CCAT

COURSE OUTLINE
Topic # 1 : Computer & Its Basics
Topic # 2 : Mechanical, Electromechanical Era
Topic # 3 : Electronic Era
Topic # 4 : Types of Computer
Topic # 5 : Software & Types
Topic # 6 : Input or Output Devices with Examples
Topic # 7 : Computer Organization
Topic # 8 : Memory & Types
Topic # 9 : Programming Languages & Types
Topic # 10 : Number System & Boolean Algebra
Topic # 11 : All Mathematical Work
Topic # 12 : Basic Computer Terminologies and Abbreviations
Topic # 13 : Basic Internet Knowledge
Topic # 14 : Types of Computer Network
Topic # 15 : Network Protocol & Types
Topic # 16 : Terms Related To Internet / Network
Topic # 17 : OSI Model
Topic # 18 : Office Automation ( Ms Word )
Topic # 19 : Office Automation ( Ms PowerPoint )
Topic # 20 : Office Automation ( Ms Excel )
Topic # 21 : Office Automation ( Ms Access )
Topic # 22 : Office Automation Shortcuts
Topic # 23 : Computer Crime and Computer Security
Topic # 24 : Operating System & Types
Topic # 25 : Operating System ( Features & Functions )
Topic # 26 : Basics of C++
Topic # 27 : Fundamentals of C++
Topic # 28 : Language Translator & Types
Topic # 29 : Database & Types
Topic # 30 : Database ( Functions & Purpose )
Topic # 31 : Errors & Types
Topic # 32 : Algorithm & Flowchart Concept
Topic # 33 : Loops and Conditions
Topic # 34 : Functions
Topic # 35 : File Extensions

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COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic data processing machine or device that performs
processes, calculations and operations based on instructions provided by a program.
Computers are now used vastly in every field of life. The advancement in computer caused
advancement in knowledge, science and technology.
Today, computers are used in fields of business, industry, education, banking,
transportation, research, explorations, media, entertainment etc.
In short : An electronic device which receives input from user, process it and gives output as
a result.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of
computer technology (hardware and software) with telecommunication technology (data,
image, and voice networks)

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
 Speed
 Accuracy
 No Diligence
 Storage capability
 More jobs
 Communication
 E commerce

DISADVANTAGE S OF COMPUTER
 No I.Q.
 Less jobs
 Health issues
 Addiction
 Security issues
 Harassment and bullying

PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

A complete computer system consists of following parts.
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedure
5. People

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1. HARDWARE : The physical equipment’s that make up computer are called hardware.
In others words, hardware are any part of the computer you can touch. Hardware consists
of interconnected electronic devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer etc.
2. SOFTWARE : Software is the set of instructions (also called a program) that tell the
computer how to perform a task. In other words, software tells the computer what to do.
Examples of software are ms-word, ms-excel, games, all drivers, utilities.
3. DATA : Data consists of raw facts and figures, which the computer stores and reads in
the form of numbers. The computer processed data according to the instructions contained
in the software. After a data is processed through the computer, it is called information.

Data processing cycle

Input data Processing Output information

4. PROCEDURES : procedures are the steps that you must follow to accomplish a
specific computer-related task.
5. PEOPLE : people are the computer operators, also known as, users (or sometimes
end user).

HISTORY (EVOLUTION) OF COMPUTER

The computers which we see today are modern shape of computers which have been
evolved since centuries. The evolution of computers is generally divided in following
three eras.

 Mechanical era ( dark age )

 Electro mechanical era ( middle age )
 Electronic era ( modern age )

MECHANICAL ERA :
Men have been trying to invent machines that can solve mathematical problems. In
mechanical era, human became successful to make simple machines that could help
performing simple arithmetic operation, in other words computing. These machines were
manually operated since the electricity was not invented.
Some of the important machines of this era are :

1. ABACUS : Abacus was invented about 5000 years ago. It is also

known as counting frame. Abacus is still used to teach basic
arithmetic operations to the students. It is considered as first
computer prototype.

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2. NAPIER BONES : Scottish mathematician John Napier
developed Napier's Bones, in 1612. It is also called
Napier's Rods. It was a small machine that contained
eleven rods. The rods were made up of bones, wood or
metal. Napier's Bones was used for multiplication and
division.

3. SLIDE RULE : English mathematician William Oughtred invented a Slide

Rule. This was basically a pair of two moveable rules placed side by side.
They had a standardized set of markings called scales. These scales were
used for mathematical computations. Slide Rule was used to multiply
and divide numbers.

4. PASCALINE OR PASCAL’S CALCULATOR : French mathematician

Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator which was called
Pascaline. He developed this machine to help his father who was a
tax collector. Pascaline can perform addition and subtraction by
eight figures. User had to adjust wheels in order to perform these
calculations.

5. LEIBNIZ ‘S CALCULATOR : In 1694, Gottfried Leibniz

invented a Calculator called Leibniz Calculator. It used
wheels to add or subtract, but it could also multiply and
divide numbers.

6. BABBAGE'S DIFFERENCE AND ANALYTICAL ENGINES : Charles Babbage was an English

mathematician and mechanical engineer. He is known as Father of Computer because
he developed the first complete computing machine. His first invention was Difference
Engine. It was an automatic mechanical calculator.
Difference Engine was a large machine, made of metal and was
powered by steam. The Difference Engine had storage (mechanical
memory) that could hold the data temporarily for processing and to
store results. It was used to allow a user to enter calculations and get
printed results. The Difference Engine worked on difference
equations.
Then, Charles Babbage designed but could not build a
very big machine in 1837. This was named Analytical

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Engine. The proposed design included an ALU with basic programmatic flow control.
It was programmed using punched cards and contained integrated memory.
Historians consider it to be the first design concept of a general-purpose computer
because of its comprehensive design

ELECTRO- MECHANICAL ERA :

This era starts from the mid of 19th century. In this era scientists became able to develop
faster and more accurate computing machines as they were powered by steam and
electricity. One of such machines was Tabulating Machine.

7. HERMAN HOLLERITH’S TABULATING MACHINE : It was invented by American inventor

Herman Hollerith in [Link]'s first tabulator was
used for the U.S. 1890 Census. Because of Hollerith's
tabulating machine census data took only six months to
compile, which was very fast as compared to previous
U.S. census in 1880 which took 7 years to be completed.
Hollerith Tabulating Machine became very famous and
used in many offices of U.S. Government.
ELECTRONIC ERA :
The advancement in the vacuum or electron tube gave birth to the electronic era.
In this era the true computers were invented which worked on the principle of input,
store, process and output. Continuous advancement in electronic engineering increased
efficiency and speed of computers considerably. The electronic era may be categorized in
generations on the basis of core technology used to build computers.

TABLE OF EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

Invention Year Name of Inventor Purpose/Use
Abacus 5000bc Chinese Used by traders in trading
Napier's Bones or Used to perform athematic
1612 John Napier
Rod operations.
Slide rule 1622 William ought red Primary calculator used by engineers.
Pascal's calculator Mechanical calculator perform
1642 Blaise pascal
Or pascaline additional and subtraction.
Perform multiplication, division as
Gottfried wilhem
Leibnitz calculator 1694 well as addition and subtraction and
leibnitz
find square roots.
Difference
1822 Charles Babbage It perform differential equation
Engine
Analytical engine 1837 General purpose computer
Find a faster way to compute. The US
Hollerith tabulating
1890 Herman Hollerith census punch cards were used in
machine
1890 census.

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1. FIRST GENERATION (1940-1956) : Based on vacuum tubes, first
generation computers were very large in size. This generation
computers used machine language (i.e. 1's and 0's). Magnetic drums
were used as primary internal storage medium and punched cards
for input. In this generation mainly batch processing operating
system was used. Computers of this generation were primarily used
for scientific and research purposes. Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator (ENIAC), Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) are examples of first
generation computers.

2. SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963) : Because of transistors

computers became smaller, faster, cheaper and more
efficient. Assembly language and a high-level language
FORTRAN were introduced. Magnetic core was used as
primary internal storage medium. Punched Cards were used for
input. Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating systems were used. These
computers were mainly used for commercial productions, scientific and engineering
analysis and design. Examples are IBM 7094 and IBM 1401.

3. THIRD GENERATION (1964-1971) : Use of ICs further

decreased size of computers and increased the speed and
efficiency. Less expensive computers were introduced. High
level programming languages such as Pascal and COBOL were
used. Keyboard as input and monitor as output also eased
the use of computer. Time-sharing and Real-time Operating Systems were used.

4. FOURTH GENERATION (1971-PRESENT) : The invention of

microprocessors was revolutionary which caused the
development of faster, less expensive, smaller and more
reliable computers. They used semi-conductor memories RAM
and ROM and magnetic storage became popular. More high- level
languages were introduced like C, C++, Java, etc. These computers are used in almost
every field of life, like space applications, business and art work.

5. FIFTH GENERATION (PRESENT-BEYOND) : Fifth Generation

computing devices are still being developed. In this
generation computers will be capable of self- learning,
reasoning and generalization. These computers or
controlled machines like robot will also be able to process
human languages. The branches of AI include; Machine Learning, Deep Learning.
Natural Language Processing, Robotics and Expert Systems.

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1st 2nd 3rd 4th

5th GENERATION
GENERATIO GENERATIO GENERATI GENERATI
PERIOD Present and
N 1940- N 1956- ON 1964- ON 1971-
Beyond
1956 1963 1971 present

TABLE OF GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER Integrated Micro Artificial

Major Vacuum
Transistor Circuit(IC) Processor Intelligence
Innovation Tube
(SSIC) (LSIC) (VLSI)
Smaller than
Very huge 1st gen.
Smaller
Size of the (Mainframe (Minicompu Smallest Tiny Computer
than 2nd
computer ) ENIAC, ter) UNIVAC (Laptop) (Diary)
generation
EDSAC III, IBM'S
7070
Processing
Speed/Compu Microsecon Nanoseco Pica More
Millisecond
tation d nds seconds improvement
performance
Punch Card Disk
Magnetic Magnetic Floppy disk CD-
Storage devices & Magnetic storage
tapes disks ROM
tapes Floppy disk
Assembly/hig
Much Expert systems
h level
Languages Machine High-level easier High (Artificial
COBOL,
Level Intelligence)
FORTRAN
Magnetic PROM, EPROM, EEPROM,SIMM,DI
Main Memory ROM,RAM
drum DRAM SRAM MM

COMPUTER TODAY AND TOMORROW

 21st century is the era of technological revolution.
 Previously, technology was only used to access and share information.
 However, with the passage of time, the rapid change in technology has made it
nearly impossible to perform any human activity without its use.
 Computers are playing an important part in our daily life. News, weather updates,
travelling information and bookings, money transfer and even taxi bookings are
done with the help of mobile phone apps.
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 Many managerial tasks are also done by computer software. School, library and
hospital management are some examples.
 Online shopping is becoming a trend in our society too.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) :

(AI) is the branch of computer sciences that emphasizes the development of
intelligence machines, thinking and working like humans. For example, speech recognition,
problem-solving, learning and planning.

ROBOTS :
Robots are the machines that can be controlled by a computer and are capable of
carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. Robots can be controlled by an
external control device or through programming.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION :
It has become an integral part of our lives. Wireless communication technology
transmits information using electromagnetic waves like IR (Infrared), RF (Radio
Frequency), satellite, etc. Wireless communication is also giving new meaning to the
socialization and human interactivity.

VIRTUAL REALITY :
It is an artificial environment that is created with software and presented to the
user in a way that the user feels it as a real environment. Virtual reality can be used for the
simulation of a real environment for training and education. It is also used for
development of an imagined environment for a game or interactive story

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

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Types of
Computer

According to
According to According to
Function/Data
Purpose Size/Capacity
Handling

General Purpose Analog

SuperComputer
Computer Computer

Special Purpose Mainframe

Digital Computer
Computer Computer

HybridComputer Mini Computer

Micro Computer

GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER :

These computers are designed to handle a variety of
different problems. A general purpose computer can be used
for such varied applications as payroll, accounts, inventory
control and sales analysis. These machines are strong in
versatility but are normally weak in speed and efficiency as
compared to special purpose computer.

SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTER :

These computers are designed to handle a specific
problems or to perform a specific task. As these computers
have to perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in
processing. Special computers are those used for collecting
highway tolls, satellite tracking, air traffic control and
industrial process control.

ANALOG COMPUTER :
The word analog is taken from the word analogous which

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means similar. Analog computers are commonly used for scientific and engineering
problems, particularly in chemical industries, electric power plants and petroleum
refineries'. It is used for measuring quantities (such as temperature changes or voltages).
Analog computers are employed for special uses, such as robotics, where an experimental
design can be tested in real time.

DIGITAL COMPUTER :
Digital computers are computers that specialize in
counting (digits & numbers). These numbers are used to
perform arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision
to reach a conclusion. Digital computers are most popular and
generally used in homes, offices etc. Digital technology is
more popular than analog technology for mainly following
reasons cost, applications are faster, accurate and easier to program.

HYBRID COMPUTER :
Hybrid computer is combination of analog and digital
computer systems. These are the machines that incorporate
in a single computer both analog and digital features. A
hybrid computer uses analog to digital conversion and digital

to analog conversion. Hybrid computer has the speed of analog computer

and the accuracy of digital computer.

SUPER COMPUTER :
These are the largest and fastest machines today. It can
perform 50 million operation per second. They are very
sophisticated machines designed to perform complex
calculations at fastest speed. Super computer used to modal
very large dynamic systems, such as weather patterns, national
or global weather forecasting, satellite tracking, testing of
atomic and nuclear weapons etc. Traditionally, supercomputers
have been used for scientific and engineering applications that must handle very large
databases.

MAINFRAME COMPUTER :
Mainframes are the traditional medium and large scale
computer systems used in most business organizations for
information processing. A mainframe typically has an advanced
control system and is capable of linking up with dozens of
input/output units and even minis for additional computer
power. It can usually perform from 16 MIPS to onward. Memory

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size is from 2 MB to onward. Examples are IBM 4300 and 3300 series. These computers are
the ultimate in sophistication, flexibility and speed.

MINI COMPUTER :
Mini-computers are increasingly powerful and do almost anything that large
computers do, only more slowly and at much lower cost than mainframes. These
computers are smaller than mainframe and larger than microcomputer in size. A
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system having terminals attached to it and is capable of
supporting 4 to 200 users simultaneously. The speed is usually from 10 MIPS to onward.
RAM is from 2 MB to onward.

MICRO COMPUTER :
The increasing use of micros in home, school, business and
professional offices has been even more revolutionary. Although
these computers have limited memory and speed, their cost makes
them very attractive for applications that would otherwise not be
feasible. It is mostly used as a single user or referred as SINGLE
CHIP PROCESSOR. The speed is generally from 8 MHz to onward.
The RAM is from 640 KB to onward. It is designed to be used by individuals for writing,
illustrating, budgeting, playing games and communicating with other computers.

SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and
execute specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects
of a computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and
programs that run on a device.
OR
Software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides
the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers
to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for
some purposes.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE :
Software can be categorized into two classes:
1. System software.
2. Application software.
1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE :
System software’s are the program directly related to the computer hardware
and perform task associated with controlling and utilizing computer hardware.

There are following categories of system Software.

i. Operating system.
ii. Language translator.
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iii. Data management software.
iv. Editors
v. Utility software.

OPERATING SYSTEM : An operating system is a

software which performs all the basic tasks like booting
the computer, file management, memory management,
process management, and controlling peripheral devices
such as hard disk, printer, etc.
It manages computer resources efficiently. Most common
operating systems are : dos, windows, Linux, Android, Mac OS and IOS.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR : Computer can only understand program in machine

languages but we write program in high level languages. Therefore, there must be a
languages translator which translates high level language in to machine language so that
computer can act upon our instruction.

DATA MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE : This software is used for organizing, updating and
printing data.

EDITORS : This software enables the user to type-in a program or generate text and make
modification whenever necessary.

UTILITY SOFTWARE : These programs are used to perform a wide range of functions like
virus cleaning etc.

2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE :
Application software is developed to perform in any task that benefit from
computation. It is a set of programs that allows the computer to perform a specific data
processing job for the user. It does not interact directly to the hardware. It directly
interacts with the system software.
This category includes: business software, databases, image editing, medical
software, video games, word processing. There are two type of application software:

i. General purpose application software.

ii. Special purpose application software.

i. GENERAL PURPOSE APPLICATION SOFTWARE : General-purpose application

software is a type of software that is designed to provide a wide range of
functionalities and features for users, irrespective of their specific industry or
professional needs. It is versatile and can be utilized for various tasks, making it
suitable for a broad audience.
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• Microsoft word
• Microsoft excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
• Adobe Photoshop

ii. SPECIAL PURPOSE APPLICATION SOFTWARE : Special-purpose application

software is a type of software designed to address specific tasks or requirements
within a particular industry, profession, or niche. It is tailored to meet the specialized
needs of users in a specific domain, providing targeted functionalities for a dedicated
purpose.

HARDWARE
The physical equipment's that make up computer are called
Hardware. In other words hardware are any part of the computer
you can touch. Hardware consists of interconnected electronic
devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer etc.

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are hardware components that
allow users to interact with a computer by providing
data or commands. These devices enable the user to
input information into the computer for processing.

1) TEXT INPUT DEVICES :

KEYBOARD : A keyboard is an input device that allows a user to input alphanumeric

characters, commands, and functions into a computer or
other devices. It consists of a set of keys, each
representing a specific character, symbol, or function.
Arrangement of key are known as QWERTY. Here is a
detailed breakdown of the components and features of a
keyboard:
 alphanumeric keys (a-z and 0-9)
 Function keys (f1-f12)
 Modifier keys (ctrl , alt , shift etc)
 Navigation keys (up, down, left, right)
 Numeric keypad (0-9)
 Special keys (enter , backspace , delete , tab , spacebar , esc)
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 Indicator lights (Caps lock , Num lock , Scroll lock)

TERMINAL : In the context of computing, a terminal refers to a physical device that

provides a user interface to a computer system. It typically consists of a keyboard for input
and a display screen for output. Terminals can be standalone devices or software-based
emulations.
i. DUMB TERMINAL : a dumb terminal is a basic input/output device that lacks its own
processing capabilities. It relies entirely on the mainframe or minicomputer to
perform processing tasks.
ii. SMART TERMINAL : a smart terminal is an improved version of a dumb terminal with
additional processing capabilities. It has its own microprocessor, allowing it to
perform certain data processing tasks locally.
iii. INTELLIGENT TERMINAL : an intelligent terminal is a sophisticated device with
significant processing power and the ability to perform complex tasks locally. It often
includes its own operating system and can execute a variety of applications
independently.

2) POINTING DEVICES :

MOUSE : A device that moves a cursor on a screen based on physical

Movement.

TRACKBALL : A stationary device with a ball on top that is rotated

to control the Cursor.

TOUCH SCREEN : A display with touch-sensitive

capabilities.

LIGHT PEN : A pointing device sensitive to light, used for drawing

or selecting.

JOYSTICK : A lever that can be moved in multiple directions,

commonly used in gaming.

3) IMAGING DEVICES :

SCANNER :
Converts physical documents or images into digital format.
i. FLATBED SCANNER : A flatbed scanner is the most common type
and resembles a photocopier. It has a flat, glass surface on which
you place the document or image for scanning.
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ii. SHEET-FED SCANNER : sheet-fed scanners are designed to handle multiple pages
at once. Documents are fed through the scanner using an automatic document
feeder (ADF).
iii. HANDHELD SCANNER : Handheld scanners are portable and
can be moved manually across the surface of the document.
They are compact and suitable for scanning in various
locations.

WEBCAM :
Captures video or images for video conferencing or streaming.

4) AUDIO INPUT DEVICES :

MICROPHONE : Captures sound and converts it into an electrical

signal.

5) BIOMETRIC INPUT DEVICES :

FINGERPRINT SCANNER : Captures and analyses fingerprints for

identification.

RETINA SCANNER : Scans the unique patterns of the retina for

authentication.

6) MOTION SENSING DEVICES :

GESTURE RECOGNITION DEVICES : Detects and interprets

human gestures for input.

ACCELEROMETER : Measures acceleration and tilt for device

control.

7) READERS :

BARCODE READER (BARCODE SCANNER) : A barcode reader is a device

that uses optical scanning to interpret data from barcodes. Barcodes are
typically printed on products, and the reader decodes the information for
inventory management, sales transactions, and more.
Use Cases : retail, inventory management, and logistics.

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OMR READER (OPTICAL MARK RECOGNITION) : An OMR
reader is designed to recognize marked areas on paper forms,
usually in the form of checkboxes or filled circles. It is commonly
used in surveys, exams, and multiple-choice assessments.
Use Cases : educational assessments, surveys, data collection.

OCR SCANNER (OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION) : An OCR scanner converts

printed or handwritten text into machine-Encoded text.
It enables the digitization of documents, making them
searchable and editable.
Use Cases : document scanning, text extraction from
images, automated data entry.

MAGNETIC STRIPE READER : A magnetic stripe reader reads

data stored on the magnetic stripe of credit cards, ID cards, or other
magnetic stripe cards. It is commonly used for payment processing
and access control.
Use Cases : point-of-sale systems, access control systems.

SMART CARD READER : A smart card reader reads data from

smart cards, which contain an embedded microchip. Smart cards are
used for secure identification and authentication.
Use Cases : access control, identification cards, electronic payment.

BIOMETRIC SCANNER : Biometric scanners capture and analyses

physical or behavioral Characteristics for identification purposes.
Common biometric inputs include fingerprints, iris patterns, and
facial features.
Use Cases : security systems, access control, and identity verification.

MICR READER (MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION) : A

MICR reader interprets characters printed with magnetic ink. It is
commonly used in banking for processing checks.
Use Cases : check processing, financial transactions.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are essential components of a
computer system that display or present information
processed by the computer. These devices allow users to
receive feedback or output from the computer.

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1) MONITOR (SOFTCOPY OUTPUT) : (VDUs – VISUAL DISPLAY UNITS)
Monitors are the most common softcopy output devices. They
display text, graphics, and videos generated by the computer.
Types:
 CRT (cathode ray tube)
 LCD (liquid crystal display)
 LED (light emitting diode)
 OLED (organic light emitting diode)

TYPES OF MONITORS :
i. CRT (CATHODE RAY TUBE) MONITORS : Older technology, now largely
obsolete. Used a vacuum tube with an electron gun to generate images
on a phosphorescent screen.

ii. LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY) MONITORS : Use liquid crystal technology to control
the passage of light through individual pixels. Common in most modern monitors due
to their slim profile and energy efficiency.

iii. LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) MONITORS : Utilize led backlighting to

enhance brightness and colour accuracy. Generally more energy-
efficient and produce a wider colour gamut than traditional LCD
monitors.

iv. OLED (ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE) MONITORS :

feature organic compounds that emit light when an electric
current is applied. Known for vibrant colours, high contrast
ratios, and faster response times.

KEY COMPONENTS OF A MONITOR :

RESOLUTION : The resolution of a monitor refers to the number of pixels it
can display horizontally and vertically. Higher resolutions result in
sharper and clearer images.
REFRESH RATE : The refresh rate indicates how many times per second
the monitor redraws the images on the screen. A higher refresh rate can contribute to
smoother motion in videos and games.
ASPECT RATIO : The aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to the height of the screen.
Common aspect ratios include 16:9 (widescreen) and 4:3
(Standard).
CONNECTORS : Monitors connect to the computer through various ports, such as HDMI,
display port, DVI, or VGA.

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2) PROJECTORS (SOFTCOPY OUTPUT) :
Projectors are used to project computer-generated images
or presentations onto a larger screen or surface

3) AUDIO (SOFTCOPY OUTPUT) :

These devices produce sound output generated by the
computer, enhancing multimedia experiences.
Types:
 Speakers,
 Headphones
 Sound cards

4) PRINTER (HARDCOPY OUTPUT) :

Printer is a device that accepts text and graphic from computer and transfers the
information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of paper.
Printers are sometimes sold with computer, but more frequently are purchase separately.
Printers vary in sizes, speed, sophistication and cost.

TYPES OF PRINTERS :
In term of technology utilized, printer can be categorized
into two types:
1. Impact printer.
2. Non-impact printer.

IMPACT PRINTER :
Impact printer strikes the ribbon against paper. These printers use a print head
containing a number of metal pins which strike an inked ribbon placed between the print
head and the paper. It can have produced carbon copies. It is a noisy and slower printer.
TYPES : Daisy wheel printer, dot matrix printer, line printer.

NON – IMPACT PRINTER:

The non-impact printer prints without striking the hammer. Non-impact printers use
electrostatic thermal or laser techniques to print. These printers create character and
images on paper. Non-impact printers are much faster and quicker. They do not produced
sound.
TYPES : Thermal printer , laser printer, Inkjet printer.

5) PLOTTER (HARDCOPY OUTPUT) :

A plotter is a specialized output device that is used to produce high quality, large-
format prints or drawings on paper, often used in technical
and engineering applications. Unlike traditional printers, which
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are designed for general-purpose printing, plotters are specifically tailored for creating
detailed and precise graphical outputs. It is for architectural and engineering drawings,
maps, and detailed graphic.
TYPES :
 Pen plotter
 Inkjet plotter
 Electrostatic plotter

SYSTEM UNIT
A system unit is the part of a
computer that contains the primary
devices. The system unit performs
operations and produces results for
complex calculations. It includes the
motherboard, CPU, ram and other
components, as well as the case in
which these devices are enclosed.

MOTHERBOARD :
A motherboard is also called a system board or
logic board, is an electronic circuit board that contains
the CPU, memory and other basic electronic
components. A motherboard also includes expansion
slots.

MICROPROCESSOR (CPU) :
As computer has evolved, the size of the microprocessor has
become smaller while its speed and capacity has increased. Indeed
the microprocessor also called the CPU, is a tiny chip on which
electronic circuitry has been etched. The chip is mounted on a piece
of plastic, called carrier, with metal leads attached to it. The
microprocessor manages the computer processing and the transfer of data to and from
primary memory, commonly called ram.

COMPONENTS OF CPU :

 CU (CONTROL UNIT) : This unit control the execution of programs , input and output
devices, storage and retrieval of data from storage devices, routing of information
between memory and ALU and also control the direction of arithmetic and logic units. So

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we can say that is directs and coordinate all activities of a computer. Control the flow of
data like traffic cop.
 ALU (ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT) : It perform actual processing of data which includes
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
This unit also perform certain logical tasks such as comparison of two numbers to see that
one is greater than other or equal.

FEATURES OF MICROPROCESSOR :

CLOCK :
The clock controls how fast all operations within the CPU take place. If you bring a
microprocessor system, clock speed is an important measurement to know about. It is
expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).

CO-PROCESSOR :
Coprocessors are microprocessor that are subordinates to the CPU and helps it handle data
overload and speed up the computers operation.

BUS :
The buses on a computer system are sets of wires that carry information to or from
memory or I/O devices. They may be unidirectional (data travels one way) or bi-directional
(data travels both ways) Buses can be seen on the computer motherboard as parallel metal
tracks

TYPES :

 ADDRESS BUS : The address bus carries the address of the piece of memory or I/O
devices to be used to read or write the data. They may be unidirectional (data travels
one way).
 DATA BUS : The data bus carries the data that is to be written or has been read from
memory. It is a bi directional (data travels both way).
 CONTROL BUS : The control bus carries the signal that control the actions of the
computer. The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchronization
signals coming from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware
components. It is a bidirectional bus, as it also transmits response signals from the
hardware

REGISTER :
Register is the volatile memory holding areas within the CPU for data and instruction that
are to be processed immediately. There are 14 registers that are equally shared by CU &
ALU.

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 PROGRAM COUNTER (PC) : The program counter is a special-purpose register that
holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed. It
keeps track of the current position in the program's execution.
 INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR) : The instruction register temporarily holds the
instruction fetched from memory before it is decoded and executed. It facilitates the
decoding and execution of instructions by providing a temporary storage location for
the current instruction.
 MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER (MAR) : The memory address register holds the
memory address of the Data to be fetched or stored. It is used to specify the address
location in the memory for
 Read or write operations.
 MEMORY BUFFER REGISTER (MBR) : The memory buffer register temporarily holds
the data fetched from or sent to the memory. It serves as a temporary storage
location for data during Memory read or write operations.
 ACCUMULATOR (AC) : The accumulator is a general-purpose register used for
Arithmetic and logic operations. It accumulates the results of arithmetic and logic
operations Performed by the CPU.
 DATA REGISTER (DR) : The data register is a temporary storage location for data
being transferred between the CPU and other components. It holds data temporarily
during data processing operations.
 INDEX REGISTER : Index registers are used to store indices or offsets for Addressing
in certain types of instructions. They help in efficient access to arrays or data
structures.
 STACK POINTER (SP) : The stack pointer keeps track of the top of the stack in the
Memory. It is crucial for managing the function call stack and handling Subroutine
calls.
 STATUS REGISTER (FLAGS REGISTER) : The status register, also known as the flags
register, contains
 Individual bits that represent the status of the CPU after an operation. It stores
information about the result of arithmetic or logical Operations, such as zero, carry,
overflow, and sign flags.
 INPUT/OUTPUT REGISTER : The input register is a register within the CPU that
temporarily Holds data received from an external input device, such as a keyboard,
mouse, or sensor. The output register is a register within the CPU that temporarily
holds data before it is sent to an external output device, such as a display, printer, or
storage device.

PORTS :
Ports refer to physical or virtual interfaces on a
computer or computing device that allow the
connection of external devices, peripherals, or
networks. These ports facilitate data transfer,

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communication, and interaction between the computer and other devices.

 USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS) PORTS : USB ports are versatile and
widely used for connecting a Variety of peripherals, including external
hard drives, printers, keyboards, mice, cameras, and smartphones.
 HDMI (HIGH-DEFINITION MULTIMEDIA INTERFACE) PORTS : HDMI ports
are used to transmit high-definition audio and video signals. They are
commonly found on computers, monitors, TVs, and multimedia devices.
 ETHERNET (LAN) PORT : The Ethernet port, often known as an rj45 port, is used for
wired network connections. It enables a computer to connect to a
local area network (LAN) or the internet.
 AUDIO (AUXILIARY) PORTS : Audio ports, typically 3.5mm jacks, are
used for connecting Headphones, speakers, microphones, and other
audio devices.
 VGA (VIDEO GRAPHICS ARRAY) PORT : VGA ports are used for
connecting monitors and displays. However, they are becoming
less common as newer technologies like HDMI and display port
gain popularity.
 SERIAL AND PARALLEL PORTS : Serial and parallel ports were used in
older computer systems for connecting peripherals like printers and
modems. These ports are largely obsolete, with USB and other
modern Interfaces replacing them.

POWER SUPPLY :
Power supply is a box inside the system that provides
electrical power to all components in a system unit. It converts 220
volt main ac supply to the required 5 or12 volt dc supply which
computer components use. Since electricity generates a lot of
heat, the power supply unit is equipped with a fan that prevents
the system and components from overheating

EXPANSION SLOTS :
Expansion slots in a computer are physical
connectors on the motherboard that allow additional
expansion cards or peripheral devices to be installed.
These slots provide a way to expand the functionality or
capabilities of a computer by adding specialized hardware
components

WORD SIZE :
Word size in computing refers to the number of bits that a computer's central
processing unit (CPU) can process at a time. It is a fundamental characteristic of the
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computer's architecture and plays a role in determining the efficiency and performance of
various operations. The word size is often associated with the computer's processing
capability and the amount of data it can handle in one instruction.

FACTORS EFFECT ON WORD SIZE :

 Bus width
 Port size
 Register size
(A 16 bit word size can process 2 characters at a time)

FETCH CYCLE :
During the fetch cycle, the CPU retrieves the next instruction from memory. The
instruction is stored in a specific location in memory, and the CPU needs to fetch it so that
it can be decoded and executed.
STEPS :
1. The CPU sends a request to the memory address where the next instruction is stored.
2. The instruction is fetched from the memory and loaded into a special register called
the instruction register (IR) inside the CPU.
3. The program counter (PC), a register that keeps track of the memory address of the
next instruction, is updated to point to the next sequential instruction.

EXECUTE CYCLE :
After the instruction is fetched, the CPU proceeds to execute it. The execution
involves carrying out the specific operation or operations described by the instruction.
STEPS :
1. The CPU decodes the instruction stored in the instruction register to understand
what operation needs to be performed.
2. The CPU fetches any required data from memory or registers to perform the
operation.
3. The actual operation is executed, which may involve arithmetic or logical
computations, data movement, or control flow changes.
4. The results of the execution may be stored back in registers or memory, depending
on the nature of the instruction.
MEMORY
In a computer system, memory refers to the physical devices used to store
data temporarily or permanently for processing and retrieval. Memory is a crucial
component that directly impacts the performance and functionality of a computer.

PRIMARY MEMORY :
Internal memory, presently known as main memory, is the only one directly
accessible to the CPU. It is an area where our program and data stored during

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processing. It has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. It is made up of
semiconductor devices.
TYPES OF PRIMARY MEMORY :
 Ram (random access memory)
 Rom (read only memory)

RAM :
Stands for random access memory. This memory is randomly
accessible and it has a very high-speed work area. It stores only one
program and data at a time. This memory is volatile in nature which
means everything stored in ram will be lost if power is switched off.
TYPES OF RAM :
 SRAM : Static ram has a greater capacity for storage. SRAM does
not need to be refreshed, which make it faster. Static ram is more
expensive then dynamic ram and can hold more information.
 DRAM : dynamic ram is the most common type of ram. Dynamic
ram need to be refreshed thousands of time per second. This
makes it slower and cumbersome as compared to static ram.

ROM :
Stands for read only memory. Rom is non-volatile memory. It is
used to hold certain start-up programs; such as routines that start disk
drive, load operating system into memory and transfer of control to the
new loaded program. The program stored in rom are referred as
firmware.
TYPES OF ROM :
 PROM : A prom is a memory chip on which we can store a program. But
once the prom has been used, we cannot clean it does not use it to store
something else. Like, ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
 EPROM : An EPROM is the special type of prom that can be erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light. After that we can reuse it.
 EEPROM : An EEPROM is a special type of prom that can be erased by
exposing it to an electrical charge like EPROM. After erasing data, we
can reuse it.

MAGNETIC DISK :

 FLOPPY DRIVE : Floppy drives were a popular

form of removable storage in the late 20th
century and early 21st century. The most
common size was the 3.5-inch floppy
disk, which had a rigid plastic case
protecting a flexible magnetic storage
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medium inside. Floppy disks typically had low storage capacities, ranging from 720 kb
to 1.44 mb for the 3.5-inch format.

 HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD) : Hdds are non-volatile storage

devices that use magnetic storage to store data on
rapidly rotating disks known as platters. A read/write
head accesses and modifies data on the spinning platters.
Platters : Circular disks coated with a
magnetic material.
Read/write head : Moves across the platters to
read and write data.
Actuator arm : Positions the read/write head.
Spindle : Spins the platters at high speeds.

 MAGNETIC TAPE : Magnetic tape is a type of data

storage medium that uses a long Strip of plastic film with
a magnetic coating to store digital information. It has
been a significant technology in the realm of data storage
for several decades.
Magnetic coating : The tape is coated with a layer
of
magnetic material, usually iron oxide,
which can be magnetized to represent
binary data.
Material : The tape itself is typically made of a thin
Plastic Material, and it is wound onto reels.

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OPTICAL DISK :
An optical disk is a type of storage medium that uses
laser technology to read and write data. These disks have a flat,
circular shape and are made of a reflective material that stores
data in the form of microscopic pits and lands on the disk's
surface. Optical disks are widely used for various purposes,
including data storage, software distribution, and media
playback.
EXAMPLE :
 CD (compact disk)
 CD-R (compact disk recordable)
 CD-RW (compact disk re-writable)
 DVD (digital video disk / digital versatile disk)

OTHER FORM OF STORAGE :

 SOLID STATE DRIVES (SSD) : Using nand-based flash memory, SSDs
offer faster data access and are becoming more popular for their
speed and reliability.

 USB DRIVES/MEMORY CARDS : Compact and portable storage devices

that can be easily connected to a computer's USB port or card slot.

 CLOUD STORAGE : Cloud storage involves storing and accessing

data over the Internet through remote servers. Users can upload,
download, and share files through cloud storage services.

PROGRAM
A computer program is a collection of instruction that can be executed by a
computer to form a specific task. Most computer devices require program to
function properly. A computer program is a computer programmer usually written
by programming language.

PROGRAMMING
Programming, also known as coding or software development, is the process of
creating computer programs or applications by instructing a computer to perform specific
tasks. A program is a set of instructions written in a programming language that a
computer can interpret and execute.
The primary goal of programming is to solve problems and automate tasks. Programmers
use programming languages to write code, which is a series of instructions that tell a
computer how to perform a particular task or set of tasks. These instructions are written
using a syntax specific to the chosen programming language.

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SYNTAX IN PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
 Syntax tells the computer how to read a set of code.
 It is essentially a set of keywords and characters that a computer can read, interpret
and convert into tasks needed.
 Text based computer languages are based on sequence of character.
 While visual programming languages like visual basic are based on the layout and
connections between symbols (which may be textual or graphics).

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
A programming language is a vocabulary
and set of grammatical rules for instructing a
computer or computing device to perform
specific tasks. The term programming language
usually refers to high-level languages, such as
basic, c, C++, COBOL, java, FORTRAN, ADA, and
pascal.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Thousands of programming languages have been developed till now, but
each language has its specific purpose. These languages vary in how they can
communicate with the computer's hardware. Some programming languages can
directly communicate with hardware while others have less or no access to that
hardware. Based on the accessibility of hardware, they can be classified into
following categories:
1. Low-level language
2. Middle-level language
3. High-level language

 LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGE :
The low-level language is a programming language that can directly access and
communicate with the hardware, and it is represented in 0 or 1 forms, which are the
machine instructions.
 MACHINE- LEVEL LANGUAGE : The machine-level language comes at the lowest level
in the hierarchy, so it has direct access to the hardware. It cannot be easily
understood by humans. The machine-level language is written in binary digits, i.e., 0
and 1.

 THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE : The assembly language comes above the machine
language means that it has lesser access to hardware. It is easy to read, write, and
maintain by humans.
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 MIDDLE-LEVEL LANGUAGE :
Some special purpose middle-level languages were developed in the past that were
used as bridge between hardware and user interaction. However, such languages have
become obsolete and are not used anymore.

 HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE :
The high-level languages brought revolution in programming world. They allow a
programmer to write the programs which are independent of a particular type of
computer. These languages are closer to human languages than machine-level languages.
High-level languages do not have direct access to the hardware.

SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE :

PYTHON : Python is a versatile, high-level programming language known for its readability
and ease of use. It supports multiple programming paradigms and is widely used in web
development, data science, artificial intelligence, and automation.
JAVASCRIPT : JavaScript is a scripting language primarily used for web Development. It
allows dynamic content manipulation on web pages, and with the advent of [Link], it can
also be used for server-side development.
JAVA : java is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming Language designed to be
platform-independent. It is widely used in enterprise-level applications, mobile
development (android), and largescale systems.
C++ : C++ is a powerful, general-purpose programming language Derived from c. It includes
features like object-oriented programming and is used for system/software development,
game development, and performance-critical applications.
C# (C SHARP) : C# is a modern, object-oriented programming language developed by
Microsoft. It is commonly used for building windows applications, web applications (with
[Link]), and game development using unity.
PHP : PHP (hypertext preprocessor) is a server-side scripting Language designed for web
development. It is embedded in html and is used to create dynamic web pages, handling
tasks like form processing and database connectivity.
VISUAL BASIC (VB) : it is a user-friendly, event-driven programming language
Developed by Microsoft. It is known for its simplicity and ease of use, making it a popular
choice for developing windows applications with graphical user interfaces (GUI). VB enables
rapid application development and is often used for creating desktop applications,
automation scripts, and simple database-driven software.
SQL : SQL (structured query language) is not a general-purpose Programming language but
is crucial for managing and manipulating relational databases. It is used for tasks such as
querying databases, inserting, updating, and deleting data.

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NUMBER SYSTEM
A number system is a way of representing numbers using a consistent set of symbols
or digits and rules for combining them. Different cultures and mathematical traditions have
developed various number systems throughout history, but the most common ones used
today are
 Decimal system (base-10)
 Binary system (base-2)
 Octal system (base-8)
 Hexadecimal system (base-16)

 DECIMAL SYSTEM (BASE 10) :

Base : 10
Digits : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Place value : each digit's value is determined by its Position, starting from the right
and
Powers of 10 to the left.

 BINARY SYSTEM (BASE 2) :

Base : 2
Digits : 0,1
Place value : Each digit's value is determined by its position, starting from the right
and
powers of 2 to the left.

 OCTAL SYSTEM (BASE 8) :

Base : 8
Digits : 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Place value : Each digit's value is determined by its position, starting from the right
and
powers of 8 to the left.

 HEXA-DECIMAL SYSTEM (BASE 16) :

Base : 16
Digits : 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , A(10) , B(11) , C(12) , D(13) , E(14) , F(15)
Place value : Each digit's value is determined by its position, starting from the right
and
increasing by powers of 16 to the left.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole in 1954.
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 Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure and set of operations used in digital logic
design and computer science.
 it deals with binary variables and operations, where each variable can only take on
one of two values: true (1) or false (0).
 The fundamental operations in Boolean algebra are based on logical operations.
RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA :

Rule no. 1 A+0=A

Rule no. 2 A+1=1
Rule no. 3 A.0=0
Rule no. 4 A.1=A
Rule no. 5 A+A=A
Rule no. 6 A.A=A
Rule no. 7 A+ ̅=1
Rule no. 8 A. ̅=0

Rule no. 9 ̅=A

Rule no. 10 A + A.B = A

Rule no. 11 A + ̅ .B = A + B
Rule no. 12 (A+B) (A+C) = A + BC

TRUTH TABLE :
A truth table is a breakdown of a logic function by listing all possible values
the function can attain. Such a table typically contains several rows and columns,
with the top row representing the logical variables and combinations, in increasing
complexity leading up to the final function.

LOGIC GATES :
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic
circuit having one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship between
the input and the output is based on a certain logic.

1. And (basic)
2. Or (basic)
3. Not (basic)
4. Nand (universal)
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5. Nor (universal)

MATHEMATICAL WORK :
(Practice all Mathematical work related to following topics)
1. Number System Conversion
2. Simplification of binary number system (Addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division)
3. Truth Table
4. Boolean Simplification
5. Logic Gates (circuits)

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
GENERAL COMPUTING TERMS :

AI : Artificial Intelligence
ML : Machine Learning
DL : Deep Learning
VR : Virtual Reality
AR : Augmented Reality
MR : Mixed Reality
SDK : Software Development Kit
IDE : Integrated Development Environment
CLI : Command Line Interface
GUI : Graphical User Interface
RAM : Random Access Memory
ROM : Read-Only Memory
CPU : Central Processing Unit
GPU : Graphics Processing Unit
BIOS : Basic Input / Output System
DNS : Domain Name System
VPN : Virtual Private Network
LAN : Local Area Network
WAN : Wide Area Network
MAN : Metropolitan Area Network
SAN : Storage Area Network
SSD : Solid State Drive
HDD : Hard Disk Drive
USB : Universal Serial Bus
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IEEE : Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

NETWORKING AND INTERNET :

TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS : Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
FTP : File Transfer Protocol
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
IMAP : Internet Message Access Protocol
ISP : Internet Service Provider
WPA/WPA2/WPA3 : Wi-Fi Protected Access
MAC Address : Media Access Control Address
VoIP : Voice over Internet Protocol

WEB DEVELOPMENT :
HTML : Hypertext Markup Language
CSS : Cascading Style Sheets
JS : JavaScript
XML : extensible Markup Language
JSON : JavaScript Object Notation
AJAX : Asynchronous JavaScript and XML
CMS : Content Management System
SEO : Search Engine Optimization

SECURITY :
PKI : Public Key Infrastructure
VPN : Virtual Private Network
ACL : Access Control List
DDoS : Distributed Denial of Service
AES : Advanced Encryption Standard
OTP : One-Time Password

PROGRAMMING AND DEVELOPMENT :

API : Application Programming Interface
SDK : Software Development Kit
IDE : Integrated Development Environment
SQL : Structured Query Language
ORM : Object-Relational Mapping
JVM : Java Virtual Machine
CLR : Common Language Runtime
SOAP : Simple Object Access Protocol

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DATABASES :
RDBMS : Relational Database Management System
DBMS : Database Management System
DDL : Data Definition Language
DML : Data Manipulation Language
OLAP : Online Analytical Processing
OLTP : Online Transaction Processing

MOBILE DEVELOPMENT :
IOS : iPhone Operating System
Android OS : Android Operating System
APK : Android Package
IMEI : International Mobile Equipment Identity
SIM : Subscriber Identity Module

MISCELLANEOUS :
CAD : Computer-Aided Design
OCR : Optical Character Recognition
VRML : Virtual Reality Modeling Language
CAPTCHA : Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers
and Humans Apart
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
USB : Universal Serial Bus

DATA
Data is the representation of facts, instructions, or concepts like text, numbers,
symbols, images, voice, and videos in a structured manner suitable for communication.

DATA COMMUNICATION
The processes, facilities and equipment used
to transport encoded information from one point
to another

ANALOG VS DIGITAL
Analog signals are a continuously varying signal or waves that
change with time period. Analog Signals can be used to measure

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changes in some physical quantities such as light, sound, pressure or temperature.

A discretely variable signal as compared with analog,

which is continuously variable. Data signals are coded
in discrete and separate pulses.

DATA TRANSMISSION
The data transmission means
emission of data in any direction via
wireless or wired medium. Transmission
may occur between source and
destination.

GUIDED MEDIA :
In guided media signals are transmitted in a narrow pathway by using physical links. It is
also called Wired or Bounded transmission media. The physical links are the cables that are
tangible or have physical existence. There are three common types of guided media used
for the networks. Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of
noise, physical appearance, cost, etc.
 Twisted Pair Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optic

 TWISTED PAIR : Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted
with each. A twisted pair cable is cheap and easy, and it is a lightweight cable, the
frequency for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5 KHz.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP) : Unshielded twisted pair is widely
used telecommunication. It can be used for high-spec Local Area
Networking (LAN). It is less expensive and easy to install.
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP) : Twisted pair is a cable that contains
the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the high transmission
rate. The installation of STP is easy.

 COAXIAL CABLE : Coaxial cable is also known as coax. It has an outer plastic covering
containing two parallel conductors. Each having a separate insulated protection cover.

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Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use coaxial cables

 FIBER OPTIC : In optical fiber or fiber-optic cable data is transferred in the form of light. It
uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data at very high speed.

UNGUIDED MEDIA :
Unguided media is also termed as wireless or unbounded transmission media. As the
name implies, it does not require physical medium such as wire for the transmission of
electromagnetic signals.
 Radio Waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared

 RADIO WAVES : Radio waves are also called electromagnetic waves. These are easy
to generate and can penetrate through buildings.
FM, AM radios, television and cordless phones
use radio waves for transmission. Used to send
message to longer distance like country to
country city to city.

 MICROWAVES : Microwave transmission is a line of

sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas
need to be properly aligned with each other. The distance
covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of
the antenna. These are mostly used for mobile phone
communications tower and television broadcast. Terrestrial
and Satellite are two types of microwave transmissions.

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 INFRARED : It uses infrared light to transmit

signals. LED is used to transmit signals and light-
receivers (photodiodes) to receive signals. They uses
terahertz frequency. It cannot penetrate walls or
other objects. Infrared light is transmitted generally
line of sight (point to point). Wireless infrared
communications can be used to establish short range wireless links or wireless Local Area
Network.

DATA RATE / BIT RATE :

The speed at which binary digits (bits) would be transmitted over a communications
path and usually expressed in "bits per second" (bps). Bit rate should not be confused with
Baud which defines the rate of signal state changes.

BAUD RATE :
The baud rate is the number of signals transmitted per second and one signal can
represent one or more bits. It is used to describe the maximum change in an electronic
signal. For example, if a signal changes 1200 times in one second, it would be measured at
1200 baud.

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO (SNR) :

SNR is a measure used in science and engineering that
compares the level of a desired signal to the level of
background noise. SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to
the noise power, often expressed in decibels.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

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ATTENUATION :
Attenuation means loss of energy. A
signal loses its energy due to the resistance of
medium while it is transmitted. Its strength
decreases with increase in distance. Amplifiers
are used to overcome attenuation and make
signal stronger again. It is measured in
decibels.

DISTORTION :
Distortion means change in the
shape of the signal. A composite signal
has several frequencies. When it travels
through a medium different component
of signal may reach at different time at
destination because each component has
different speed in that medium. This is
called distortion. They have different phases at sender and receiver ends.

NOISE :
Unwanted signal that
mixes up with the original
signal during the transmission
of data is called noise. It can be
induced noise, crosstalk Noise,
thermal noise and impulse
noise which may damage the signal.

NETWORK
A computer network is a system that allows multiple computers or devices to
communicate with each other and share information. It's like a digital highway that enables
computers to connect and exchange data, just as roads allow cars to travel and reach
different destinations.
TYPES OF NETWORK :
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
 GAN (Global Area Network)

 LOCAL AREA NETWORK : A LAN is a computer

network that interconnects computers within a limited
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area such as a home, school, computer laboratory or office building using network media.

 WIDE AREA NETWORK : A Wide Area Network

(WAN) is a type of computer network that connects
multiple computers, devices, or local area networks
(LANs) over a large geographic area. In simple words, a
WAN is like a network of networks that enables
communication and data sharing between different
locations, even if they are far apart.

 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK : A

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of computer
network that spans across a metropolitan area, such as a
city or a town. It connects multiple local area networks
(LANs) or other network devices within a specific
geographic region.

 GLOBAL AREA NETWORK : Global area network or Internet (a worldwide collection

of interconnected networks) is a Collection of networks – a network of
networks – that communicate with each other by using the same
standards (protocols) of communication.
The computers that make up these networks are of the different type.
Currently, over one million computer systems with tens of millions of
users in almost every country in the world – make up the internet.

TOPOLOGY
Topology of LAN" could refer to the physical and logical layout or structure of a Local
Area Network (LAN). In networking, the term "topology" typically refers to how devices are
interconnected within a network. Here are some common LAN topologies
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

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 STAR TOPOLOGY : In a star topology, each device is connected to a central hub or
switch. All communication passes through the central point, making it easier to identify and
isolate issues. It's a popular choice for LANs and is known for its simplicity and ease of
management.

 BUS TOPOLOGY : In a bus topology, all devices

share a single communication line. Data is transmitted
along the bus, and each device has a unique address. It's
a simple and inexpensive topology, but the entire
network can be affected if there's a failure in the main
communication line.

 RING TOPOLOGY : In a ring topology, each device is

connected to exactly two other devices, forming a ring. Data
circulates around the ring until it reaches its destination. While it's
relatively simple, a failure in one device or connection can disrupt
the entire network.

 MESH TOPOLOGY : In a mesh topology, every device is

connected to every other device in the network. This provides high
redundancy and reliability but can be expensive and complex to set
up.

 TREE TOPOLOGY : In a tree topology, devices are

arranged hierarchically in a treelike structure. It
combines characteristics of star and bus topologies,
offering both scalability and ease of management.

 HYBRID TOPOLOGY : This involves a combination of two

or more different topologies. For example, a network might
have a combination of star and bus topologies. This allows for
flexibility and scalability.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
A communication device is a kind of hardware capable of transmitting and receiving
data, instructions, and information.
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 Router
 Switch
 Hub
 Modem
 Bridge
 Gateway
 Repeater
 NIC

 ROUTER : Routers are devices that connect different networks

together. They operate at the network layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for directing data packets between different networks.
Routers use routing tables to determine the best path for data to travel.

 SWITCHES : Switches operate at the data link layer of

the OSI model and are responsible for connecting devices
within the same local network. They use MAC addresses to
forward data only to the device it is intended for, improving
network efficiency.

 HUBS : Hubs are basic networking devices that operate at

the physical layer of the OSI model. They connect multiple
devices in a LAN, but unlike switches, they broadcast data to all
connected devices, leading to potential network congestion and
inefficiency.

 MODEMS : Modems convert digital data from a computer

or network into analog signals for transmission over analog
communication lines, such as telephone lines. On the receiving
end, they convert incoming analog signals back into digital data.

 BRIDGES : Bridges connect and filter traffic between

two similar network segments, operating at the data link
layer. They help improve network performance by reducing
unnecessary traffic on larger networks.

 GATEWAYS : Gateways connect networks with

different communication protocols. They translate data between
different formats, making it possible for dissimilar systems to
communicate. Gateways are often used in connecting local
networks to the internet.

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 REPEATERS : Repeaters amplify
and retransmit signals to extend the
range of a network. They operate at the
physical layer and are used to overcome
signal degradation over long distances.

 NIC : NICs are hardware components that allow computers

to connect to a network. They can be integrated into the
motherboard or added as a separate card. NICs facilitate
communication between the computer and the network.

PROTOCOLS
Network protocols are sets of rules and conventions that govern how data is
transmitted and received over a network. They define the format and order of messages
exchanged between devices on a network, ensuring proper communication. There are
various types of network protocols, each serving different purposes.

 TCP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL) : Provides reliable, ordered, and error-

checked delivery of data. It establishes a connection before data exchange and ensures
data integrity.

 IP (INTERNET PROTOCOL) : Responsible for addressing and routing packets of data so

that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination.

 HTTP (HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL) : Used for transmitting hypertext (web
pages and files) over the internet. It operates on top of the TCP and, in some cases, the
TLS/SSL protocols.

 FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL) : Used for transferring files between computers on
a network. It can operate over TCP or, in some cases, over UDP.

 HTTPS (HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL SECURE) : Similar to HTTP but operates
over a secure SSL/TLS connection, providing encrypted communication between the client
and the server.

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ADDRESS

LAN MODELS

 CLIENT/SERVER MODEL : A client/server model uses one or more

computers as servers, and the other computers on the network are
clients.

 PEER-TO-PEER MODEL : A peer-to-peer LAN is one in which all

computers on the network communicate directly with one
another without relying on a server.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

All forms of data communications have several characteristics:

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 Signal type : Analogue and Digital signals.
 Transmission mode : Asynchronous and Synchronous.
 Direction of transmission : Simplex, Half duplex, Full duplex.

ANALOG SIGNALS :
Analogue data signals are the form of continues varying waveforms which may be
periodic or non-periodic. There are two factors that govern the characteristics of an
analogue signals.
AMPLITUDE : Amplitude is the height of a wave on one side of the equilibrium position.
Amplitude is actually the strength or volume – the loudness – of a signal. A soft voice has
low amplitude. The amplitude is measured in volts.
FREQUENCY : Frequency is the number of times a wave repeats in a second. Measured in
hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.

DIGITAL SIGNALS :
A digital signal uses on / off or present / absent
electrical pulses in discrete rather than a continuous
waveform. This states represent the two-state binary
language of 0s and 1s that computer use.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION :
In asynchronous transmission, data is send one byte at a time. Each byte (which
consists of 8 bits) is preceded by “start” and “stop” bit.
Each byte is wrapped in its own “electronic envelop”.
Asynchronous transmission is inexpensive and so is
widely used with microcomputers. However, it is also
relatively slow.

SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION :
In synchronous transmission,
blocks or “packet” of several bytes at a
time are transmitted without “start” or
“stop” bits. Header and trailer bits are
inserted at the beginnings and ends of
blocks. It is used by large computers to
transmit great volumes of data at High
speeds. Complex and expensive timing devices must be used to keep transmission activities
synchronized.

SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION :
In simplex transmission, data is transmitted only one direction. Device Connected to
such circuit is either a send-only or a receive
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–only device. An example is data received by computer from radio or television stations in
the form of voice and pictures.

HALF DUPLEX TRANSMISSION :

In half duplex transmission, data
communication is two – way, but travels in
only one direction at a time. An example is
the Walkie talkie.

FULL DUPLEX TRANSMISSION :

In full-duplex transmission, data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously.
This method resembles two trains passing in
opposite directions on side-by-side track. Full
duplex is faster than half – duplex but more
expensive because it requires special
equipment

DNS (DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM)

The DNS translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses that computers
use to identify each other on the internet. It consists of a hierarchical structure of name
servers, and the process involves querying these servers to resolve a domain name to its
corresponding IP address.

DOMAIN :
1) .com : Originally intended for commercial entities.
2) .org : Designated for non-profit organizations.
3) .net : Meant for network-related organizations.
4) .edu : Restricted to educational institutions.
5) .gov : Reserved for government entities.
6) .mil : Reserved for military entities.
7) .int : Reserved for international organizations.
8) Country code : .pk , .uk , .au etc

TERMS RELATED TO INTERNET

 ANCHOR : A link that takes you to a different part of the same Web page.

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 ARCHIVING : To compress multiple files into a single large file or to retire files and
documents into a long-term storage system. For example - you should archive your old
emails on a regular basis.
 BANNER AD : A form of advertising on the Internet that is embedded on a webpage.
 BANDWIDTH : The rate of data transfer through computer network Graphic elements
consume more bandwidth than text.
 BLOG : A blog is a journal that in on the Internet. Blogs can be updated daily or as often
as needed.
 BLOGGER : A person who blogs. Blogger is also a free weblog publishing tool offered.
 BROWSER : A software program that requests, interprets, and presents World Wide
Web documents. Frequently used browsers include Internet Explorer, Netscape.
 CLIENT : In addition to being a computer, a client also can be a software program that
requests and acquires information from computers that store World Wide Web
documents and files. World Wide Web browsers are also known as clients.
 COOKIE : A small piece of information that a Web server saves to your computer as you
browse the Internet.
 CYBERSPACE : A general term referring to the online or digital world.
 DOMAIN NAME : The name given to any computer registered on the World Wide Web
as an official provider of information and files. Domain names are usually two or more
terms separated by periods. Some examples are [Link] or [Link].
 DOWNLOAD : To copy or transfer data from one computer system or network and save
to a disk or another computer.
 EMOTICON : A picture representation that replaces text. Often depicted as graphical
smiley faces.
 EXTRANET : An extension of an internal network (intranet) to connect not only internal
personnel but also selected customers, suppliers, and other strategic offices.
 FIREWALL : A firewall is a system of hardware and software that connects the intranet
to external networks, such as the Internet. It blocks unauthorized traffic from entering
the intranet and can also prevent unauthorized employees from accessing the intranet.
 FRAME : A feature available on the World Wide Web that presents text, links, graphics,
and other media in separate portions of the browser display. Some sections remain
unchanging, whereas others serve as an exhibit of linked documents.
 GIF : Stands for Graphics Interchange Format and is a bitmap image used on the internet
as animated image.
 GOOGLE : A hybrid search engine.
 HASHTAG : The word associated with the character #. This character is often used as a
method of finding information on the Internet.
 HOME PAGE : Frequently, the "cover" of a particular Web site. The home page is the
main, or first, page displayed for an organisation's or person's World Wide Web site.
 INTRANET : Intranets are internal corporate networks that use the infrastructure and
standards of the Internet and the World Wide Web.

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 ISP : Stands for Internet Service Provider and is the company that provides your Internet
service.
 JPEG OR JPG : Stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group is a common type of
compression used for digital images on the Web.
 LINK : Short for "hypertext link". A link provides a path that connects you from one part
of a World Wide Web document to another part of the same document, a different
document, or another resource. A link usually appears as a uniquely colored word that
you can click to be transported to another Web page.
 PLUGIN : An added piece of software that enhances another application. For example,
WordPress allows for many different types of plugins - including Photo Gallery and
Social Media integration.
 PNG : Stands for Portable Network Graphics and is a bitmap file image with transparent
background.
 PROXY SERVER: A proxy server is a server, or remote computer, that may exist outside
of the organization’s network, and all communications to the organization are routed
through it. The proxy server decides which messages or files are safe to pass through to
the organization’s network.
 RSS : Stands for Rich Site Summary or Really Simple Syndication. RSS is a feed format
used to update frequently published information such as blog entries and news
headlines.
 SEARCH ENGINE : A program used to catalog information from the web by use of
keywords a user specifies.
 SERVER : A computer system that responds to ads to requests for information across a
computer network.
 SITEMAP : A page included within a website that's purpose is to help users more easily
navigate through complicated sites.
 SMTP : Stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and is the standard protocol for
transferring email messages.
 SOCIAL MEDIA : The communication and interaction among people as they share and
exchange information through virtually connected networks. Examples of a few popular
social media outlets are Facebook, Twitter, Google Plus, and YouTube.
 SPAM : An unsolicited email message sent to a large group of people.
 TABLE : A feature available on the World Wide Web that presents document text, links,
graphics, and other media in row and column format. Table borders may be visible in
some documents but invisible in others.
 UPLOAD : To transfer a file from a local computer to a server or host.
 URL : Stands for Uniform Resource Locator and is also known as the web address.
 WEB DESIGN : The process and planning of a website with programming expertise and
skilled graphic design.
 WEBMASTER : The individual responsible for maintaining and updating the content of a
World Wide Web document. Webmasters are the creative forces behind the World
Wide Web.
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 WEB SITE : A collection of World Wide Web documents, usually consisting of a home
page and several related pages. You might think of a Web site as an interactive
electronic book.

OSI MODEL
The Open Systems Interconnection model is a conceptual model developed by ISO. It
characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication and
computing network. Its goal is the interoperability of different communication systems
with standard communication protocols. This model divides a communication system into
seven abstraction layers.

1. PHYSICAL LAYER :
It is responsible for converting electrical signals into
bits. It also defines the cable types to be used as transmission
media, cards, topology and other physical aspects.

2. DATA LINK LAYER :

This layer is responsible to transmit data using
physical addresses. Data Link Layer ensures error free
transmission of packets. Packet in this layer is referred as
Frame.

3. NETWORK LAYER :

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The function of this layer is the selection of the shortest and suitable path from
source to destination, from the number of routes available. It is also responsible to convert
logical address (IP address) to physical address (MAC address).

4. TRANSPORT LAYER :
It ensures the reliable transmission of data. Transport
layer manages error control, flow control and quality of the
service. If the data is not properly transmitted it requests to
resend.

5. SESSION LAYER :
Session Layer manages and synchronize the
conversation between two different applications. Transfer of
data from source to destination session layer streams of data
are marked and are resynchronized properly.

6. PRESENTATION LAYER :
While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms
the data to be ready for the application layer. It performs
Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

7. APPLICATION LAYER :
Application Layer is the topmost layer. This layer mainly
holds application programs to act upon the received and to be
sent data.

MS WORD
A word processing program used for creating, editing, and formatting documents. It
is commonly used for tasks such as writing reports, letters, and other text-based
documents.

DOCUMENT CREATION AND EDITING :

BLANK DOCUMENT : Create a new, blank document to start writing from scratch.
TEMPLATES : Use pre-designed templates for various types of documents, such as resumes,
newsletters, and reports.

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TEXT FORMATTING :
FONT STYLES : Customize text with different font styles, sizes, and colors.
BOLD, ITALIC, UNDERLINE : Apply formatting options to emphasize or highlight text.
TEXT ALIGNMENT : Align text to the left, center, right, or justify for a polished appearance.
LINE AND PARAGRAPH SPACING : Adjust spacing b/w lines and paragraphs.

PAGE LAYOUT :
MARGINS : Set the margins for the entire document.
PAGE ORIENTATION : Choose between portrait and landscape orientations.
PAGE SIZE : Define the size of the paper for printing.

INSERTING ELEMENTS :
TABLES : Insert tables for organizing and presenting data.
PICTURES AND SHAPES : Add images, shapes, and graphical elements.
Hyperlinks : Insert links to websites or other parts of the document.
Headers and Footers : Include information at the top or bottom of each page.

PAGE BREAKS AND SECTION BREAKS :

PAGE BREAKS : Control where a new page begins in the document.
Section Breaks : Divide the document into sections with different formatting.

REVIEW AND COLLABORATION :

TRACK CHANGES : Keep track of edits and comments made by collaborators.
COMMENTS : Insert and reply to comments for collaborative editing. Spell Check : Check
for spelling and grammar errors.

REFERENCES :
TABLE OF CONTENTS : Automatically generate a table of contents.
FOOTNOTES AND ENDNOTES : Add annotations and references.

VIEW OPTIONS :
PRINT LAYOUT, WEB LAYOUT, and DRAFT : Switch between different views of the
document.
ZOOM : Adjust the document's zoom level for easier reading or editing.

MAIL MERGE :
MAIL MERGE WIZARD : Create personalized documents, such as letters or envelopes, for a
large audience.

REVIEWING TOOLS :
THESAURUS : Find synonyms and antonyms for words.
WORD COUNT : Check the number of words, characters, and paragraphs in the document.
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ACCESSIBILITY TOOLS :
ACCESSIBILITY CHECKER : Identify and fix accessibility issues in the document.

DEVELOPER TOOLS :
VISUAL BASIC FOR APPLICATIONS (VBA) : Create and run macros for automating tasks.

MS EXCEL
A spreadsheet application used for creating, managing, and analyzing data in tabular
form. Excel is widely used for tasks such as financial calculations, data analysis, and creating
charts and graphs.

WORKSHEET BASICS :
CELLS : Excel organizes data into cells, where you can input text, numbers, or formulas.
ROWS AND COLUMNS : Arrange data in rows and columns for easy organization.
SHEETS : A workbook can contain multiple sheets, each with its own set of data.

DATA ENTRY AND FORMATTING :

NUMBER FORMATS : Apply different formats to cells, such as currency, date, or
percentage.
TEXT FORMATTING : Change font styles, sizes, and colors.
CELL BORDERS AND FILL COLOR : Customize the appearance of cells.

FORMULAS AND FUNCTIONS :

BASIC FORMULAS : Perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division.
FUNCTIONS : Use built-in functions for more complex calculations, such as SUM, AVERAGE,
and IF.
FORMULA AUDITING : Trace and evaluate formulas for error checking.

DATA ANALYSIS :
SORTING AND FILTERING : Arrange data in a specific order or display only certain rows
based on criteria.
PIVOTTABLES : Summarize and analyze data in a dynamic table format.
CHARTS AND GRAPHS : Create visual representations of data using various chart types.

DATA VALIDATION :
DATA VALIDATION RULES : Set rules to control the type of data entered into a cell.
DROP-DOWN LISTS : Create lists to simplify data entry.

CONDITIONAL FORMATTING :
HIGHLIGHT CELLS RULES : Apply formatting based on specific conditions.
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COLOR SCALES, DATA BARS, ICON SETS : Use visual cues to represent data variations.

PROTECTING AND SECURING DATA :

WORKSHEET PROTECTION : Restrict editing of specific elements or the entire worksheet.
WORKBOOK ENCRYPTION : Password-protect the entire workbook for security.

DATA IMPORT AND EXPORT :

IMPORT DATA : Bring in data from external sources, such as databases or text files.
EXPORT DATA : Save Excel data in various formats, including CSV or PDF.

WHAT-IF ANALYSIS :
GOAL SEEK : Determine the input required to achieve a desired result.
SCENARIO MANAGER : Create and compare different scenarios.

MACROS AND AUTOMATION :

RECORD MACROS : Record repetitive tasks for playback.
VISUAL BASIC FOR APPLICATIONS (VBA) : Write and run custom macros for advanced
automation.

COLLABORATION TOOLS :
COMMENTS : Add comments to cells for collaboration.
SHARED WORKBOOKS : Allow multiple users to collaborate on the same workbook.

EXCEL ONLINE :
WEB-BASED EDITING : Access and edit Excel files through a web browser.
REAL-TIME COLLABORATION : Collaborate with others in real-time.

MS POWERPOINT
A presentation program used for creating slideshows with text, graphics, and
multimedia elements. PowerPoint is often used for business presentations, educational
lectures, and more.

CREATING A NEW PRESENTATION :

Open PowerPoint and click on "New Presentation."
Choose a design template or start with a blank presentation.
SLIDES :
Each slide can contain text, images, charts, and more.
Use the "Insert" tab to add new slides or elements to
your presentation.
TEXT :
Click on a text box to add or edit text.
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Use the formatting options to change font, size, color, and style.
IMAGES :
Insert images from your computer or online sources using the "Insert" tab.
Resize and reposition images as needed.
TRANSITIONS :
Add slide transitions to create smooth animations between slides. Find transition
options in the "Transitions" tab.
ANIMATIONS :
Apply animations to individual elements on a slide for more dynamic presentations.
Use the "Animations" tab to access various animation options.
CHARTS AND GRAPHS :
Insert charts to visualize data.
Use the "Insert" tab to add charts, graphs, and tables.
SPEAKER NOTES :
Add speaker notes to each slide to guide your presentation.
Find the speaker notes pane at the bottom of the PowerPoint interface.
SLIDE SHOW :
Start your presentation by clicking on the "Slide Show" tab.
Navigate through slides using keyboard shortcuts or the on-screen controls.
SAVE AND SHARE :
Save your presentation frequently using the "Save" or "Save As" options.
Share your presentation as a PowerPoint file, PDF, or in other formats.
COLLABORATION :
If you are working with others, consider using OneDrive or SharePoint for
collaborative editing.
MASTER SLIDES :
Customize the master slide to apply consistent formatting to all slides.

MS ACCESS
A relational database management system that allows users to create and manage
databases. Access is used for tasks such as storing and retrieving data, creating forms, and
generating reports.

TABLES :
Create tables to store your data. Each table has fields (columns) and records (rows).
QUERIES :
Use queries to retrieve, filter, and analyze data from one or more tables.
Write SQL (Structured Query Language) queries or use the Query Design view.
FORMS :
Design custom data entry forms for inputting data into tables.
Create forms to display and navigate through data.
REPORTS :
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Generate professional-looking reports based on your database. Customize report
layouts, formatting, and grouping.
MACROS :
Create macros to automate repetitive tasks or execute a sequence of actions.
Use the Macro Design view for visual macro creation.
MODULES :
Develop custom functionality using VBA (Visual Basic for
Applications) code in modules.
Write custom procedures and functions to extend Access capabilities.
RELATIONSHIPS :
Relationship between tables to establish links and maintain data integrity.
Enforce referential integrity to ensure consistency in data.
DATA VALIDATION :
Set validation rules and input masks to ensure data accuracy. Use field and record
validation to control data entry.
IMPORT AND EXPORT :
Import data from various sources, including Excel, text files, and other databases.
Export data to different formats, such as Excel, CSV, or PDF.
SECURITY :
Set user-level security to control access to specific database objects. Password-
protect the entire database.
WEB DATABASES :
Create web databases to share data online using Access Services
INTEGRATION WITH OTHER MICROSOFT OFFICE APPS :
Easily import and export data between Access and other Microsoft Office
applications.
Embed Access forms, reports, and data into Word and Excel.
DATABASE TEMPLATES :
Use pre-built database templates for common tasks, such as
managing contacts, inventory, or projects.
DATA MACROS :
Create data macros to automate actions based on changes to table data.
Useful for performing actions like sending emails or updating related records.
DATABASE TOOLS :
Access offers various tools for compacting and repairing databases, checking for
errors, and analyzing performance.
SQL VIEW
Access the SQL View to write and execute SQL queries directly.
DATA TYPES :
Access supports various data types, including text, number, date/time, currency, and
more.
LINKED TABLES :
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Link to external data sources, such as other databases or Excel files, to incorporate
data into your Access database.

OFFICE AUTOMATION
Office automation refers to the use of technology to create, store, manipulate, and
relay information within an office environment to enhance productivity and efficiency. The
goal of office automation is to streamline routine tasks and processes, reduce manual
efforts, minimize errors, and improve overall organizational effectiveness.

MS OFFICE
Microsoft Office is a suite of productivity software applications developed by
Microsoft. It includes a variety of programs that are widely used in business, education, and
personal settings.
Microsoft Office suite includes the following core applications:
 MS WORD
 MS EXCEL
 MS POWERPOINT
 MS OUTLOOK
 MS ACCESS
 MS ONENOTE
 MS PUBLISHER
 MS TEAMS
MICROSOFT WORD :
A word processing program used for creating, editing, and formatting documents. It is
commonly used for tasks such as writing reports, letters, and other text-based documents.

MICROSOFT EXCEL :
A spreadsheet application used for creating, managing, and analyzing data in tabular form.
Excel is widely used for tasks such as financial calculations, data analysis, and creating
charts and graphs.

MICROSOFT POWERPOINT :
A presentation program used for creating slideshows with text, graphics, and multimedia
elements. PowerPoint is often used for business presentations, educational lectures, and
more.

MICROSOFT OUTLOOK :
An email client and personal information manager. Outlook is used for managing emails,
calendars, contacts, and tasks. It also includes features for scheduling meetings and
appointments.

MICROSOFT ACCESS :
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A relational database management system that allows users to create and manage
databases. Access is used for tasks such as storing and retrieving data, creating forms, and
generating reports.

MICROSOFT ONENOTE :
A digital note-taking application that allows users to create and organize notes, drawings,
and other content. OneNote is often used for collaborative work and information
gathering.

MICROSOFT PUBLISHER :
A desktop publishing program used for creating various types of publications, including
brochures, newsletters, and marketing materials.

MICROSOFT TEAMS :
A collaboration platform that combines chat, video conferencing, file storage, and
application integration. Teams is designed to facilitate communication and collaboration
within groups or teams.

MS OFFICE (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + N: New document.
 Ctrl + O: Open document.
 Ctrl + S: Save document. Ctrl + P: Print document.
 Ctrl + C: Copy selected text or object.
 Ctrl + X: Cut selected text or object.
 Ctrl + V: Paste copied or cut text or object.
 Ctrl + Z: Undo last action.
 Ctrl + Y: Redo last undone action.

MS WORD (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + B: Bold.
 Ctrl + I: Italicize.
 Ctrl + U: Underline.
 Ctrl + K: Insert hyperlink.
 Ctrl + L: Left-align text.
 Ctrl + E: Center-align text.
 Ctrl + R: Right-align text.
 Ctrl + J: Justify text.

MS EXCEL (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + A: Select all cells.
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 Ctrl + D: Fill down.
 Ctrl + R: Fill right.
 Ctrl + Shift + "+": Insert new sheet.
 Ctrl + "-": Delete sheet.
 Ctrl + Space: Select entire column.
 Shift + Space: Select entire row.
 Ctrl + Shift + L: Turn on/off filters.

MS POWERPOINT (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + N: New presentation.
 Ctrl + M: New slide.
 Ctrl + S: Save presentation.
 F5: Start slideshow from the beginning.
 Shift + F5: Start slideshow from the current slide.
 Ctrl + D: Duplicate selected slide.

MS OUTLOOK (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + 1: Go to Mail.
 Ctrl + 2: Go to Calendar.
 Ctrl + 3: Go to Contacts.
 Ctrl + Shift + M: Create a new message.
 Ctrl + Shift + A: Create a new appointment.
 Ctrl + Shift + C: Create a new contact.

MS ACCESS (KEYSTROKES) :
 Ctrl + '+': Insert a new record.
 Ctrl + '-': Delete the current record.
 Ctrl + F: Find.
 Ctrl + Shift + F: Advanced find.
 Ctrl + Semicolon (;): Insert the current date.
CYBER CRIME
Cybercriminal uses devices to gain unauthorized access to important information.
Stealing passwords and important information, hacking social media accounts, accessing
anyone else's account and making transactions, committing online frauds are some of the
examples of cybercrime.
 Hackers and Crackers
 Piracy
 Theft of hardware & time and services
 Scam (Phishing)
 Denial of service attack
 Cyber bullying or harassment
 Malware
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HACKER AND CRACKER :

 Hacker can be a person who has in-depth knowledge of computer systems, networks,
and programs and uses his or her extensive skills to identify and overcome a network
loophole.
 Crackers are persons who gain unauthorized access to another system. They bypass
passwords or licenses of computer programs, change source code or intentionally
breach computer security. They do it with negative intentions. Crackers can also make
targeted system unavailable or non-functional.
TYPES :
1) White Hat Hacker (Work to improve system security)
2) Black Hat Hacker (Engage in activities with harmful intent)
3) Grey Hat Hacker (Do it for fame or just for challenge or fun)

PIRACY :
SOFTWARE PIRACY : It is the act of illegally using, copying, or distributing software without
ownership or legal rights. The losses suffered as a result of software piracy directly affect
the profitability of the software industry.
PLAGIARISM : When someone uses the work of another artist without properly citing the
source or giving credit, then that will be an instance of plagiarism.
Plagiarism is a punishable offense, and it is a form of intellectual theft.

THEFT OF HARDWARE AND TIME & SERVICES :

THEFT OF HARDWARE : Computer hardware, such as microcomputer and printers has
always been valuable items that individuals can steal and resell.
Professional criminals steal a laptop or cellular phone from someone’s car. They can also
steal shipment of microprocessor chips off a loading dock.
THEFT OF TIME AND SERVICES : Probably the biggest use of it is people using their
employer’s computer time to play games. Some people also may run sideline businesses.

SCAM (PHISHING) :
Phishing is a type of online scam where attackers try to trick people into revealing
their personal information, such as passwords, credit card details, or social security
numbers. They often pretend to be trustworthy organizations or individuals by sending fake
emails, text messages, or making phone calls.

DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACK :

Overloading a system, network, or website with excessive traffic to disrupt its normal
functioning.

CYBER BULLYING :

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Cyberbullying is when someone uses technology, such as the internet or social
media, to harass, intimidate, or hurt another person repeatedly. It involves sending mean
or hurtful messages, spreading rumors, sharing embarrassing photos or videos, or creating
fake profiles to target and torment the victim.

MALWARE :
Malware, short for malicious software, encompasses a variety of harmful programs
designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems.
VIRUSES : Programs that attach themselves to legitimate files or programs and replicate
when the infected file or program runs.
WORMS : Self-replicating programs that spread across networks and systems without
needing a host file. Worms typically exploit vulnerabilities to propagate.
TROJANS (TROJAN HORSES) : Malicious software disguised as legitimate or benign
programs. Once installed, Trojans can give attackers unauthorized access or carry out
harmful actions.
RANSOMWARE : Encrypts files on a victim's system and demands payment (usually in
cryptocurrency) for the decryption key. It can cause significant data loss and disruption.
SPYWARE : Software that secretly monitors and collects information about users' activities
without their knowledge. This can include keystrokes, browsing habits, and sensitive
information.
ADWARE : Displays unwanted advertisements or redirects users to advertising websites.
While not always malicious, it can be intrusive and negatively impact system performance.
LOGIC BOMBS : Code embedded in a program that triggers a malicious action when specific
conditions are met, such as a particular date or event.
MACRO MALWARE : Malicious code embedded in document macros, often spread through
email attachments. When the user opens the document and enables macros, the malware
is executed.

CYBER SECURITY
Computer security, also known as cybersecurity, involves protecting computer
systems, networks, and data from unauthorized access, attacks, damage, or theft. It
encompasses a wide range of technologies, processes, and practices to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information. Here are key aspects of computer
security:

ACCESS CONTROL :
AUTHENTICATION : Verifying the identity of users or systems attempting to access
resources through methods like passwords, biometrics, or multi-factor authentication.
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AUTHORIZATION : Granting or restricting access rights based on the authenticated user's
permissions.

FIREWALLS :
Hardware or software barriers that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules. Firewalls help prevent unauthorized
access and protect against malicious activities.

ANTIVIRUS AND ANTI-MALWARE SOFTWARE :

Tools designed to detect, prevent, and remove malicious software, including viruses,
worms, Trojans, and other types of malware.

ENCRYPTION :
The process of converting data into a secure format that can only be read by
authorized individuals with the corresponding decryption key.
Encryption protects data during transmission and storage.

AUDITING :
Regularly reviewing and analyzing system logs, user activities, and configurations to
identify security issues, policy violations, or potential vulnerabilities.

NETWORK SECURITY :
Implementing measures such as Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), secure Wi-Fi
protocols, and network segmentation to protect data during transmission and prevent
unauthorized access to network resources.

OPERATING SYSTEM
An Operating System is a software which performs
all the basic tasks like booting the computer, file
management, memory management, process
management, and controlling peripheral devices such as
hard disk, printer, etc. It manages computer resources
efficiently. Most common operating systems are: DOS,
Windows, Linux, Android, Mac OS and iOS.

INTERFACE :
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An interface is a program that allows a user to interact with the computer or another
computer over a network.

CLI (COMMAND LINE INTERFACE) : A Command Line Interface (CLI) is a screen or text
based representation in which the user types the commands on place called prompt to
operate the computer.
GUI (GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE) : It is a system of interactive visual components for
computer software. It displays objects that convey information, and represent actions that
can be taken by the user.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM

SINGLE USER OPERATING SYSTEM :
In a Single User Operating System, a single user can access the computer system at a
time. These types of operating systems are commonly used. DOS for PCs and Windows 98
for PCs are example of single user operating system.
MULTI-USER OPERATING SYSTEM :
A Multi-User Operating System allows multiple users to access the computer at same
time. The operating system manages the memory and resources among the various users
according to the requirement. Linux and UNIX are the most common examples of the multi-
user operating system.
BATCH PROCESSING OPERATING SYSTEM :
Each user prepares his job and submits it to the computer
operator. To speed up processing; jobs with similar needs are
batched together and run as a group by an operator. The main
function of a batch processing system is to automatically keep
executing the jobs in a batch.
TIME SHARING OPERATING SYSTEM :
Time sharing is a method that allows multiple users to share resources
simultaneously. Multiple users can use specific computer at the same time in
different places.
REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEM :
A Real Time Processing Operating System is a time bound operating system which
has fixed time limit. Processing has to be done within the defined time limit otherwise
system will be failed.
HARD REAL TIME : Guarantees that critical tasks complete on time, even the shortest delay
or urgency is not acceptable.
SOFT REAL TIME : It does not guarantee that task will be completed in defined time but
before a certain time and according to the priority.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

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1) BOOTING :
Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system. It checks the
computer resources and makes it ready to perform different tasks.
2) RESOURCE MANAGEMENT :
Operating system manages all the hardware and software resources. This
includes allocation and de-allocation of processor, memory, access to shared cache
memory and access to network resources.
3) USER INTERFACE & COMMAND INTERPRETER :
Command interpreter is one of the parts of operating system which reads the
commands from user, interprets them and translates them into machine language
instructions that the computer hardware can understand.
4) MEMORY MANAGEMENT :
Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-
allocation of memory space to programs and data in need of these resources.
5) INPUT / OUTPUT MANAGEMENT
An Operating System provides the device driver to facilitate I/O functions
involving I/O devices. These device drivers are software that control I/O devices through
their controllers.
6) FILE MANAGEMENT :
It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval,
naming, sharing, and protection of files.
7) PROCESS MANAGEMENT
The OS decides the order in which processes have access to the processor, and
how much processing time each process should get. This function of OS is called process
scheduling.
8) USER MANAGEMENT
In modern operating systems, user management describes the ability of
administrators to control user access to various computer resources like software, I/O
devices, storage system, networks, etc.

C++
C++ is a general-purpose programming language and widely used nowadays for
competitive programming. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming
features.
i) C is a powerful programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell (now AT & T’s
Bell) Laboratories of USA in 1972.
ii) C evolved from two earlier language: BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language)
and B.
iii) BCPL was developed in 1967 by Martin Richards at the Cambridge University as a
language for writing operating systems software and compilers.
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iv) In 1970 Ken Thompson at Bell Laboratories developed a language based on BCPL and
Called it B, the first letter of BCPL.
v) Dennis Ritchie developed B further into a new language and gave it the name C, the next
letter of BCPL.
vi) In 1983, C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustup at the Bell Laboratories, and is basically
a superset of C.

IDE
 IDE stands for Integrated Development environment Include Compilation, linking,
loading and debugging tools .
 Code completion capabilities improve programming workflow.
 Automatically checks errors.
 Help to make mistake free program.

RESERVED WORDS
A reserved word is a word that cannot be used as an identifier, such as the name of a
variable, function, or label – it is "reserved from use". This is a syntactic definition, and a
reserved word may have no meaning. There are a total of 95 reserved words in C++.
EXAMPLE : getch , printf , cout etc
DATA TYPES
TYPES KEYWORD SIZE RANGE
Boolean bool 1 byte 0 (false), 1 (true)
Character char 1 byte -127 to 127 or 0 to 255
Integer int 4 bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647
1.5 x 10-45 to 3.4 x 1038.
Floating point float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers.
Sufficient for storing 7 decimal digits
Double 5.0 x 10-345 to 1.7 x 10308.
Floating double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers.
point Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits
CONSTANT AND VARIABLE
A constant does not change its value over time. A variable, on the other hand,
changes its value dependent on the equation. Constants are usually written in numbers.
Variables are specially written in letters or symbols. Constants usually represent the known
values in an equation, expression or in line of programming.

RULES TO DECLARE VARIABLE :

 The first letter must be non-numeric
 No space, commas, or special characters can be used in a variable name.
 The reserved words like int, void, for, if etc can't be used as a variable name.
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 An identifier must conform to case sensitivity.
 It is better to use a variable name up to eight characters

STRINGS :
Variables can store non numerical values that are longer than one single character
are known as strings.

PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES
These are lines included in a program that being with the character #, which makes
them different from a typical source code text. They are invoked by the compiler to process
some programs before compilation.
e.g. : #include<stdio.h> , #include<conio.h> , #include<iostream>

ESCAPE SEQUENCE
You can control the way the cursor moves on your monitor, and some other
computer function, by using special code, called escape sequences. An escape sequence
consists of the escape character (the backslash ‘\’) and a second character.
e.g. : \n (new line) , \t (tab space) , \a (alert beep)

OOP (OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING)

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming language model organized
around objects rather than "actions" and data rather than logic. Historically, a program has
been viewed as a logical procedure that takes input data, processes it, and produces output
data.

COMMENTS IN C++
The comment statement are those statements that are ignored by the compiler.
SINGLE LINE COMMENT : It is used to a single-line explanation with the help of a double
slash (//) symbol.
DOUBLE LINE COMMENT : Symbols (/* and * / ) are needed at the start and end of the
statements.

OPERATORS
An operator is considered to be a programming ingredient, which mathematically or
logically evaluates the value of variables, constants and other identifiers.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATORS :
Operators fall into three classes on base of operands :
1) UNARY OPERATORS : The operators which requires one operand only is called unary
operator. Example are ++ (increment operator) , -- (decrement operator)

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2) BINARY OPERATORS : The operator requires at least two operators for evaluation is
called binary operators. Examples are + , - , / , * etc.
3) TERNARY OPERATORS : The operator which requires three operands are called ternary
operators. Examples are && , || , ! (Boolean operators)

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS :
These operators are used to perform mathematical operation. An arithmetic
expression is made up of variable constants or both.
OPERATOR OPERATION EXAMPLE
+ Addition 10 + 3 = 13
- Subtraction 10 - 3 = 7
* multiplication 10 * 3 = 30
/ Division 10 / 3 = 9
% modulus 10 % 3 = 1

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS :
An assignment operator is denoted by (=) is it use to assign / to store the value of an
expression to an identifier.
EXPRESSION MEANINGS

a = 5; 5 is assigned in 'a'
area = l* b; The product of l and b will be stored in area.
The assignment operator is also use with combination of arithmetic operators.
OPERATOR OPERATION EXAMPLE EXPLANATION
+= Add assign a +=b Same as a=a+b
-= Subtract assign a -=b Same as a=a-b
*= Multiply assign a *=b Same as a=a*b
/= divide assign a /=b Same as a=a/b
%= Remainder assign a %=b Same as a=a%b
RELATIONAL OPERATORS :
The relational operators are used for the comparison of two numeric operands. The
operands may be variables or constant or expressions that ultimately results in a numeric
value. Character values can also be compared as these can be represented by their ASCII
codes.
OPERATOR OPERATION EXAMPLE
< Less than a<b
> Greater than a>b
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<= Less than or equal a <= b
>= Greater than or equal a >= b
== Equals to a == b
!= Not equals to a != b

BOOLEAN(LOGICAL) OPERATORS :
These operators are used to take decision on the basis of same conditions. An
instruction having logical operators may have unary or binary operators. The operands may
be constants, variables or expressions.
OPERATOR OPERATION EXAMPLE
&& Logical AND If a==b && c==d; else 0
|| Logical OR If a==b || c==d; else 0
! Logical NOT If !a ==c ; else0

INCREMENT / DECREMENT OPERATORS :

These are two kinds of unary operator which are useful in programming. If a variable
x has to be incremented by 1 then the increment operator ++ can be used instead of
expression x = x + 1; similarly the decrement operator – is used.
OPERATOR NAME
a++ Postfix increment
++a Prefix increment
a-- Postfix decrement
--a Prefix decrement

I / O FUNCTIONS
Formatted Functions Unformatted Functions
Type Input Output Type Input Output
Char Scanf() Printf() Char getch() Putch()
getche() Putchar()
Int Scanf() Printf() Int - -
Flaot Scanf() Printf() Float
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String Scanf() Printf() String Gets() Puts()

FORMATTED I/O FUNCTIONS :

Formatted I/O functions are the C language predefined functions which have
particular syntax for writing its code. It is necessary to follow the proper syntax while using
them in a program.
Example :
Printf(); is an example of formatted output function
Scanf(); is an example of formatted input function

UNFORMATTED I/O FUNCTIONS :

The unformatted I/O functions are the C language functions which do not have a
specific syntax in parenthesis.
Example :
getch(); getche(); getchar(); puts(); putch(); etc

LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR
Computer can only understand program in machine languages but we write program
in high level languages. Therefore, there must be a languages translator which translates
high level language in to machine language so that computer can act upon our instruction.

There are three type of translator:

1) Compiler.
2) Interpreter.
3) Assembler.

1) COMPILER :
It translates the entire high-level language (Like C++, C#, java etc) program at once into
machine language before it is executed. It makes object file for next use and require more
space than interpreter.

2) INTERPRETER :
An interpreter is another type of translator that converts each statement of a program
written in a high-level language (like Python, JavaScript, Rub etc) into machine code and
executes it before translating the next statement of the source program. Interpreter does
not make any object file
3) ASSEMBLER :

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Assembler is a program that convert assembly language program in to machine
language. The assembler is a language translator for a low-level language programming
language.

PREPROCESSOR
A preprocessor is a tool that modifies the source code before it is compiled or
interpreted. Preprocessors are commonly used in languages like C and C++ to perform tasks
such as macro substitution, file inclusion, and conditional compilation. Examples of
preprocessor tools include the C preprocessor (cpp) and the Sass preprocessor for CSS.

SOURCE CODE
 Source code refers to the human-readable form of a program written in a programming
language such as C, Python, Java, etc.
 Source code is typically written using a text editor or an integrated development
environment (IDE).
 Source code can be easily modified and maintained by developers to add new features,
fix bugs, or improve performance.

OBJECT CODE
 Object code, also known as machine code or binary code, is the machine-readable form
of a program generated by compiling the source code.
 Object code is not human-readable and appears as a sequence of binary digits (0s and
1s) or hexadecimal numbers.
 Object code is produced by a compiler or an assembler, which translates the source
code into machine code specific to the target architecture.

DATABASE
A database is an organized collection of structured information or data, typically
stored electronically in a computer system. Databases are widely used in various
applications, ranging from simple to complex, to efficiently manage and retrieve data.
There are several types of databases, each designed to cater to specific requirements and
use cases.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

DBMS stands for Database Management System. It refers to a software system that
allows users to define, create, manipulate, and manage databases. A DBMS serves as an
interface between users and the underlying database, providing an organized and
structured approach to store, retrieve, and modify data.

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COMPONENTS OF DBMS
 TABLE :
A table is a collection of related data held in a table format within a database. In
relational databases, and flat file databases, a table is a set of data elements (values) using
a model of vertical columns (identifiable by name) and horizontal rows, the cell being the
unit where a row and column intersect.
 FIELDS :
Fields are the smallest units of information you can access. In spreadsheets, fields are
called cells. Most fields have certain attributes associated with them. For example, some
fields are numeric whereas others are textual, some are long, while others are short.
 RECORDS :
Records are composed of fields, each of which contains one item of information. A set
of records constitutes a file. For example, a personnel file might contain records that have
three fields: a name field, an address field, and a phone number field.
 DATA TYPES :
When you create a table or add a field to a table, fields are created as a specific data
type. Data types are classifications that identify possible values for and operations that can
be done on the data, as well as the way the data in that field is stored in the database.
 VIEWS :
In a database, a view is the result set of a stored query on the data, which the database
users can query just as they would in a persistent database collection object.

FLAT FILE VS DBMS

DBMS FLAT FILE
The DBMS helps to easily store, The file system helps to store a
retrieve and manipulate data in a collection of raw data files into the
database. hard disk.
Provides higher data consistency Has data inconsistency.
using normalization.
There is low data There is more redundant data
Handling is complex. Handing is easy.
For Example : MY SQL, MSSQL or For Example : NTFS and Ext.
ORACLE.

DATABASE MODEL
A database model is simply a model of the various ways in which the data within a
database may be structured, i.e. its logical structure, and not the way that it is stored on
any particular storage medium.

The most popular models are :

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1) Hierarchical database model
2) Network database model
3) Relational model

HIERARCHICAL DATABASE MODEL :

 A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data is organized into a tree-
like structure.
 The data is stored as records which are connected to one another through links.
 Like the families in real life, a parent in a hierarchical database may have more than one
child, but a child always have only one parent. This is called the one to many
relationship.
 In order to retrieve data from a hierarchical
database the whole tree needs to be traversed
starting from the root node.

NETWORK DATABASE MODEL :

 The network model is a database model conceived
as a flexible way of representing objects and their
relationships. Its distinguishing feature is that the
schema, viewed as a graph in which object
types are nodes and relationship types are
arcs, is not restricted to being a hierarchy
or lattice

RELATIONAL DATABASE MODEL :

 A relational database model is based on
the laws of relational algebra which allows
the programmer to work on one or more
relations.
 The theory behind the relation database on the laws
of relational algebra which contain rules and
regulations and mathematical methods for relation
database.

DATA MODELING
Data modelling is a process of developing conceptual representation of data objects
and their relations. Data models are used to express how the information will be stored in
database. This helps to identify the most important fields and remove the irrelevant data.
Data models can be used by database developers to create a physical database.

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There are three most important components of data models.

(i) Entity
(ii) Relationship
(iii) Referential Keys

ENTITY :
In literal sense, an entity is any individual object which has its own qualities and
properties. In database terms, an entity is an independent table and its fields are known as
attributes. As an example, a Payroll database will contain an entity named Employees. The
Employees entity will contain various attributes like EmployeeID, Name, Designation,
Salary, etc.

RELATIONSHIP :
A relationship is a link that is created and maintained between two tables that
enable data to be accessed from both that enables simultaneously, and is technically called
a join.
TYPES :
1) One-to-one
2) One-to-many
3) Many-to-Many
1) ONE-TO-ONE : Each record in table A can have only one
matching record in table B and each record of table B can have
only one matching record in table A.
2) ONE-TO-MANY : A one-to-many is the most common type of
relationship. In a one-to-many relationship, a record in table A
can have many matching records in table B, but a record in
table B has only one matching record in table A.
3) MANY-TO-MANY : In a many-to-many relationship, a record in
a table A have many matching record in table B and a record in
table B can have many matching
records in table A.

REFERENTIAL KEYS :
The relationships are configured by using referential keys on entities. The keys
determine a certain set of rules that must be followed by the data stored in a field of an
entity. In larger database keys are very important to uniquely identify a specific record.
TYPES :
1) Primary Key
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2) Foreign Key

1) PRIMARY KEY : A primary key is used to:

uniquely identify a record in the entity.
When a primary key is applied to any
attribute in an entity, it forces the rules of
the Primary Key onto that attribute.
2) FOREIGN KEY : It's a common mistake to
avoid creating foreign keys in a database
because they negatively impact the
performance. The main benefit of foreign
keys is that they enforce data consistency, meaning that they keep the database clean.

ER MODEL
Entity Relationship Model (ERM) or Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) describes the
entities, attributes and relationships with their types in a simplified diagram.

DATA INTEGRITY
A DBMS must have safeguard for data integrity. In case user committed mistakes,
power failures, the DBMS should have backup measures to insure that valuable data
remains intact.

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ERRORS / BUGS
Errors are the problem and fault occur in program which cause the program to
behave abnormally. Programming errors often remain understood until the program is
compiled or executed. Some of the errors occur before compiled. Another name for error is
“Bug” and removing of error procedure is known as “debugging process”.
TYPES :
1) Syntax Error
2) Logical Error
3) Runtime Error

SYNTAX ERROR :
Syntax error occurs when the code does not follow the syntax rules of the
programming language. These type of errors (misspelled keywords, a missing punctuation
character, a missing bracket, or missing closing parenthesis). All famous IDE’s detect these
type of errors as you type and underline the faulty statements. No chance to execute
program with syntax error.

LOGICAL ERROR :
A logic error is a mistake in a program's source code that results in incorrect or
unexpected behavior. For example, assigning a value to the wrong variable may cause a
series of unexpected program errors. Multiplying two numbers instead of adding them
together may also produce unwanted results.

RUNTIME ERROR :
Errors which occur during program execution (run-time). Runtime error refers to an
error that takes place while executing a program. Runtime errors imply bugs in the program
or issues that the developers had expected but were unable to correct. For example,
insufficient memory can often trigger a runtime error.

DEBUGGING PROCESS
The debugging process through which a program can be made error free and
properly functional is called debugging process. Several tools have been divided for finding
and removing three types of errors, as follows:
 Desk checking
 manual testing with sample data
 Structured walkthrough
 Attempt At Translation
 Testing Sample data on computer (Alpha Testing)
 Run real world data (Beta Testing)

ALGORITHM
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 Algorithms are Widely used throughout all areas Of Information
Technology (IT).
 A search engine algorithm, for example, takes search strings of keywords and operators
as input, searches its associated database for relevant web pages, and returns results.
 Another common example is online advertisements where the algorithm takes age,
gender, region and interests as input and then displays ads to only those people who
match the criteria.
 An algorithm is a set of instructions/ steps/ rules that are followed to solve a problem.
 It is a tool for solving a well-specified computational problem.
 In our daily lives as well, we follow various algorithms without knowing.

METHOD OF ALGORITHM
These step-by-step instructions that we follow everyday are algorithms to solve certain
problems.

There are two common method to express algorithm designs; Pseudocode and Flowcharts.

PSEUDOCODE :
Pseudocode is a plain language description of an algorithm or program logic, used to
plan and outline the steps of a solution before writing actual code. It's language-neutral
and focuses on conveying the algorithm's logic without being concerned about specific
syntax rules.
Pseudo means fake
Pseudocode means fake code.

FLOWCHART :
A flowchart is a diagram that represents a set of instructions. Flowcharts normally
use standard symbols to represent the different types of instructions.

NAME PURPOSE SYMBOL

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Terminal Start / End

I/O Symbol Input / Output

Process Assignment or equation

Flow lines To show flow

Decision For Condition checking

To connect different parts of

On Page Connector
the same page

To connect different parts of

Off Page Connector
from one page to another

CONTROL STRUCTURE
A computer program is the set of instructions in sequential form. These instructions
execute from top to bottom. We can control the flow of program with the help of control
statement. It controls the direction of program to repeating any block of code.
1) Selection/Decision
2) Iteration/Loops
3) Jump

1) SELECTION / DECISION :

i. IF : Executes a block of code only if the specified condition evaluates to true.

Structure :
if (condition)
{
// code to execute if condition is true
}
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ii. IF-ELSE: Executes one block of code if the condition is true and another block if the
condition is false.

Structure :
if (condition)
{
// code to execute if condition is true
}
else
{
// code to execute if condition is false
}

iii. ELSE IF / NESTED IF : Allows for multiple conditions to be checked sequentially.

Only the block associated with the first true condition is executed.

Structure :
if (condition 1)
{
// code to execute if condition 1 is true
}
elseif (condition 2)
{
// code to execute if condition 2 is true
}
elseif (condition 2)
{
// code to execute if none of the above conditions are true
}

iv. Switch : It is a control flow statement that allows you to select one of several
possible execution paths based on the value of a given expression. It provides a
concise way to implement multi-way branching in your code.

Structure :
switch (expression)
{
case value 1:
// code to execute if expression equals value 1
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break;
case value 2:
// code to execute if expression equals value 2
break;
default :
// code to execute if expression doesn't match any case
}

2) ITERATION / LOOPS :

i. FOR : Executes a block of code repeatedly as long as the specified condition is

true. The initialization step is executed once before the loop begins, and the
update step is executed after each iteration.
Structure :
for(initialization ; condition ; increment / decrement)
{
// code to execute repeatedly
}

ii. WHILE : Executes a block of code repeatedly as long as the specified condition is
true. The condition is checked before each iteration.

Structure :
initialization;
while(condition)
{
// code to execute repeatedly
increment / decrement;
}

iii. DO-WHILE : Similar to “while” loop, but the condition is checked after each
iteration. This guarantees that the code block is executed at least once.

Structure :

initialization;
do
{
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// code to execute repeatedly
increment / decrement;
}
while(condition);

3) JUMP :

BREAK : Terminates the execution of the nearest enclosing loop or switch statement,
transferring control to the statement immediately following the terminated loop or switch.
CONTINUE : Skips the rest of the current iteration of a loop and proceeds to the next
iteration.
RETURN : Exits the current function and returns a value to the calling function.
GOTO : Transfers control to a labelled statement within the same function. However, its use
is generally discouraged due to its potential for creating unreadable and unmaintainable
code.
EXIT : The exit() is used to terminate a C++ program and closes program whenever
executed. It is defined under " stdlib.h " header file.

FUNCTIONS
A function is one of the fundamental ideas in structured programming. The idea
defines the development of independent modules which are separately solved as sub
problems. Every C program contains at least one function that is main (). Example : clrscr();
getch(); printf(); etc.

TYPES :
There are two types of functions
1) Pre-defined/ Built in/ Library functions
2) Programmer defined/ User defined functions

PRE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS :
These are the functions which are created by the developers of the programming
language C++. These functions do not need to be declared and defined. Pre-define
functions are declared in header file. All predefined functions can be used simply by calling
the function, many pre-define functions need proper header file by using it include.

FUNCTIONS LIBRARY FILE PURPOSE EXAMPLE

Returns the absolute value of its integer argument
abs(x) <math.h>
if x = - 5, abs(x) = 5
pow(x,y) <math.h> Return xy

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Sqrt(x) <math.h> Returns the non-negative square root of x

USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS :

According to the requirements in a software project, the programmer can also create
his own function to solve a specific problem. This type of function is called a programmer
defined function. It can be used again and again if needed in program. These functions
need declaration and definition.

STEPS TO CREATE USER DEFINED FUNCTION :

i. Function declaration
ii. Function calling
iii. Function definition

i. FUNCTION DECLARATION : Using functions in your program requires that you first
declare the function and then you define the function.

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE FUNCTION

type function_name (type argument-1,type argument-2,--------);
Example => int example_function (int a,int b, ----);

It has three main components.

a. Data type of the function
b. Name of the function
c. Arguments
a. Data Type Of The Function : It shows the data type of value returned by function. It
may be int, float, double and char data type. “void” is used in case of no value
returned by the function.
b. The Name of The Function : The name of the function is any legal identifier followed
by the parentheses without any spaces in between.
c. Arguments : The arguments come inside the parentheses, preceded by their type
and separated by commas.

ii. FUNCTION CALLING : A user defined function is called from the main program simply
by using its name, including the parentheses which follow the name.

iii. FUNCTION DEFINITION : The function definition is the function itself. Function
definition may be defined before or after the main function.

THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE FUNCTION DEFINITION :

type function _name(type argument_1,type argument_2)
{
Body of the function;
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}

GLOBAL / LOCAL VARIABLE

They are declared inside any function. A local variable is only accessible within a
specific part of a program. Global variables are declared outside of the main function, it is
also known as external variable. It holds the value of variable during the entire execution of
the program. The value of global variables can be shared with different functions.

FILE EXTENSIONS
File extensions are suffixes added to filenames to denote the file format or the type
of data contained within the file. They typically consist of three or four characters following
a period (e.g., ".txt" for text files, ".jpg" for JPEG image files). File extensions help both
users and operating systems to quickly identify the type of file and determine which
program should be used to open or process it.

DOCUMENTS AND TEXT FILES :

.docx - Microsoft Word document
.pdf - Portable Document Format
.txt - Text file
.rtf - Rich Text Format
.odt - OpenDocument Text

SPREADSHEETS :
.xlsx - Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
.csv - Comma-separated values file
.ods - OpenDocument Spreadsheet

PRESENTATIONS :
.pptx - Microsoft PowerPoint presentation
.key - Keynote presentation
.odp - OpenDocument Presentation

IMAGES :
.jpg or .jpeg - JPEG image file
.png - Portable Network Graphics image file
.gif - Graphics Interchange Format
.bmp - Bitmap image file
.svg - Scalable Vector Graphics
AUDIO :
.mp3 - MP3 audio file
.wav - Waveform Audio File Format
.flac - Free Lossless Audio Codec
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.aac - Advanced Audio Coding

VIDEO :
.mp4 - MPEG-4 video file
.mov - QuickTime movie file
.avi – Audio Video Interleave file
.mkv - Matroska Multimedia Container

ARCHIVES :
.zip - Compressed archive file
.rar - RAR archive file
.7z - 7-Zip compressed file
.[Link] - Tarball compressed file

PROGRAMMING AND MARKUP LANGUAGES :

.html - Hypertext Markup Language file
.css - Cascading Style Sheets file
.js - JavaScript file
.py - Python script file
.java - Java source file
.cpp - C++ source file
.xml - Extensible Markup Language file

EXECUTABLE FILES :
.exe - Executable file (Windows)
.app - Application bundle (macOS)
.sh - Shell script (Unix/Linux)

FONTS :
.ttf - TrueType font file
.otf - OpenType font file

DATABASE FILES :
.db - Database file
.sql - SQL database script file

SYSTEM FILES :
.dll - Dynamic Link Library file (Windows)
.sys - System file (Windows)
.ini – Initialization file (configuration)
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CONFIGURATION FILES :
.cfg - Configuration file
.conf - Configuration file

BACKUP FILES :
.bak - Backup file

TORRENT FILES :
.torrent - Torrent file

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