➢ Extinction angle control
➢ Symmetric angle control
➢ Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
➢ Single-phase sinusoidal PWM
➢ Three-phase PWM control
Extinction angle control
 Extinction angle control
➢ Figure (a) shows a single phase semi converter, where thyristors T1 and
T2 are replaced by switch S1 and S2.
➢ The switching actions of S1 and S2 can be performed by GTOs.
➢ The characteristics can be turned by applying a short positive pulse to
its gate as in the of normal thyristors and tuned off by applying a short
negative pulse to its gate.
➢ In an extinction angle control the switch S1 is turned on at ωt=0 and is
turned off by forced commutation at ωt=π–β.
➢ The switch S2 is turned on at ωt= π and is turned off by forced
commutation at ωt=2π–β.
➢ The output voltage is controlled by varying the extinction angle, β.
 Extinction angle control
➢ Figure (b) shows the waveforms for input voltage, output
voltage, input current and the current through thyristor
switches.
➢ The fundamental component of input current leads the input
voltage and the displacement factor (and power factor) is
leading.
➢ In some applications, this feature may be desirable to simulate
a capacitive load to compensate for line voltage drops.
 Extinction angle control

Fig. Single phase forced commutated

full converter
 Extinction angle control
➢ The average output voltage is found from
2 𝜋−𝛽 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
2𝜋 0 𝜋
and Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to 0 by varying β from 0 to π.

➢ The rms output voltage is given by

𝜋−𝛽 1Τ2
2
න 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1Τ2
𝑉𝑚 1 sin 2𝛽
= 𝜋−𝛽+
2 𝜋 2
 Extinction angle control
➢ Fig. (a) shows a single phase full converter, where T1, T2, T3
and T4 are replaced by forced commutated switches S1, S2, S3
and S4.
➢ The switches S1 and S2 are turned on simultaneously at
ωt = 0 and are turned off at ωt = π–β.
➢ The switches S3 and S4 are turned on simultaneously at
ωt = π and are turned off at ωt = 2π–β.
➢ For an inductive load, the freewheeling path must be provided
by switches S1S4 or S3S2.
➢ The firing sequence would be 12, 14,43 and 32.
 Extinction angle control

➢ Fig. (b) shows the waveforms for input voltage, output voltage,
input current and the current through switches.
➢ Each switch conducts for 180o and this converter is operated as a
semi-converter.
➢ The freewheeling action is accomplished through two switches of
the same arm.
➢ The performance of semi and full converters with extinction angle
control are similar to that with phase angle control except power
factor is leading with phase angle, the power factor is lagging.
Symmetrical angle control

Fig. Symmetrical angle control

 Symmetrical angle control

➢ The symmetrical angle control allows one quadrant operation.

➢ Figure (a) shows a single phase semi converter with forced
commutated switches S1 and S2.
➢ The switch S1 is turned on at ωt = (π–β)/2 and is turned off at
ωt = (π+β)/2.
➢ The switch S2 is turned on at ωt = (3π–β)/2 and is turned off at
ωt = (3π+β)/2.
➢ The output voltage is controlled by varying by conduction angle, β.
➢ Fig. shows the waveforms for input voltage, output voltage, input
current and the current through switches.
➢ The fundamental component of input current is in phase with the
input voltage and the displacement factor is unity.
➢ Therefore, the power factor is improved.
 Symmetrical angle control

➢ The average output voltage is found from

𝜋+𝛽
2 2 2𝑉𝑚 𝛽
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = sin
2𝜋 𝜋−𝛽 𝜋 2
2
and Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to 0 by varying β from 0 to π.
➢ The rms output voltage is given by
1
𝜋+𝛽 2
2 2
න 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 𝜋−𝛽
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
1Τ2
𝑉𝑚 1
= 𝛽 + sin 𝛽
2 𝛽
4. The 1-Ф full converter is operated with symmetrical angle
control. The load current with an average value of Ia is
continuous, where the ripple content is negligible. (a) Express the
input current of converter in Fourier series, determine the
harmonic factor, HF; displacement factor, DF; (b) If the
conduction angle is β=π/3 and the peak input voltage is Vm
=169.83 V, calculate Vdc, Vrms, HF, DF and PF
 Pulse Width Modulation Control

➢ If the output voltage of single phase semi or full converters is

controlled by varying the delay angle, extinction angle or
symmetrical angle, there is only one pulse per half cycle in the
input current of the converter and as a result the lowest order
harmonics is the third.
➢ It is difficult to filter out the lower order harmonics.
➢ In Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control, the converter switches
are turned on and off several times during a half cycle and the
output voltage is controlled by varying width of the pulses.
Pulse Width Modulation Control
 Pulse Width Modulation Control
➢ Figure shows the input voltage, output voltage and input current.
➢ The lower order harmonics can be eliminated or reduced by
selecting the number of pulses per half cycle.
➢ However increasing the number of pulses would increase the
magnitude of higher order harmonics, which could easily be
filtered out.
➢ The output voltage and the performance of the converter can be
determined in two steps:
➢ By considering only one pair of pulses such that if one pulse
starts at ωt=α1 and ends at ωt=(α1+ δ1), the other pulse starts at
ωt=(π+α1) and ends at ωt=(π+α1+δ1), and
➢ By combining the effects of all pairs.
 Pulse Width Modulation Control
➢ If mth pulse starts at ωt=αm and its width is δm, the average output
voltage due to p number of pulses is found from
𝑝
2 𝛼𝑚 +𝛿𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ෍ න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 𝛼𝑚
𝑚=1
𝑝
𝑉𝑚
= ෍ cos 𝛼𝑚 − cos(𝛼𝑚 + 𝛿𝑚 )
𝜋
𝑚=1
➢ If the load current with an average value of Ia is continuous and has
negligible ripple, the instantaneous input current can be expressed
in a Fourier series as
∝

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑛=1,3,…
 Pulse Width Modulation Control
1 2𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑖 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋 0
𝑝
1 𝛼𝑚 +𝛿𝑚 1 𝜋+𝛼𝑚+𝛿𝑚
= ෍ න 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 − න 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 = 0
➢ Due to symmetry of 𝜋 𝛼𝑚
𝑚=1
𝜋 𝜋+𝛼𝑚

the input current 1 2𝜋

𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑖 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
waveform, there will 𝜋 0

be no even harmonics 𝑝
1 𝛼𝑚 +𝛿𝑚 1 𝜋+𝛼𝑚 +𝛿𝑚
= ෍ න 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 − න 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
and Idc should be zero 𝜋 𝛼𝑚
𝑚=1
𝜋 𝜋+𝛼𝑚
and the coefficients 2𝐼𝑎
𝑝

are =
𝑛𝜋
෍ cos 𝑛𝛼𝑚 + cos 𝑛(𝛼𝑚 + 𝛿𝑚 )
𝑚=1
∝

∴𝑖 𝑡 = ෍ 2 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + Φ𝑛
𝑛=1,3,…

where Фn = tan-1(an/bn) and 𝐼𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛2 1/2 /

2
 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Control
➢ The widths of pulses are varied to control the output voltage.
➢ If there are p pulses per half cycle of the same width of a pulse is
π/p
➢ The widths of pulses could be different.
➢ It is possible to choose the width of pulses in such a way that
certain harmonics could be eliminated
➢ There are different methods of varying the widths of pulses and the
most common one is sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM).
➢ In sinusoidal PWM control, the pulse widths are generated by
comparing a triangular voltage vr of amplitude Ar and frequency fr
with a half sinusoidal frequency 2fr.
➢ The sinusoidal voltage vc is in phase with the input phase voltage
and has twice the supply frequency fs.
➢ The widths of the pulses (and the output voltage) are varied by
changing the amplitude Ac or the modulation index, M from 0 to 1.
 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Control
𝐴𝑐
➢ The modulation index, M is defined as 𝑀=
𝐴𝑟
➢ In sinusoidal PWM control, the displacement factor is unity and the
power factor is improved.
➢ The lower order harmonics are eliminated or reduced.
➢ For example, with four pulses per half cycle the lowest order
harmonics is the fifth; and with six pulses per half cycle, the lowest
order harmonics is the seventh.
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation Control
 Three Phase AC – DC Converters
➢ Single phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled
bridge converters are used extensively in industrial applications up
to about 15 kW of output power. The single phase controlled
rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 max =
𝜋
➢ The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply
frequency.
➢ The single phase full wave controlled rectifiers provide two output
pulses during every input supply cycle and hence are referred to as
two pulse converters.
➢ Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are
used to convert ac input power supply into dc output power across
the load
 Three Phase AC – DC Converters
Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are

➢ Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.

➢ They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.
➢ Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
➢ Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and
load current.
➢ Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power
variable speed industrial dc drives.
 Three-phase Half-wave Controlled Rectifier
With R Load

Fig. Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load

✓ This converter is also known as three phase three-pulse converter or three-phase M-3
converter.
 Fig. a) Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier (b) Equivalent representation of three phase half-
wave controlled rectifier

✓ We define three phase neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows

VRN = Vm sin  t
2 
VYN ( )

= Vm sin  t − 120 = Vm sin   t −


 3 
4 
VBN ( )
= Vm sin  t − 240  = Vm sin   t − 
 3 

Vm = Max. Phase Voltage Fig. Vector diagram VRN, VYN and VBN
✓ With resistive load, three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier operates in two different modes of
conduction such as

1. Continuous conduction mode (0 ≤ α ≤ 30°)

2. Discontinuous conduction mode (30° < α ≤ 150°)

✓ If firing angle is zero degree, SCR

✓ T1 would begin conducting from ωt = 30° (π/6) to 150° (5π/6),
✓ T2 from ωt = 150° (5π/6) to 270° (9π/6) and
✓ T3 from ωt = 270° (9π/6) to 30° (π/6) or 390° (13π/6)and so on.
✓ In other words, firing angle for this controlled converter would be measured from ωt = 30° for T1,
from ωt = 150° for T2 and from ωt = 270° for T3.
Continuous Conduction Mode

Fig: Firing angle α = 0°

Fig: Firing angle α = 30°
 ✓ The average dc output voltage is
 2 5
+ + = + 5
1 6 3 6 3Vm +
Vave = Vdc = Vo =
2 / 3
 Vm sin  t d ( t ) = 2 − cos  t  + 6
 6
+
6

3 3 Vm
= cos 
2
✓ The rms value of output voltage is
1 1
5 5
 +  2  +  2
 1 − cos 2 t 
2
 1 6
 3V 6
= 2 2
  = m  
 2 / 3  m   
Vrms V sin t d ( t ) d ( t )
  2   2  

 +
6 
 
 +
6 

1
5 1
 3V 2 + 2
 3 
 sin 2  t  6  3 2
= m   t −   = Vm   3 + 4 sin 2 
 
 4  2  +    2  
 6 
 Vrms
✓ The output voltage form factor is FF =
Vdc
✓ The ripple factor is RF = FF 2 − 1
Vo 3 3 Vm
✓ Average load current is Io = = cos 
R 2 R 1
Vrms Vm  3   3  2
✓ rms value of load current is I rms = =   + cos 2 
R 
R  2  3 4 

✓ The dc output power is Pdc = Vdc I dc = Vo I o
✓ The ac power supplied by the transformer secondary is Pac = I rms
2
R
Pdc
✓ Rectification efficiency is =  100%
Pac
I rms
✓ The current through the transformer secondary is I rms [Link] . =
3
✓ The VA rating of the transformer secondary is VA = 3VI rms [Link] .

Pdc
✓ Transformer utilisation factor is TUF =
VA
Discontinuous Conduction Mode

Fig: Firing angle α = 60°

 ✓ The average dc output voltage is
 3Vm
1
Vave =  V sin  t d ( t ) = − cos  t 

2 / 3  +  m 2 +
6
6

3Vm    
=
2 1 + cos  + 6  
  
✓ The rms value of output voltage is
1 1
  2   2
 1 − cos 2 t 
 2 
 1  3V
= 2 2
  = m  
 2 / 3  m   
Vrms V sin t d ( t ) d ( t )
  2   2  

 +
6 
 
 +
6 

1
1
 3V 2 
  2
3Vm  5
 sin 2 t  1  2   2
= m   t −   =  6 −  + 2 sin  6 + 2   
 4  2  +   2     
 6 
Three-phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier
with RL Load

Fig: Circuit Diagram

✓ When the load inductance L is very large, the load

current Io is continuous and constant.

Fig: Quadrant of Operation

 ✓ The average dc output voltage is
5
+
1 6
Vave =
2 / 3
 Vm sin  t d ( t )

+
6
5
3Vm +
= − cos  t  + 
6
2 6

3 3Vm
= cos 
2
✓ The rms value of output voltage is
1
5
 +  2
1 6
Vrms = 2 2 
 Vm sin  t d ( t )
 2 / 3 

 +
6 

1
 3  3  2
= Vm   3 + 4 sin 2 
 
Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-  2  
controlled converter with RL load at α = 45°
 Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase
Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-
half-controlled converter with RL load at α = 120°
controlled converter with RL load at α = 60°
Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-controlled
converter with RL load at α = 165°
✓ Since each thyristor conducts for 120°, average thyristor current is

120 Io
I T −average = 
 Io =
360 3

✓ rms value of thyristor current is

1
120 2
2 Io
I T −rms = 
 Io  =
 360  3
✓ In this converter, the transformer windings have to carry dc current which is very harmful to the
transformer. This problem can be solved using delta-zigzag connection as depicted in below Fig.

✓ It is clear from above Fig. that load current Io enters the neutral N of the secondary zigzag which
divides equally in the three half-windings.
✓ Each half-winding a, b, c carries Io /3 load current. The current Io /3 flows through other half
windings b1, c1, a1 and thyristors T1, T2, T3 and RL load.
✓ In zigzag winding, each phase winding is divided into two halves such as a, a1; b, b1; c, c1 and Io

/3 current flows through each half in opposite direction as depicted in Fig.

✓ As each half of the secondary windings caries dc current in opposite direction, the magnetic

effects due to dc currents cancel each other.

✓ Consequently, the core flux, core loss and the temperature rise of transformer are not affected.

✓ Therefore, three-phase half-controlled converter can be used for energizing a dc load through

delta-zigzag transformer.
Three-phase Half-wave Controlled Rectifier With RL Load
And Free Wheeling Diode

✓ If the firing angle α < 30°, each thyristor conducts for 120° duration and free wheeling diode does
not come in the conduction.
✓ When the firing angle α > 30°, each thyristor conducts for less than 120° duration and free
wheeling diode comes into conduction.
 ✓ The average dc output voltage is

1
Vave =  Vm sin  t d ( t )
2 / 3  + 
6

3Vm    
=
2 1 + cos  + 6  
  
✓ The rms value of output voltage is
1
 
 2
1
Vrms =  Vm2 sin 2  t d ( t ) 
 2 / 3  

  +
6 

1
3Vm  5 1  2   2
=  −  + sin  + 2   
2   6 2  6  

Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of three-phase half-

controlled converter with RL load with free wheeling diode at α
= 60°
 Six-Pulse or Six-Phase Half-wave Controlled
Rectifier
✓ Three-phase converter with higher number of pulses can generate large output voltage with leas ripple
current. Therefore, six-pulse and 12-pulse converters are developed. It is also possible to develop 18
pulse and twenty four pulse ac-to-dc converter.
✓ But six-pulse converters are most widely used for different industrial applications as the six-pulse
converters have the following advantages over three pulse converters:

1. In six-pulse converter, commutation is very easy.

2. Distortion on the ac supply is reduced drastically due to the reduction in lower order
harmonics.
3. The value of inductance which is connected in series is considerably low.
✓ The six-pulse converters can be implemented in the following ways:
1. Six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier circuit.
2. Six-pulse mid-point converter with interphase transformers.
3. Six-pulse bridge converter.

1. Continuous conduction mode (0 ≤ α ≤ 60°)

2. Discontinuous conduction mode (60° < α ≤ 120°)
Fig. Voltage and current waveforms of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at
α = 0°
 ✓ The average dc output voltage is
2
+ 2
1 3 6Vm +
Vave =  m
V sin  t d ( t ) = − cos  t  
3
2 / 6 +
 2  +
3
3

3Vm
= cos 

✓ The rms value of output voltage is

1 1
2 2
 +  2  +  2
 1 − cos 2 t 
2
1 3 6V 3
= 2 2
   = m  
 2 / 6  m   
Vrms V sin t d ( t ) d ( t )
  2   2  

 +
3 
 
 +
3 

1
 6  1  2  1     2
= Vm   − sin 2  +  + sin 2  +   
 2  6 2  3  2  3  
Fig. Output voltage waveforms of six-phase half-wave controlled rectifier at α = 30° and α
= 60°
 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
➢ Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier
using six thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge
configuration.
➢ All the six thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at a
appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger signals.
➢ The three phase full converter is extensively used in industrial power
applications upto about 120 kW output power level, where two quadrant
operation is required.
➢ The figure shows a three phase full converter with highly inductive load.
➢ This circuit is also known as three phase full wave bridge or as a six
pulse converter.
➢ The thyristors are triggered at an interval of (π/3) radians i.e., at an
interval of 60o)
➢ The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6fs and the filtering requirement
is less than that of three phase semi and half wave converters
3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
➢ The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the
order in which they are triggered.
➢ The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45,
56, 61, 12, 23, and so on.
➢ The figure shows the waveforms of three phase input supply voltages,
output voltage, the thyristor current through T1 and T4 the supply current
through the line ‘a’.
➢ We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows
𝑣𝑅𝑁 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑉𝑚 = Max. Phase Voltage
2𝜋
𝑣𝑌𝑁 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 1200
3
2𝜋
𝑣𝐵𝑁 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 1200 =
3
= 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 2400
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a star (Y) connected source
 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
➢ The corresponding line-to-line voltages are

𝜋
𝑣𝑅𝑌 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
6

𝜋
𝑣𝑌𝐵 = 𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 − 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2

𝜋
𝑣𝐵𝑅 = 𝑣𝑐𝑎 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 − 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
T6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T1 T2

iG1
t
0 0 0
(30 + ) (360 +30 +)
iG2 60
0

t
iG3 0
60
t

0
iG4 60
t

0
iG5 60
t

0
iG6 60
t

Gating (Control) Signals of 3-phase full converter

 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
Expression for the average output voltage of three phase full converter with highly
inductive load assuming continuous and constant load current
➢ The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2
radians, hence the average output voltage is calculated as
𝜋
2 +𝛼
6
𝑉𝑂 𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑣𝑂 . 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜋
6 +𝛼
𝜋
𝑣𝑂 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
6
𝜋
2 +𝛼
3 𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + . 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 6
𝜋
+𝛼
6

3 3𝑉𝑚 3𝑉𝑚𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = cos𝛼 = cos𝛼
𝜋 𝜋
where VmL = 3𝑉𝑚 = Max. line−to−line supply voltage
 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
➢ The maximum average dc output voltage is obtained for a delay angle α=0

3 3𝑉𝑚 3𝑉𝑚𝐿
𝑉𝑑𝑐 max = 𝑉𝑑𝑚 = =
𝜋 𝜋

➢ The normalized average dc output voltage is

𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛 = = cos𝛼
𝑉𝑑𝑚
 3-Phase fully controlled Converters with RL load
➢ The rms value of the output voltage is found from
1
𝜋 2
2 +𝛼
6
𝑉𝑂 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑂2 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜋
6 +𝛼
1
𝜋 2
2 +𝛼
6 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑎𝑏 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋
𝜋
+𝛼
6
1
𝜋 2
2 +𝛼
3 2 2
𝜋
𝑉𝑂 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 6
𝜋
6 +𝛼
1
1 3 3 2
𝑉𝑂 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 3𝑉𝑚 + cos2𝛼
2 4𝜋
3. A three phase full converter is operated from a 3-Ф Y-
connected 208V, 60Hz supply and the load resistance is R=10Ω.
If it is required to obtain an average output voltage of 50% of the
maximum possible output voltage. Calculate the (a) Delay angle
(b) RMS and Average output currents (c) Average and RMS
thyristor currents (d) Rectification efficiency (e) Transformer
utilization factor TUF and (f) input power factor, PF
4. The load current of a 3-Ф full converter is continuous with a
negligible ripple content. (a) Express the input current in Fourier
series, and determine the harmonic factor of input current, HF;
displacement factor, DF; and the input power factor, PF. (b) If the
delay angle α=π/3 and the peak input phase voltage, Vm = 169.83
V, calculate Vn, HF, DF and PF
 DUAL CONVERTERS
➢ One quadrant converters are those converters in which the output voltage and output current have same polarity
during the entire firing angle control range. One quadrant converters are known as first Quadrant converters.
The power flow in first quadrant converters is from source to load.

➢ Two quadrant converters are those converters in which converter acts as controlled rectifier when the output

voltage and output current have same polarity during the firing angle control range 0    and converter
2
acts as an inverter when the output voltage and output current have opposite polarity during the firing angle
control range,     
2
➢ Two quadrant converters operate in the first quadrant and fourth quadrant. In the first quadrant, power flows
from source to load and in the fourth quadrant power flows from load to source.
Fig. (a) Dual converter and (b) Four quadrant operation of dual converter
 Operating Principle of ideal dual Converter
➢ The converter working as a rectifier is called as positive
group converter and the converter working as an
inverter is known as negative group converter.
➢ The average output voltage of converter-1 is
Vo1 = Vmax cos α1
➢ The average output voltage of converter-2 is
Vo2 = Vmax cos α2

➢ For an ideal converter Vo = Vo1 = –Vo2

α1 +α2 = 180°
Fig. Equivalent circuit of an ideal dual converter
Fig. Variation of terminal voltage for an ideal dual converter
with firing angle
➢ One converter operates as a rectifier with a firing angle α1 and the other converter operates as an
inverter with firing angle α2 = 180 – α1.
➢ Subsequently, the output voltage of converter-1 is equal to the output voltage of converter-2 though
instantaneous output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 are out of phase in a practical dual converter. Therefore,
there is a voltage difference when two converters are interconnected, a large circulating current flow
between two converters but not through load.
➢ This circulating current can be limited to a specified value by inserting a reactor between two
converters. The circulating current can be avoided by providing the trigger pulses.
➢ There are two operating modes of a practical dual converter such as non-circulating current mode and
circulating current mode.
 Non-circulating Current Mode Dual Converter

➢ In non-circulating current dual converter, the load current may be continuous or discontinuous.
➢ The control circuit of dual converter is designed in such a way that the performance of non-
circulating current dual converter is satisfactory during continuous or discontinuous load current.
 Circulating Current mode dual Converter

➢ The circulating current can be found by integrating the instantaneous

voltage difference starting from ωt = π-α1. The instantaneous
circulating current is
➢ The dual converters can be operated with or without a circulating current. In case of
operation without circulating current, only one converter operates at a time and carries the
load current, and the other converter is completely blocked by inhibiting gate pulses.
However, the operation with circulating current has the following advantages:
1. The circulating current maintains continuous conduction of both converters over the
whole control range, independent of the load.
2. Because one converter always operates as a rectifier and the other converter operates as
an inverter, the power flow in either direction at any time is possible.
3. Because both converters are in continuous conduction, the time response for changing
from one quadrant operation to another is faster.
 3-Phase Dual Converters
➢ In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is
generally required and three phase dual converters are
extensively used in applications up to the 2000 kW level.
➢ Figure shows three phase dual converters where two three
phase full converters are connected back to back across a
common load.
➢ We have seen that due to the instantaneous voltage differences
between the output voltages of converters, a circulating current
flows through the converters.
➢ The circulating current is normally limited by circulating
reactor, Lr.6
➢ The two converters are controlled in such a way that if α1 is the
delay angle of converter-1, the delay angle of converter-2 is
𝛼2 = 𝜋 − 𝛼1
 3-Phase Dual Converters
➢ The operation of a three phase dual converter is similar that of
a single phase dual converter system.
➢ The main difference being that a three phase dual converter
gives much higher dc output voltage and higher dc output
power than a single phase dual converter system.
➢ But the drawback is that the three phase dual converter is
more expensive and the design of control circuit is more
complex.
3-Phase Dual Converters
3-Phase Dual Converters
 3-Phase Dual Converters
➢ The figure below shows the waveforms for the input supply voltages,
output voltages of converter-1 and conveter-2, and the voltage across
current limiting reactor (inductor) Lr.
➢ The operation of each converter is identical to that of a three phase full
converter.
𝜋 𝜋
➢ During the interval 6
to
+ 𝛼1 + 𝛼1 the line to line voltage Vab appears
2
across the output of converter 1 and Vbc appears across the output of
converter 2
➢ We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows
𝑣𝑅𝑁 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑡 ; 𝑉𝑚 = Max. Phase Voltage

2𝜋
𝑣𝑌𝑁 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 1200
3
2𝜋
𝑣𝐵𝑁 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 1200 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 2400
3
 3-Phase Dual Converters
➢ The corresponding line-to-line supply voltages are
𝜋
𝑣𝑅𝑌 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎𝑛 − 𝑣𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
6
𝜋
𝑣𝑌𝐵 = 𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑣𝑏𝑛 − 𝑣𝑐𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 −
2
𝜋
𝑣𝐵𝑅 = 𝑣𝑐𝑎 = 𝑣𝑐𝑛 − 𝑣𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 +
2
 3-Phase Dual Converters
Expression for the Circulating Current
➢ If Vo1 and Vo2 are the output voltages of converters 1 and 2 respectively,
the instantaneous voltage across the current limiting inductor during the
𝜋 𝜋
interval + 𝛼1 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ + 𝛼1
6 2

𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝑂1 + 𝑣𝑂2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 − 𝑣𝑏𝑐

𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝑟 = 3𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + − sin 𝜔𝑡 −
6 2
𝜋
𝑣𝑟 = 3𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 −
6
 3-Phase Dual Converters
Expression for the Circulating Current
➢ The circulating current can be calculated by using the equation
𝜔𝑡
1
𝑖𝑟 𝑡 = න 𝑣𝑟 . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐿𝑟
𝜋
6 +𝛼1
𝜔𝑡
1 𝜋
𝑖𝑟 𝑡 = න 3𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 − . 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐿𝑟 6
𝜋
6 +𝛼1
3𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖𝑟 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − − sin𝛼1
𝜔𝐿𝑟 6
3𝑉𝑚
𝑖𝑟 max = = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜔𝐿𝑟
 3-Phase Dual Converters

There are two different modes of operation of a three phase dual

converter system.
➢ Circulating current free (non circulating) mode of operation
➢ Circulating current mode of operation
Circulating Current Free (Non-circulating) Mode of Operation

➢In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a

time when the converter-1 is switched on and the gate signals
are applied to the thyristors the average output voltage and the
average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle
1 and the gating signals of converter-1 thyristors.
➢The load current flows in the downward direction giving a
positive average load current when the converter-1 is switched
on.
➢For α<90o the converter 1 operates in the rectification mode Vdc
is positive, Idc positive and hence the average load power Pdc is
positive.
Circulating Current Free (Non-circulating) Mode of Operation
➢The converter 1 converts the input ac supply and feeds a dc
power to the load.
➢Power flows from the ac supply to the load during the
rectification mode.
➢When the trigger angle α1 is increased above 90o, Vdc becomes
negative where as Idc is positive because the thyristors of
converter 1 conduct in only one direction and reversal of load
current through thyristors of converter 1 is not possible.
➢For α>90o converter 1 operates in the inversion mode & the
load energy is supplied back to the ac supply.
➢The thyristors are switched-off when the load current decreases
to zero & after a short delay time of about 10 to 20
milliseconds, the converter 2 can be switched on by releasing
the gate control signals to the thyristors of converter 2.
Circulating Current Free (Non-circulating) Mode of Operation
➢ We obtain a reverse or negative load current when the converter-2 is
switched ON. The average or dc output voltage and the average load
current are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle α2 of the gate trigger
pulses supplied to the thyristors of converter-2.
➢ When α2<90o converter 2 operates in the rectification mode and converts
the input ac supply in to dc output power which is fed to the load.
➢ When α2<90o for converter-2, Vdc is negative & Idc is negative, converter 2
operates as a controlled rectifier & power flows from the ac source to the
load circuit.
➢ When α2 increased to above 90o the converter 2 operates in the inversion
mode with Vdc is positive & Idc is negative and hence Pdc is negative, which
means that power flows from the load circuit to the input ac supply.
➢ The power flow from the load circuit to the input ac source is possible if
the load circuit has a dc source of appropriate polarity.
➢ When the load current falls to zero the thyristors of converter 2 turn-off
and the converter 2 can be turned off.
 Circulating Current Mode of Operation
➢Both the converters are switched on at the same time in the
mode of operation.
➢One converter operates in the rectification mode while the other
operates in the inversion mode.
➢Trigger angles α1 and α2 are adjusted such that α1 + α2 =180o.

➢When α1<90o, converter-1 operates as a controlled rectifier.

When α2 is made greater than 90o, converter-2 operates in the
inversion mode. Vdc, Idc and Pdc are positive.

➢When α2<90o, converter-2 operates as a controlled rectifier.

When α1 is made greater than 90o, converter-1 operates as an
inverter. Vdc and Idc are negative while Pdc is positive
 Circulating Current Mode of Operation
➢Both the converters are switched on at the same time in the
mode of operation.
➢One converter operates in the rectification mode while the other
operates in the inversion mode.
➢Trigger angles α1 and α2 are adjusted such that α1 + α2 =180o.

➢When α1<90o, converter-1 operates as a controlled rectifier.

When α2 is made greater than 90o, converter-2 operates in the
inversion mode. Vdc, Idc and Pdc are positive.

➢When α2<90o, converter-2 operates as a controlled rectifier.

When α1 is made greater than 90o, converter-1 operates as an
inverter. Vdc and Idc are negative while Pdc is positive
Thank You