+

TOPIC ONE
 OBJECTIVES:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe different methods of acquiring knowledge.
 Explaining the meaning of the term, research.
 Identify different types of research.
 Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research paradigms.
 State six characteristics of qualitative research.
 Define the following terms: variable, problem, and hypothesis.
 Write research problem, research questions and null hypotheses that
relate to a given research problem.
8. Identify the main components of a research proposal.
9. Develop a research proposal.

Introduction
This unit deals with the question, why conduct educational research? This is followed by a
description of different types of research, paradigms of social research and basic elements of
research. Finally, the unit deals briefly with each major stage in the research process: the
problem, research design, measurements design, data collection, and report writing. Key
concepts in social research are discussed.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Methods of acquiring knowledge can be grouped into two main types: non-scientific and
scientific ways of knowing.

Non- Scientific (Everyday Ways of Knowing)

1
Non - scientific methods are based on faith, accepting things at phase value. When people rely on
knowledge that they have not questioned or tested, they are using non - scientific methods way
of knowing. There are four ways of non - scientific methods knowing. These are briefly
described below.

Authority
This method depends on established belief. It involves believing something because people have
faith in the person who said it. If a noted person says that something in his/her area of
specialization is true, it is so. This method allows people to hide their superficiality of their
knowledge; it is subjective and other weaknesses in their arguments.

e Method of Tenacity (or Custom)

People often cling to there beliefs in the face of clearly conflicting facts. They even go to the
extent of inferring “new” knowledge from beliefs that may be false. Many people tend to believe
thing simply because most people in their society assume them to be true.

Method of Intuition
This method is based on reason. Proponents of this method argue that human beings have the
ability to reason and reach truth, and that a priori propositions agree with reason and not
necessarily with experience.

The Mystical Methods

In this method, the correctness of the knowledge is assumed to reside the supernatural source. In
this case, knowledge producers are an authority due their ability to transmit the truth or
knowledge imparted to them by supernatural forces.

The Scientific Method

The word science is derived from the Latin noun, Scientia (meaning knowledge) and the verb,
soire (meaning “to know). The scientific method of acquiring knowledge, also known as
scientific research is systematic investigation of a question, phenomenon, and/or problem
following some principle.

Properties Scientific research Methods.

 Research is empirical since the aim is to know reality
 It is methodological; it depends on a planned, systematic and logical process of
investigation
2
  It is replicable and transmittable; this means anyoe placed in the same situation can
observe the same event and reasoning.
 It is public
 It is cumulative and self- correcting.
 It is cyclic. This means that it starts logically with a problem and ends with a tentative
empirical generalization.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. What are the differences between everyday methods of knowing and

the scientific methods?

2. Find out the advantages of every methods of knowing

The Purpose of Social Science Research

 The generation, advancement and development of knowledge on the social
science process and also the administrative styles and mode of operation of social
enterprise.
 It enables researchers and policy makers to solve social problems.

Contribution of Research to Knowledge

 Description
Many studies involve the description of natural or man-made phenomenon; in
their form, change over time, relation to other phenomena etc. Descriptive studies
have greatly increased our knowledge about what happens in the social sector.
E.g. the spread of HIV/Aids among the married couples.
 Prediction
This is the ability to predict or anticipate a phenomenon that will occur at a
certain time from information available at an earlier time.
 Control/Improvement of the Soc
 ial Phenomena
This is concerned with intervention programmes i.e.

Characteristics of Social Science Research

 Research attempts to solve an educational or social problem.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
 Research demands accurate observable and description.

3
  Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
 Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principals, or theories that will
help in undertaking predictions and control.
 Research requires expertise – familiarity with the field; competence in methodology;
technical skills in collection and analyzing data.
 Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great
pains to validate the procedures employed.
 Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity, which is directional but often refines the
problem or questions as the study progresses.
Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH

 Population: this refers to the entire group of individuals, events or objects having
common observable characteristics,
e.g. all the diabetes patients in Thika district., all teenagers who are addicted to drugs in
Nairobi west district.
A researcher first defines the population to which he/she wants to generalize the results.
For some studies the number of a given population may be large or scattered a wide
geographical area, thus a lot of time, money and personnel may be required to locate all
the members in order to select a representative sample. Hence researchers draw the
sample from an “accessible population”.
E.g. All diabetic patients attending clinics in Thika district
All teenagers going through rehabilitation from drug addiction in Thika District
 Sample; this a smaller group obtained from the accessible population. Each member or
case in the sample is referred to as the subject or respondent or interviewee.
E.g. One hundred diabetic patients from Thika District
One hundred teenagers recovering from drug addiction in rehabilitation centre’s in
Thika District.
 Sampling; this is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a
way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they were
selected.
The main purpose for sampling is to secure a representative group which will enable the
researcher to gain information about a population.
4
 Variable; this is a measurable characteristic which assumes different values among the
subject or respondents.
Variables are attributes that are expressed quantitatively e.g. age is expressed in years,
height in meters, occupation as a farmer, teacher, nurse, doctor etc, gender in male or
female.
There are different classification of variables e.g. dependent, independent, intervening,
confounding and antecedent variables.

 Data; this is all the information a researcher gathers for his/her study.
There are two types of data recognized by researchers
a) Primary data; this is the information e researcher obtains from the field i.e. from the
respondents.
b) Secondary data; this is the information a researcher obtains from articles, books etc
Data may also be classified as qualitative (words, phrases) and quantitative
(numerical).
 Parameters; these like variables are characteristics that are measurable and can assume
different values in the population.
The difference between a parameter and a variable is that a parameter refers to a
population characteristic while a variable is related to a characteristic of the sample
drawn from the population.

 Statistics; this is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data.
Statistics is also defined as the indices which are derived data through statistical
procedures, e.g. mean, median, standard deviation, correlation coefficients etc.
 Descriptive statistics; these are indices that describe a given sample. E.g. of descriptive
statistics are measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of dispersion
(range, standard deviation, variance), distributions (percentages, frequencies) and
relationships (correlations).
 Objectives; this any kind of desired end or condition. Thus objectives in research studies
is refer to specific aspects of the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to
bring out at the end of the research study. E.g. a researcher may want to carry out a study
on the factors that contribute to malnutrition of children in Kenya.

The objectives of such a study would be;

a) Explore how knowledgeable the parents are about nutrition in children.
b) Identify the measures taken by parents to curb malnutrition in their families.
c) Establish the socio-economic status of the parents of malnourished children.
d) Identify the common causes of malnutrition in Kenya.
 Problem Statement; this is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the
research study. It focuses on the phenomenon that the researcher desires to describe,
predict, control or explain.

E.g. the purpose of this study is to establish the reasons as to why teenagers get easily
addicted to narcotics

5
 The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of teaching methods in physics,
lecturing and the practical approach.
 Hypothesis; it is a tentative answer to a research problem. In qualitative research a
hypothesis is expressed in terms of relationship between two variables.

 Summary
In this unit we have identified and explained the different methods of acquiring knowledge.
These include: daily experiences, authority, tenacity, intuition, supernatural revelation, and the
scientific method. Certain fundamental
.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Give four reasons why every psychologist should conduct research
8marks
 Briefly describe six types of research that psychologist are likely to conduct
12marks

FURTHER READING
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:
Routledge Falmer.
INTERNET

TOPIC TWO

 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you should
6 be able to:

 State and explain the characteristics of qualitative research

 Discuss, using appropriate examples, the key methods of generating

APPROACHES OF RESEARCH
1. The Qualitative Research Paradigm
 Qualitative research is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data in
order to provide descriptions and accounts of social events and objects of research in
their natural setting. E.g. case studies and ethnography.

There are three methods of collecting qualitative date

 Direct observation; the required behavior is observed in a particular

setting.

 In-depth open ended interviews; this include direct quotation from people
about experiences and knowledge and background information of the
respondents.

 Documents analysis; this involves going through quotations or entire

passages from records, correspondence, official reports.

Advantages of qualitative methods

 They permit the research to study selected issues, cases or events in depth
and detail.

 Researchers using qualitative methods strive to understand programs and

situations as a whole.

 Researchers using qualitative methods have direct personal contacts with

the people in the program in their own environment. This enables them to
understand the realities of daily program life.
7
 Main Features of Qualitative Research Methods
 It provides descriptions and accounts of the processes of social interaction
in “natural settings”. Qualitative researchers are more interested in
describing processes than outcomes.
 It aims at generating theories and hypotheses from data that emerge. It
does not aim at testing pre-conceived hypotheses. It begins with scientific
observations and builds up towards general patterns.
 It uses observational techniques and interview methods on small samples
of target groups to gain in-depth understanding of a program, project.
 Qualitative researchers use purposive sampling.
 The data produced is not easily quantifiable for statistical analysis.
 Data id analyzed inductively.

2. The Quantitative Research Paradigm

Quantitative researches methods are usually used when a researcher wants to obtain a
large body of data of perform statistical analysis in order to produce results that can be
generalized to a target population. In this paradigm the data collection tools include
questionnaires and achievement tests.
Random sampling id done to ensure that the sample is representative.
The research designs used in the paradigm are experimental, causal-comparative and
correlation research.

 Main Features of Quantitative Research Methods

 Quantitative research yields data that is quantifiable. It normally wants to
know the frequencies of occurrence of an event and percentages of people
involved, e.g. how many students dropped out of primary school due to
pregnancies, percentage of teenager who have been rehabilitated from
drug addiction etc
 Qualitative research methods require large samples of individuals.
 Data is analyzed deductively.
 It is concerned with theory testing or verification.

8
 ACTIVITY 1:

1. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research

approaches.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Classification by Purpose.
Basic Research
 This also called “Pure” or “Fundamental “research. It is interested in
deriving/increase of knowledge. It results in fuller understanding of the
subject matter under study and the generalization of theories. In basic
research the primary aim of the investigator is not to produce data for
practical use but to enhance the understanding of the subject matter.

Applied Research
 Applied research is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory
and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support
theory, guide theory revision, or suggest the development of new theory.
The main aim of the researcher is to generate knowledge which of
immediate practical use

Action Research
 Action research is conducted with the primary intention of solving a
specific, immediate and concrete problem in a local setting. E.g. a researcher
could investigate ways of overcoming water shortage in a certain
geographical area.
Action research is not concerned with whether the results are generalized to any
other setting since its major goal is seek a solution to a given problem.
It’s very useful because it provides answers to problems that cannot wait for
theoretical solutions.

9
 Evaluation Research
Gay (1981) defines evaluation research as the systematic process of collecting and
analyzing data in order to make decisions. Evaluation research is therefore a
process of determining whether the intended results were realized.

Purpose of Evaluation Research

 Utility; an evaluation has utility if it is informative, timely and
useful ti the affected persons.
 Feasibility; an evaluation design is feasible if it is appropriate to the
setting in which the study will be conducted. An evaluation design
is also feasible if it is cost effective, that is if the study is worth the
cost.
 Propriety; an evaluation has propriety if the rights of the persons
affected by the evaluation are protected.
 Accuracy; this refers to the extent to which the evaluation study
produces valid, reliable and comprehensive information about the
phenomenon being evaluated.

Types of Evaluation Research

a) Needs Assessment
A need can be defined as discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a
desired set of conditions. This type of evaluation research is important because the
results of the needs assessment study provide the foundation for developing new
programmes and for making changes in the existing ones.

b) Formative Evaluation
The main purpose of formative evaluation is to collect data about projects while they
are being developed. The results can be used by the project developers to modify the
project if need be or to stop the project altogether.

c) Summative Evaluation
This type of evaluation occurs after the programme has been fully
implemented/developed. It is conducted to evaluate how worthwhile the final
programme has been, especially as compared to other similar programmes.

10
 ACTIVITY 2:
1. When is formative and summative evaluation research carried out?

2. Classification by Method.

 Descriptive Research
This is the systematic collection and analysis of data in order to answer questions
or test hypotheses concerning the current status of a project or activity.
In descriptive research, data is collected by means of questionnaires, interviews,
content analysis and observations.
The main purpose of descriptive research is to determine and report things the
way they are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behavior, attitudes,
values and characteristics.
The steps followed in descriptive research are;
 Formulation of the objectives of the study,
 Designing the methods of data collection
 Selecting the sample,
 Collecting data
 Analyzing the data.

 Causal-comparative
This kind of research attempts to identify the relationships between variables. It
determines the reason or cause for the current status of the phenomenon under
study.
It is often used in place of the experimental design because many cause-and –
effect relationships that we wish to study do not permit experimental
manipulation.

11
 E.g. a researcher may observe that boys are more prone to drug addiction than
girls and set out to identify the major factors which have led to this difference.

Steps in Causal-Comparative research

 Define the research question
 Select a group that possesses the characteristics which the
researcher wants to study
 Select a comparison group which does not display the
characteristics under study, in order to permit comparison but
which is similar to the study group in other aspects
 Data are collected for both the experimental and the control group
 Analyze the data collected for both groups

The advantages of Causal-Comparative

a) It allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the
independent variables
b) It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental
investigation.

Disadvantages of Causal- Comparative

a) Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know
whether a particular variable is cause or result of the behavior being
studied.
b) There may be a third variable which could be affecting the
established relationship in the causal-comparative study but which
may not be established in the study.

ACTIVITY 3
1. Explain the causal-comparative research design

12
 Correlation Methods
These methods describe in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are
related. It involves collection of data in order to determine to what degree a
relationship exists between two quantifiable variables.
The degree of relationship is expressed in terms of a correlation coefficient (r).

Steps in Correlation Research

 Problem statement
 Selection of subjects
 Data collection
 Data analysis

Advantages of correlation studies

 This method permits one to analyze inter-relationship among a
large number of variables in a single study.
 It also allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or
in combination might affect a particular phenomenon being studies
 The method provides information concerning the degree of
relationship between the variables being studied.

Disadvantages of Correlation studies

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply
causation although researchers often tend to interpret such
relationship to mean causation.
 A correlation coefficient is an index and therefore any two
variables will always have a relationship even when common sense
dictates that such variables are not related. E.g. a correlation can be
computed between weight and level of education even though this
relationship is meaningless.
 The correlation coefficient, it is very sensitive to the size of the
sample. If the data collected from two subjects only the value of the
correlation coefficient will be exactly equal to 1.0. As sample size
increases, the correlation drops and then stabilizes when the sample

13
 size is big enough. Therefore small samples in correlation studies
yield erroneous results.

ACTIVITY 4:
1. Briefly describe correlation design

 Survey Research
A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population to determine
the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. Survey
research is therefore a self-report study which requires the collection of
quantifiable information from the sample.
Information collected through surveys may be used for various purposes e.g.
market researchers use survey to evaluate products acceptance and use.

Purpose of Survey Research

 It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomenon
by asking the individuals about their perceptions, attitudes,
behavior or values.
 It can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two
or more variables, at a given point in time.
 It is the best method for social scientists who are interested in
collecting data for the purpose of describing a population which is
too large to observe directly.
 It is an excellent way of measuring the characteristic of a large
population.

Steps Involved in Survey

14
  Problem statement
 Defining objectives
 Selecting a sample
 Preparing instruments
 Data collection
 Data analysis

Limitations of Survey
 It is dependent on the cooperation of the respondents. If data
collection procedures are erroneous, the responses given may be
inaccurate and hence the whole study is flawed.
 Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a
survey e.g. salary earned by wife/husband.
 Asking for information which is secret and personal encourages
incorrect answers
.

ACTIVITY 5
1. Discuss the purpose of survey design under the following:

 Purpose of Survey Research

 Steps Involved

15
  Historical Research
Historical research is the systematic collection end evaluation of data about past
events so as to identify causes and effects of those events in order to understand
and explain present events.
Historical research studies do not gather data by administering instruments to
individuals because it seeks data that is already available.
The researcher determines if the data adequately explores the events in which
he/she is interested in.
Sources of Historical or Documentary Research
Primary Sources; these comprise firsthand knowledge e.g. eyewitness reports and
original documents.
Secondary Sources; these comprise second hand information e.g. description of an event
by persons other than the eyewitnesses

Examples of Historical Sources

 Expressive documents which include personal letters, life
histories(diaries and autobiographies)
 Official records which may include legal records, legal instruments
such as contracts, wills, court decisions etc.
 Creative productions such as works of art, literature, photographs,
costumes and museum pieces

Purpose of Historical Research

It aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past occurrences
that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.
There are many social issues and problems which are better understood or studied in the
light of past experiences, e.g.
 Histories of specific individuals
 Histories of educational institutions
 Histories of political systems

16
  Histories of important events in the country such as wars, natural
calamities etc

Steps involved in historical research

 Identifying and delineating the problem
 Developing hypotheses or objectives that one is interested in
testing
 Collect and classify resource materials, determining facts by
internal and external criticism
 Organizing facts into results
 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypotheses or theory
 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form

Evaluating Historical Data

1. External Criticism
This involves establishing the authenticity of the sources of data. This is
necessary because there are some fraudulent documents that may be given
by some people with ill motives.
External criticism is basically for establishing the historical truth of the
documents.

2. Internal Criticism
This involves the establishment if the validity of the content of the source,
regardless of its authorship or genuineness.
This is difficult because there are usually omissions, addition, errors etc
especially in old documents, or in documents that have been translated
from one language into another.

ACTIVITY 6
Differentiate between primary and secondary sources of information in
historical research.

17
  Observational Research
In this type of research the current status of things is determined not by asking but
by observation. E.g. instead of asking in-patients how they are being handled in a
hospital one could actually observe the nurses and doctors and get more objective
information

Conducting Observational Research

 Selection and definition of the problem
 Sample selection
 Definition of observational variables
 Recording observational information
 Data analysis and interpretation

Types of observational Research

a) Non-participant observation
In this type the observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed. The
observe is “on the outside looking in” and does not interact or affect the objects of the
observation.

b) Naturalistic observation.
Since certain kinds of behavior can only be observed as they occur naturally, the
researcher does not control or manipulate the subjects or the environment in any way.
The purpose of naturalistic observation is to record and study behavior as it naturally
occurs.

c) Participant observation
Here the observer actually becomes a part of, or a participant in the situation. The
subjects may not know about the participant observer. The justification of this
methods is that the view from inside is somewhat different from the view from the
outside looking, thus it gives more valid results.

This method has its own shortcomings

 There is the question about the ethics involved in observing people without
their knowledge and recording conversations with concealed recording
devices.

18
  There is also the problem of the impact of the observer’s participation on the
situation and subjects.

ACTIVITY 7:
1. Discuss three types of observation research

d) Ethnography
This method involves very intensive data collection. The data collected on many
variables are collected over an extended period of time in a natural setting. The
rationale behind using ethnography is the belief that behavior is greatly influence by
the environment in which it occurs.
The main characteristic of ethnography is that the observer uses continuous
observation trying to record everything that occurs in the setting being studied.
Lengthy hand written notes are usually made.

Advantages
 It provides a very complete picture of the environment being studied
 Since observational studies extend over several months, they give a
longitudinal perspective not possible with many other types of research
 The hypotheses or theories developed are grounded solidly in observational
data gathered in a naturalistic setting.

Disadvantages
 Requires a very alert and sophisticated observer who can write clearly and
rapidly.
 In order to have valid results the observers must be trained in observational
techniques.
 It is very costly because a lot of time is needed to understand the environment
being studied.

19
  Observational records are usually very long and very difficult to quantify and
interpret.
 The results can seriously be distorted by the observer’s bias or preconceived
ideas.
 A lot of information is left out because it is impossible to observe and write
everything that occurs in the observational session.
 There can be role conflict and emotional involvement as the observer
becomes an active participant in the environment which can reduce the
validity of the data being collected.

e) Cases Studies
A case study is an in-depth investigation of in an individual, group, institution or
phenomenon. Most case studies are based on the premise that a case can be located
that is typical of many other cases. The case understudy is viewed as an example of a
class of events or a group of individuals.
The primary purpose of case study is to determine factors and relationships among
factors that have resulted in the behavior under study. The investigation therefore
takes a detailed examination of a single group or phenomenon.

f) Content analysis
Definition
Content analysis is the systematic qualitative description of the composition of the
objects or materials of the study. In other words, content analysis involves
observation and detailed description of objects, items, or things that comprise the
sample.

Purpose
The main purpose of content analysis is to study existing documents such as books,
magazines, photographs etc., in order to determine factors that explain a specific
phenomenon. The following methods are involved in carrying out content analysis
1. Decide on the unit of analysis. These are individual units about which descriptive
and explanatory statements are to be made.
2. Sample the content to be analyzed, e.g paragraphs, chapters in a book, book
phrases, or even sentences.
20
3. Coding – This involves logical grouping of the data. This enables the researcher
to apply quantitative or qualitative methods of data analysis.
4. Data analysis.
5. Compiling results and interpretations.

Advantages of content analysis

1. Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money. This is because
data collection is not as tedious as in most other studies.
2. Errors which arise during the study are easier to detect and correct
3. The method has no effect on what is being studied – compare this with human
objects.

Disadvantages
1. It is limited to recorded communication
2. since the information is already recorded. It is difficult to ascertain the validity of
the data

Summary
In this second unit of our module, we have identified and explained the characteristics
and uses of both qualitative and quantitative research. We have also explained, by use
of appropriate examples, the different types of research such as Basic research,
applied research. action research and Evaluation. Lastly, we looked at the
classification of research by method; such include Descriptive, Causal-comparative,
Correlation, Survey, Historical, Observation, Ethnography, and Case study.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Using appropriate examples give the distinction between
a) Basic and applied research
21
 b) quantitative and qualitative research
 Explain the concept and application of any five (5) types of research

FURTHER READING
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:
Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC THREE
Stages in the Research Process
Research is a process which consists of inter-related activities. The following are the main stages
in the research process. The research process is cyclic. It starts logically with problem selection
and formulation. This stage includes the formulation of hypothesis. The process ends in a
tentative empirical generalization. In qualitative research the generalizations are made as data is
being collected
 OBJECTIVES:

1. Selection and definition of the research problem

 Selecting the topic for research and identification of the research problem.
 Reviewing related literature
 Formulating the research problem.
 Formulating specific research question, objectives and hypothesis
 Defining concepts

2. Selection of the research design and methodology

a) Choice of research design
b) Description of the sample and sampling procedures
3. Measurement design
a) Identification of data collection procedures
b) Construction of research instruments

4. Data collection
Collection of data using a variety of research instrument
22
 5. Data analysis
a) Data organization
b) Data processing
c) Quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
6. Generalization
a) Interpretation of data
b) Conclusion and recommendations
c) Production of the research report
The process is diagrammatically presented in figure 1 below.
Figure1: The Main Stages of the Research Process.

Problem

Research Design
Generalization

Data Analysis Measurement Design

Data Collection

Each stage of the research process is described briefly below.

Defining the problem

Before conducting any research, you should decide on the major problem area that interest you.
Normally this will be your field of specialty. Examples of such areas are:
 Diabetic patients
 The challenges of bringing up a physically/mentally challenged child
 Challenges children from dysfunctional homes

Next, you should select a specific topic for research. This should be done after thorough review
of literature on the general area. After identifying the topic, narrow it down to a specific research
problem.

The following are some sources of research problems:

 Direct observation of the needs of the society.
 Knowledge and experience of counselors and psychologist
 Related literature – including dissertation abstracts, journals, psychology index
and research reports on the topic.

The following are some examples of specific topics:

23
  An assessment of integrated methods of teaching in primary schools in Kisumu
District
 Factors that make parents keep physically and mentally challenged children away
from the public.

The final activity in this stage is definition of the research problem. A problem is a difficulty to
which a solution or answer is being sought in the study. The first step in defining a research
problem is to ask yourself the question, “What do I want to find out?”
Some characteristics of a good research problem are:
 It should be one which can be investigated thorough the collection and analysis of
data.
 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
 It generates a number of more specific research questions.
 It relates to an academic discipline such as psychology, education, science etc.
 It has a basis in the research literature.
 It should have potential significance. It should be important to you and other
people as well, i.e. it should be one whose solution will contribute to
improvement of the society.
 It should be one that you can carry out within the available timeframe and budget.
 Sufficient data should be available or can be obtained to address it.
 It must be one that you can adequately investigate given your research skills,
available time and other resources.

Stating Research Questions, Objectives and Hypotheses

After stating the research problem, you should break down the general problem into a set of
concrete research questions, Objectives and hypotheses that will be investigated separately.
For example, the problem, “What the attitudes of parents are of physically/mentally challenged
children?” includes consideration of such factors as sex of parents, their socioeconomic
background and location of their homes. These considerations generate one research question as
shown below.

Research Question 1: Is there any difference in attitudes of parents towards physically/mentally

challenged children when categorized by;
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
 Location of school (rural/urban)
Objectives of the study
This study was designed to investigate the attitudes of parents towards physically/mentally
challenged children when categorized by
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
 Location of school (rural/urban)

24
To guide the study, the following objectives have been selected:
 To determine the attitudes of parents towards physically/mentally challenged
children
 To determine whether there are any relationships between of the parents and those
of the society.
 To make recommendations for the improvement of the relationship between
physically/mentally challenged children and the parents/society.
Formulation and Statement of hypotheses

Following the statement of the research problem and research questions, the null hypotheses are
stated. A well defined hypothesis should have the following characteristics:
 It must be testable with available techniques.
 It should be possible to reject by collecting and analyzing data.
 It should conjecture upon a relationship between two or more variables
 It should be stated clearly and ambiguously.

Since it is extremely difficult to unequivocal support for hypothesis, the researcher

instead attempts to test and disapprove its negation. The negative version of no
significant difference between means scores of two or more groups is called null
hypothesis and is symbolized by HO. The null hypothesis is usually an expression of no
significant relationship between the variables. It suggest that the observed differences
have occurred due to chance variation and thus are not real differences. The other
hypothesis is the alternative or research hypothesis symbolized by [Link] states that a
difference or relationship exists between the variables.
The following are examples of null hypothesis:
HO: There is no significant difference between the attitudes of parents towards
physically/mentally challenged children when they are categorized by
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
 Location of school (rural/urban)
HO: there is no significant difference between the attitudes of women of different
social settings towards abuse in marriages.
Conceptual framework / theoretical framework
In this section, you should provide a theoretical explanation of the research design used and
describe the concepts, variable and theories underlying you study and relationship among various
variables. This section is naturally followed by a definition of the terms used.
Example
Title: effective of family life education programme on students’ knowledge and attitudes towards
responsible parenthood.
Conceptual Framework
The independent variables in this study age, gender, marital status, place of residence (urban
/rural). Knowledge of quality of life issues and attitude towards responsible parenthood will be
the dependent variables.

25
 Students Gender

Student’s Age Student’

Student’ Marital AttitudesTowards
Students’
Status Responsible
Knowledge of
Parenthood
Students place of Quality of Life
Determining the Research birth Design issues

Research design refers to Students’ Extent of the procedure used by the

Attendance in Class
researcher to select the sample, administer the instruments and
analyze the data. Your choice of research design is influenced by the questions you intend to
answer.

Measurement Design
The fourth stage of the research process involves the construction of research instruments.
Research instruments are the tools you will use to collect the data necessary to answer your
research questions and to test your hypothesis.
Collecting the Data
During this stage data is collected using a variety of methods including visits to
Education institutions, mailing questionnaires to respondents and content analysis of Curriculum
documents.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Once data have been collected, they should be analyzed and interpreted. Specify the techniques
you will use to analyze data and the interpretative operations you will perform on analyzed data.

Generalization
During this stage you should draw and state conclusion on the basis of the findings of the study.
The conclusion you make should be stated in terms of the original research questions and
hypothesis. Generalizations are statements of the relationship between two or more concepts or
variables. The following statements are generalizations:
 The parents and the society need to be educated and sensitized on how to handle the
physically/mentally challenged in homes and society.
 If parents and society treat the physically/mentally challenged like normal people and not
like outcasts then it encourages them to live normal lives

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research Proposal Development
A research proposal is a plan that indicates the strategy the researcher intends to use in search of
answers to the main research question/ problem and specific research questions.

The Purposes of the Research proposal

26
 1. It compels the researcher to state all his/ her ideas in written form so that they can be
evaluated and improved upon by the researcher and others.
2. It can be easily submitted to several lectures for their comments and suggestions.
3. It can be used as a guide for conducting the research project

Format of a Research proposal

The actual format of the research proposal, as well as its contents, can vary from study to study.
However, a research proposal should consist of the following components in the order in which
they are listed here.

1.0. Introduction.
1.1. Background of the problem
1.2. Statement of the problem
1.3. Research questions and hypothesis
1.4. Significance of the study
1.5. Delimitations and limitations of the study
1.6. Conceptual / theoretical framework
1.7. Operational definitions of terms

2.0 Review of Related Literature

3.0. Research Design and Methodology

3.1. Research design
3.2. Sampling and sampling procedures
3.3. Description of research instruments
3.4. Data collection procedures
3.5. Data analysis procedure
3.6. Work plan
3.7. Budget

Reference

Appendices

Each of these sections is discussed briefly below

Introduction

Background of the problem

The purpose of this section is to place the research in context. The section should be as brief as
possible. You should indicate that you are aware of related studies on the topic and the extent to
which those studies do not address the problem of your study. The section includes a brief

27
review of previous research in the field and a statement of the questions which previous research
studies leave unanswered.

Statement of the problem

A statement of the problem states clearly what you want to study. The question you should ask
yourself is what exactly do I want to investigate? The first part of the statement of the problem
points out a knowledge gap; the second part shows the problem.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The statement of the problem is followed by specific research questions and hypothesis.
However, not all research studies require a formulation of hypothesis.

Significance/ Justification of the Study

In this section you should state the objectives and practical significance of your study. Will it
contribute to the general understanding of this field? How will the results of the study lead to
improvement of the projects and programmes in your area of specialization? Discussed in this
section is the reason why it is worth knowing what the study hopes to find out.

Delimitation of the study

A single cannot cover all aspects of interest. It can be delimited to certain types of people e.g.
women, children with a certain kind of psychological issue, geographical area, etc. These should
be stated and justified. This section describes the limits or scope of the study. The reasons why
the researcher is not extending beyond the determined scope are explained.

Limitations of the study

Limitations refer to constrains that the researcher has no control over. Some limitations are: lack
of adequate time and funds and inability of some respondents to express themselves fluently in
the language used for the interview.

Conceptual Framework / Theoretical Framework

In this section, you should describe the main independent and dependent variable in the study
and the relationship among them.

Definition of Terms
All the variables that will be manipulated must be defined. In addition, terms which may convey
different meanings different people should be defined.

Review of Related Literature

Literature review should show what others have said about the topic.
Review of pertinent literature serves four main purposes:

28
 1. It enables you to determine studies that have already been done, thus avoiding
duplication.
2. It makes it possible for you to identify research strategies and instruments which have
been found effective in investigating your problem. This will help you to profit from the
experiences of other researchers and to avoid their mistakes
3. It facilitates interpretation of the finding of your study
4. It enables you to identify gaps in knowledge as well as weakness in previous studies.
These weakness help to select and define your research problem.

The following are some sources of literature

1. Relevant textbooks
2. Relevant professional journals e.g. Journal of (Education, medicine, psychology etc)
3. Dissertation abstracts
4. Student’ undergraduate and postgraduate dissertations
5. Psychological abstracts
6. Currents index to journals of psychology
7. Dissertation abstracts international
8. Encyclopedia of psychological research
9. Review of psychology research
10. Reference list in textbook and articles

? Why is it important for researchers to review literature?

Researcher Design and Methodology

This chapter describes in some details the strategy you will use to conduct the research. Includes
the following:

Researcher Design
The research approach you have selected and why you have selected it. Some examples of
research design are experimental design, survey design and naturalistic design.

Target Population
A population is any group of institution, people or object that has at least one characteristic in
common. Examples of a population are women in marginalized areas, challenges of single
parenthood, psychological challenges of the children in the IDP, the challenges of having a
physically challenged child. The target population should be explicitly and equivocally defined,
otherwise statement about the target population after the analysis of data will not be trustworthy.

Description of the samples

This section indicates the individual or groups of individual that will participate in the study and
how these individual will be selected.

Description of Research Instruments

29
What instruments will you use to collect data? Explain how you will develop the instruments.

Data Collection Procedures

Indicate how you will collect data for your study. Will you post questionnaire to the subjects or
undertake field research?

Data analysis
Indicate the statistical you will use to analyze data. These might be a simple as frequencies and
as complex as two-way analysis of variance. You should ensure that the statistical procedure you
choose are appropriate to the research questions being asked and the hypothesis you intend to
test.

Schedule
Provide a schedule for the various stages of your study.

Budget
Estimate how much the research will cost and provide a budget indicating the amount or money
you will spend on each item.

 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the six main stages in the research process. The first among those
stages is the identification, selection and definition of the research problem. This stage includes
the background, statement of the problem, research questions, objectives, hypothesis and the
theoretical/conceptual frameworks. Literature review helps in identifying the knowledge gaps
that the research desires to fill in regard to the research problem. The second stage is the
selection of the research design and methodology including sampling procedures. Third is
measurement design which entails identification of data collection procedures and construction
of research instruments. Fourth is data collection while fifth is data analysis which includes data
organization and processing. The last stage in the research process is generalization which entails
interpretation of data, conclusion, recommendations, and production of the data report.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Briefly explain four criteria for a good scientific hypothesis
 8marks
 Briefly explain the six stages in the research process 12marks
 Make a sequential list of the topics usually covered in a research proposal.
20marks
 Define the following terms:
a) Variable
b) Research Problem
c) Hypothesis

30
  Describe the main stages of the research process
 Five problems from the research literature are given below. Study them carefully
and construct one or two hypothesis based on them.
a) Do teachers’ comments cause improvement in student discipline?
b) How does organizational climate affect behavioral development?
How does the socio-economic stat

FURTHER READING
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:
Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC FOUR

 OBJECTIVES:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Discuss the process of selecting a research design
 Discuss the major designs
 Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling
 Explain the different of probability and non-probability sampling methods
 Give reasons why sampling is done.
31
Research Design
The important decision made by a researcher is the selection of a research design. this includes
the consideration whether the definition of variables, the level of measurement and their
relationship to one another.
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance. It refers to all the procedures selected by a
researcher for studying particular sets of hypotheses or questions. A research design sets up the
frame for study and is the blueprint of the researcher.

Types of Research Design

There are several types of research designs. These include experimental designs, quasi-
experimental designs, survey designs, correlation, case study, and naturalistic designs.

1. Experimental Designs
These designs are used to study cause and effect relationships. The true experimental design is
considered the most useful design to demonstrate programme impact if there is random selection
of participating units and random assignments of treatment and control conditions.
The programme is implemented and post-test administered to the group which received the
treatment as well as the control group. Sometimes a pre-test is administered before the treatment.
Finally, differences between the group that received the treatment and the one that did not are
compared to determine the impact of the programme.

Note:
a. In an experimental design, the experimental group receives the treatment and the
control group receives either no treatment or an alternative treatment.
b. Experimental design is the cornerstone of psychological research and is the only
design where cause and effect can equivocally be determined.

ACTIVITY 9:

32
  Distinguish between experimental and quasi-experimental designs
 Choose a topic in your area of interest, describe the research design you will use in this
study

2. Survey Designs
Survey is used to gather systematically factual information by interviewing or administering a
questionnaire to a sample of individuals. It is the most frequently used method of collecting
information about peoples attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of social issues.
They are an efficient method of collecting descriptive data regarding:
 The characteristics of the population;
 Current practices, conditions or needs;
 Preliminary information for generating research questions.
When using a survey design, you should follow the following procedures:
 Identity the population of interest
 Clarify the objectives of the study
 Develop a questionnaire and field test it
 Select a relevant sample
 Administer the questionnaire to members of the sample by mail or in person
 Tabulate the results in a descriptive fashion (i.e. reporting means, frequencies
percentages).

3. Correlation Designs
Correlation designs enable the researcher to asses the degree of relationship that exists
between two variables (Orodho, 2003). Subjects are not randomly assigned to the
experimental or the control group: rather they have already been exposed or not been
exposed independent variable.
E.g. a researcher might be interested in finding out the correlation students K.C.P.E
mathematics scores and K.C.S.E mathematics or physics scores. If a positive correlation
is established, one could suggest that K.C.P.E grades are better indicators of students’
future performance in mathematics or physics.
The use of correlation research designs enables social science researchers to map out
relationship between two or more social science variables.

4. Case Study Design

According to Paton (1990), a case study seeks to describe a unit in details, in context
and holistically. A case study is an in-depth investigation of in an individual, group,
institution or phenomenon. Most case studies are based on the premise that a case can

33
 be located that is typical of many other cases. The case understudy is viewed as an
example of a class of events or a group of individuals.

5. Evaluation Design
Gay (1981) defines evaluation research as the systematic process of collecting and
analyzing data in order to make decisions. Evaluation research is therefore a process of
determining whether the intended results were realized.
Evaluation research takes two aspects, depending on the stage of the project at which it
is introduced.
The first one is the formative evaluation whose main purpose is to collect data about
projects while they are being developed. The results can be used by the project
developers to modify the project if need be or to stop the project altogether.
The second one is summative evaluation which occurs after the programme has been fully
implemented/developed. It is conducted to evaluate how worthwhile the final programme
has been, especially as compared to other similar programmes.

6. Naturalistic Design
The naturalistic design grew out of the need to study phenomena as they naturally occur in the
field. The goal of a naturalistic study is to understand the phenomena being observed. A major
feature of this design has been the use of the human instrument (the observer) to collect, filter
and organize incoming data. The design differs from others because it evolves during the course
of the study.

The following guidelines might help researchers when conducting a naturalistic study:
i. Establish the focus of the study
ii. Determine the site(s) of data collection
iii. Plan successive phases of the study
iv. Establish the trustworthiness of the data

ACTIVITY 10:
 State the main stages you should follow when using the survey design.
 Discuss the naturalistic design

Population, Sample and Sampling Methods

34
Population
Population refers to all people who posses the characteristics of interest. For example, to find out
whether arts graduate teachers are most likely to become head teachers than science graduate
teachers, the population is all graduate teachers of arts and science.

 8ou7

Reliability
Reliability of an instrument is the consistency in producing a reliable result. It focuses on the
degree to which empirical indicators are consistent across two or more attempts to measure a
theoretical concept.

1. Test-retest Method
This is a technique of assessing the reliability of a research instrument. It involves the
administration of thsube same instrument twice to the same subjects. there is usually a two weeks
lapse between the first and the second administration.
The test-rest method involves the following steps:
1. Select an appropriate group of subjects
2. Administer the test to the subjects
3. Keeping all initial conditions constant, administer the same test to the same subjects. One
can wait one to four weeks before administering the test a second time.
4. Correlate the stores from both testing period.
Reliability and validity in research

Reliability
Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or
data after repeated trials. Reliability in research is influenced by random error. As random error
increases, reliability decreases. Random error is the deviation from a true measurement due to
factors that have not effectively been addressed by the researcher. Errors may arise from
inaccurate coding, ambiguous instructions to the subject, interviewers fatigue, interviewee’s
fatigue, interviewer biased etc.
35
Random error will always exist regardless of the procedures used in a study.
Let us assume that the researcher want to determine the effectiveness of different diets in
controlling weight.
Subjects are randomly selected and assigned to three groups. The groups feed on three different
diets and each subject’s weight is taken regularly. If the researcher uses a weighing scale
sometimes overestimates the subject’s weight while at one time, your scale underestimates their
weights, and the data from the study will not be reliable. Random error, from the faulty scale, is
operation her to make the data not reliable. Another example of how random error can lead
unreliable data would be in measuring a patient’s blood pressure. A patient with high blood
pressure will be shown to have consistently high blood pressure readings if the measuring
instrument is reliable.
However repeated readings would not be the same: they would be distributed around the true
blood pressure level of the patient. This deviation above and below the true blood pressure level
would be due to factors such as joy, anger , anxiety etc. the smaller the deviation the more
reliable the data. It is important to realize that research instruments yield data that have two
components, the true value or score of error components,
The error component of the data reflects the limitations of the instruments. Strictly speaking,
there are three types’ random errors that arise at the time of data collection.
These are:-
Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument: error due to the inaccuracy scoring by the research
and not explained error.
These three types of errors combine to produce inconsistencies in the measurements, which
ultimately affect the reliability of the data collected.
The research process attempts to minimize random error and hence increase the reliability of the
data collected. In research study, a reliability coefficient can be computed to indicate how
reliable data are. A coefficient of 0.80 or more implies that there is high degree of reliability of
the data.
The test-retest technique
The test-retest method of assessing reliability of data involves administering the same instrument
twice to the same group of subjects. There is usually a time lapse between the first test and the
second test. The test-rest method involves the following steps:
5. Select an appropriate group of subjects
6. Administer the test to the subjects
7. Keeping all initial conditions constant, administer the same test to the same subjects. One
can wait one to four weeks before administering the test a second time.
8. Correlate the stores from both testing period.
The correlation coefficient obtained is referred to as “the coefficient of reliability or stability,” if
the coefficient is high, the instrument is said to yield data that have high test-retest reliability”

The disadvantages of this of assessing reliability of data are that subjects may be sensitized by
the first testing or they may tend to remember their responses during the second testing. If that
happens, the coefficient may be artificially high.
The other difficulty with this method is establishing a reasonable period between the two testing
sessions. If the period between the tests is too long, say one year, subjects may have changed or

36
other extraneous factors may interfere with the variable being measured. The computed
coefficient of stability in such cases may be artificially low or high.

The equivalent form technique

The problems inherent in the test –retest technique are to a certain extent taken care of by the
equivalent –form technique of estimating reliability. This approach uses two equivalent
instruments. Specific items in each form are different but they are designed to measure the same
concept. They are the same in number, structure and level of difficulty. An analogy would be
using one scale to measure the weight of a subject today and after one week, using a different
scale to measure the weight of the same subject. The following steps are involved in the
equivalent form method.
1. Sample different items from the domain of indicators that measure the variables.
2. Divide the items thus sampled into two groups or forms
3. Administer one form to a group of subject randomly selected.
4. After a period of time the other form of the instrument is administered to the same
subject, keeping all other conditions constant.
5. Correlate the scores obtained from the two forms of the instruments.
If the correlation coefficient is high, the instrument is said to yield data that have high equivalent
form reliability.
In fact this method estimates the stability of data as well as the equivalent of the items in the two
forms.
The major problems in this technique are the construction of two tests m, which measures the
same concept.
This is difficult and expensive in terms of time and resources. However, the equivalent form
method is commonly used in establishing the reliability f standardized test data such as
intelligence tests, achievement test, TEOFL, GRE etc.

Split half technique

The split –half technique of accessing the reliability requires only one testing session. In this
approach, an instrument is designed in such a way that there are two parts. Subject’s scores from
one part are correlated with scores from the second part.
The major advantage of this approach is that it eliminates chance error due to referring test
conditions as in the test-retest or the equivalent –form techniques.
The following are the steps involved in the split –half technique.
1. Sample items from the domain of indicators that measure the variables.
2. Administer the total test to an appropriate group.
3. At random, divide the scored items into two groups. Alternatively, on can group all
the old numbered items together and all the even numbered items together.
4. Compute each subjects total score from the two groups of items.
5. Correlate the scores from the two groups of items for all the subjects.
Data with a high split-half reliability will have a high correlation coefficient. Since we are
correlating half of the tests scores with the other half, the coefficient so computed does not
reflect reliability of the whole instrument.

37
A correction factor is therefore applied on the computed coefficient. The adjusted coefficient
represents the reliability of the whole test. This correction is done using the spear man- brown
prophecy formula. It should be noted that there are many ways of dividing the item into two
parts, each method used in splitting the instruments in two parts will result in different
correlation coefficient. Hence different reliability estimates will be obtained for the same test or
instrument.
Increasing the number of items in the instrument increases the chances of obtaining a consistent
estimate of the reliability of the data.

The internal consistency techniques

The internal consistency of the data is determined from scores obtained from a single test
administered by the researcher to a sample of subjects. In this approach, a’ score obtained in one
item is correlated with scores obtained from other items in the instrument. conbach’s coefficient
Alpha is then computed to determine how items correlate among themselves. Conbrach’s Alpha
is a general from the Kunder-Richardson (K-R) 20 formula.
The use of the (K-R) 20 formula is assessing internal consistency of an instrument is based on
the split-half reliabilities of data from all time required to compute a reliability coefficient in
other methods. Its application also results in a more conservative estimate of reliability; the
estimated coefficient of reliability of data is always lower. To avoid erroneous conclusion, it is
always better to underestimate reliability of data than to overestimate it.
The K-R 20 formula is as follows;
KR20 = (K) (S2-£s2)
_____________
(S2) (K-1)

Where:
KR 20 = reliability coefficient of internal consistency
K = Number of items used to measure the concept
S2 = variance of all scores
s2 variance of individual items
a high coefficient implies that items correlate highly among themselves i.e. there is consistency
among the items in measuring the concept of interest. This is sometimes referred to as
homogeneity of data. There is perhaps a slight overlap here with validity of data, which is
discussed next,

Validity
Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the research
results. In other words, validity is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the
data actually represent the phenomenon under study. Validity, therefore, has to do with how
accurately the data obtained in the study represents the variables of the study.
if such data is true reflection of the variable s, then inferences based on such data will be
accurate and meaningful, for example , accurate inference could be made about people’s driving
experience if data regarding the number of accident each driver has caused over a period of ten
years are obtained. However, we cannot use such data to make inferences about the drivers’

38
ability to operate other machinery such as lathe machines. It should be noted that validity is a
matter of degree: no data can have perfect validity.
Validity is largely determined by the presence or absence of systematic error in data.
Systematic error, also referred to as non random error, has a consistent boosting effect on the
measuring instrument. For example, if a researcher uses a faulty scale to measuring instrument.
For example, if a researcher uses a faulty scale to measure the weight of rats, the scale may
overestimate the weights of the rats by a few grams, such as error is non- random: the obtained
readings are either always above or always below the true scores i.e. Always in one direction.

Factors affecting internal validity

An internal validity is one where the outcomes of importance are a result of the variables
manipulated by the researcher.
a) Proactive History
This is all the differences the subjects bring with them in the investigation. This is
controlled by random selection of subjects and random assignment to groups.
b) Retroactive History.
Certain events may occur during the time the study is conducted that may influence
the behavior of the subjects involved. Rectroactive history is of concern to
researchers conducting long-term investigations.
c) Maturation
Development differences in subjects during the course of research study can affect
internal validity. The use of control group is the best way to deal with the influences
of maturation.
d) Testing
Testing plays an important role in many research studies. A pre-test is often used to
measure performance level before some special training. A post-test follows training
to determine if it had any effects.
For a study to be internally valid, the researcher must find ways to ensure the training
and not pre-test was responsible for the difference in performance following training.
e) Investigators Bias
Experimentor or investigator bias is an issue of great concern in research today. The
expectations of even the most conscientious experimentor may
unintentionally influence the results of the study. One way of controlling such a bias
is through double blind control procedure where neither the individual collecting the
data nor the subject participating in the study ia aware of the hypotheses or expected
outcomes.
f) Attrition
Subjects from certain groups in a research study. Subjects may be lost for a variety of
reasons. If the loss is particularly great for a certain group, the internal validity may
be reduced.

39
  SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the whole question of data collection. Six major and
widely used instruments of data collection were identified and discussed at length.
These are: questionnaire, interview schedule, observation schedule, focus group
discussion guidelins, content anslysis guide, and tests. We went on to explain the
characteristics, use and advantages of these data collection instruments. For instance,
we noted that there are different kinds of questions in a questionnaires such as
demographic, opinion, attitude, self-perception, and information questions.
Questionnaires can also be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. We also
distinguished between participatory and non-participatory observation and explained
the advantages and disadvantages of each. The manner of administering different data
collection instruments was explained and the unit ended with an explanation of the
significance of reliability and validity on research.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 What is the importance of editing research instruments?
 Explain the reasons for piloting a questionnaire.

40
  Giving appropriate examples discuss steps followed in constructing the following
instruments:
i. Questionnaire
ii. Checklist
iii. Interview Guide
iv. Discuss the methods of establish reliability of measurement, outlining the
weakness and strengths of each method.
v. Using appropriate examples, discuss the factors that affect internal
validity.

FURTHER READING
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:
Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC SIX

 OBJECTIVES:
 Written Report
The final stage in the research process is the preparation of research report
 Writing a report

 An overview
A research report is a question-answering or problem-solving document. A research report
informs the reader of the problem the researcher initially set out to investigate, the method of
investigation used and the researcher’s findings. The report should present data fully and
adequately, it should include accurate interpretation of the analyses of such data and should
relate findings back to the objectives, hypotheses or research questions. A research report must
therefore be formal, precise and economical. The report must also be consistent, with an orderly
flow of ideas from the beginning of the document to the end. In addition, various sections of the
document, such as main headings and sub-headings, must he well co-coordinated, often in a
linear progression. For guidance, it is important that a writer consults the relevant report writing
manuals, for example, the American Psychological Association Manual, donors’ formats and
institutional formats.
A well-written research report comprises a number of distinct sections or components. Table 11
gives a checklist of the various components that a researcher should include in a research report.
Each section is then briefly described.

41
Title
The title of the research report should be short and simple yet informative. The title serves two
main functions: (1) It gives the reader some initial information about the area of research the
report has covered and it is therefore a pointer to the content of the report. The title should also
give an indication of the major variables of the research, the target population and if possible the
geographical location of the research. (2) It is used for indexing once the document becomes
official. Other researchers interested in reading your research report may use the title to search
for the report in a library or documentation centre. A misleading title may therefore make it
difficult for other researchers or persons interested in reading your report to locate it easily,
however good the study may be.

Table 11: Checklist of the major components of a research report

Comments
1 Title Must be included
2 Dedication Optional
3 Abstract Advisable to included
4 Table of contents Must be included
5 List of tables Must be included
6 List of figures Includes maps, diagrams and photographs
7 List of abbreviations and acronyms Must be included
8 Executive summary Advisable to include
9 Introduction Must be included
10 Literature review Must be included but some reports
integrate it with introduction.
11 Methodology Must be included
12 Results and discussion Must be included
13 Summary, conclusions and recommendations Must be included
14 References Must be included
15 Acknowledgements Could come before the table of contents
16 Appendices May include tables, instruments use din
collecting data, letters of consent, copy of
the research permit, etc.

Dedication
Some authors of research reports dedicate their work to a person or per sons whom they deem
special in their lives. Such persons may be a spouse, children, parents or very dear friends.
Dedications are especially common in masters thesis or doctoral dissertations. A dedication is
basically a statement such as “to my children: Juma, Fatuma and Odhiambo”. Sometimes, the
author may give a reason for the dedication, for example. “to Osike, for her years of friendship.”

Abstract
An abstract contains the meat of the research report. It is therefore a reflection of the salient
findings of the research study. An abstract should be placed at the front of the report preferably
after the dedication, but on a separate page. A good abstract presents the reader with the purpose
42
of the study, the population studied, the major results and conclusion of the study. An abstract
should not be more than half a page long. For an example of an abstract, see Appendix I.

Table of contents

A table of contents is like a map that guides the readers in locating various sections of the
research report. A table of contents contains the chapter headings, main headings and
subheadings and the corresponding page of’ each in the body of the document. A table of
contents helps the reader to locate the desired sections quickly and easily.
List of tables

A researcher uses tables to summarize information in a logical format or sequence. For example,
a researcher may wish to summarize the educational levels of various age cohorts in a frequency
table. The information in a table needs not be quantitative qualitative information can also be
summarized in a table.
A list of tables follows the same format as the table of contents. The number and title of each
table appearing in the body of the report s listed together with the corresponding page number.
The list of tables section helps a reader to trace a particular table faster.
List of figures

A figure is any pictorial representation used to clarify specific points in a discussion. Examples
of figures commonly used in research reports are graphs, charts, diagrams and photographs. The
researcher should include a list of all figures that appear in the body of the report. This list
should clearly give the number and title of the figure and the page number on ‘which the figure is
located in the report.

List of abbreviations and acronyms

In some research reports, abbreviations and acronyms are used, especially when a word or a
group of words is repeated several times in the document. An abbreviation is a short form of a
word. An example is Dr. for “Doctor” or hrs. for “hours”. An acronym is a contraction formed
by taking the first letter of several words. Examples of acronyms are FAQ for “Food and
Agriculture Organization” or GOK for “Government of Kenya”.

The researcher should give a list of all abbreviations and acronyms used in a report and explain
in full what each abbreviation or acronym stands for. Abbreviations and acronyms are not
appropriate in formal writing and should be used only when necessary. It is always advisable to
write the word or words in full. The following are pointers on the use of abbreviations.

•When using acronyms, write in full the first time that the phrase is used. Thereafter, use the
acronym.
 Do not abbreviate military, religious and political titles.
 Abbreviate units of measurement only when they are used often in a report.
 For example “km” for kilometres or “yrs.” for years.
43
  Use only those abbreviations that your audience will understand.
 Do not abbreviate days of the week or months.
 Abbreviate time designations only when they are used with actual time, for example, 4.30
p.m.

Executive summary
An executive summary is a short version or summary or the research report. The summary
provides readers with a concise and accurate picture of the entire document. The executive
summary is an economical way of communicating one’s research report. It saves time and
energy for readers who do not have time to read the entire report. In this regard, the executive
summary must provide the salient points from all the major components of the research report.
A good executive summary begins with a clear and brief statement of time problem. Details from
the body of the report are then presented in brief and the summary ends with conclusions and
recommendations. The use of bullets and bolded subheadings helps to make the summary reader-
friendly. Researchers should avoid use of technical terms in the executive summary. Therefore in
meaning, as well as in style, an executive summary should stand alone as a self-contained and
easy-to-understand message. Readers should only have to read the entire report for a closer view
but definitely not to make sense out of one’s summary.
Introduction
The introduction to a research report has several components that include the background of the
study, the problem statement, objectives, hypotheses or research questions and limitations of the
study. The major role of the introduction section is to outline the gap or gaps that exist in the area
of study and present the rationale of the study. This leads to the statement of the problem. The
researcher should quote existing studies and theories to support the problem statement. Since
there is a section in the research report that deals with previous studies, literature cited in this
part of the document should he limited to the most relevant and current.

Literature review
Review of related literature is very important because it provides the needed support to the
researcher’s rationale for undertaking research in a certain area. A literature review is a
researcher’s critique of findings from other studies done in related areas. The critique should
include an assessment of the methodologies used in these studies, theoretical or conceptual
frameworks and the relationships or differences between the researcher’s study and the studies
reviewed.
The most critical aspect of reviewing the literature on the subject is the clear and systematic
analysis of existing studies that a researcher must engage in to identify the missing gaps in a
specific area of study and hence justify the need for another study. This exercise also assists the
researcher in making a strong case for the study’s objectives, research questions or hypotheses.
Literature review should be relevant to the topic. How broad the review ought to be depends on
the degree to which a specific area has been studied. All the studies referred to in the literature
review section must be well referenced.
Methodology
The methodology section gives details regarding the procedures used in conducting the study.
Pertinent issues discussed in this section include the population, sample and sampling
techniques, the research design, a description of instruments or tools used to collect data, the
44
measurement of variables and the techniques to be used in analyzing data. If hypotheses are to he
tested, the researcher must state the level of significance to be used in such tests.

The most important point to bear in mind when writing the methods’ section of your report is
that the details given regarding the procedures used in conducting the study should be precise
enough to enable other researchers to replicate your study.

Results and discussion

The main purpose of the results and discussion section is to present the results of the data
analysis in a systematic way. If the study is empirical in nature, the researcher uses statistics to
summarize the results and to make generalizations on the population. The use of computers and
statistical packages has made data analysis, easier and faster.

The basic principle in presenting results is to give all the evidence relevant to the research
objectives and questions, if any. In quantitative research, the researcher is sometimes expected to
test hypotheses. In such cases, the researcher should address all the hypotheses posed in the
introduction chapter and give the results of such tests, stating whether each hypothesis is
supported by the data or not. It should be borne in mind that a statistical test is done on the null
hypothesis and the research hypothesis is supported by the data only when the null hypothesis is
rejected at the significance level initially stated by the researcher in the methodology section.
When writing the results and discussion section of the report, it is advisable to start with a short
introduction that describes the general procedures followed in analyzing the data. It is also
important to state the objectives or the hypotheses of the study. The following are pointers on
writing the results and discussion section of a research report:

• Present the descriptive results of your analysis first. Descriptive statistics describe your
sample in summary form, which may include frequencies and percentages, means, medians,
modes, standard deviations, correlations etc. These statistics should he presented in tables to
make the document user-friendly.
• The researcher should then present the results of the hypotheses tests, if any. Hypotheses
tests should inform the reader whether findings can be generalized to the target population.
• It may not be possible to present every result of the analyses. The researcher therefore
selects the most important findings for reporting. In any case, analyses should be guided by
the study’s objectives or hypotheses as stated in the introduction chapter.
• Not every result or table generated in the course of the analyses is presented in the report.
Again, objectives and hypotheses of the study should guide the researcher in selecting the
most important tables to include and discuss in the report. All tables included in the report
should be numbered systematically and given appropriate titles. Tables should be appealing,
informative and easy to read. Discussion based on the information contained in a table should
be placed either immediately before or immediately after the table.
• Graphs, charts and other visual presentations of the data should be included in the results and
discussion section of the report if they add value to the content. Sometimes, tables and other
graphic representations of the data arc placed in the appendices. This is often the case in
journal papers.

45
• It is extremely important for the researcher to point out whether findings are supported by
other studies discussed in the literature review section. When findings contradict other
studies, it is also important for the researcher to point this out giving possible reasons for
such an outcome. For example, contradictions may be due to differences in methodologies,
Populations studied or sample sizes between the researcher’s study and previous studies.
The findings of the study should also be tied to the theoretical framework, if such a
framework is identified and explained in the introduction or literature review sections. This
however, cannot be done in a theoretical studies.
The discussion section of the report therefore conveys the meaning of findings to the reader
and provides an important linkage to other sections or components of the report such as
objectives, hypotheses, research questions or theoretical frameworks and existing literature.

Summary, Conclusion and recommendations

In this section of the report, the researcher has the opportunity to summarize the study
undertaken, to conclude and make recommendations based on the study findings. The summary
reminds and informs the reader about the purpose of the study, the process used to collect and
analyze data and the major findings of the study. A summary must reflect as accurately as
possible the body of one’s report.
As Lannon2 puts it, the conclusion “culminates” your research report. The conclusion is of
utmost importance to your readers because it answers the questions that sparked the collection
and analysis of the data in the first place. In concluding your report, it is important to discuss the
practical application and implications of your findings in the real world. Although you are
supposed to have interpreted evidence at every step of your analysis, your conclusions pull the
strands together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action, where appropriate.
Such implications are usually targeted to stakeholders. For example, a study on primary school
drop-outs should discuss the implications of the study to education policy makers (e.g., is there a
need to change policies?), teachers (e.g. is there a need to change teaching methods or the
curriculum?) and students (e.g., is there ii need to provide students with counseling services and
interventions to boost their morale?).
Your summary and Conclusions should lead logically to your recommendations.
Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the study, its objectives, the evidence
presented by the data and the interpretations given. Recomrnendations should be practical and
achievable.
For example. It is not practical to recommend that all students in public universities be provided
with computers to make them computer literate because such a recommendation would require a
lot of money, which is simply unavailable.
Common recommendations that researchers often make include:
 Areas of further research, emphasizing the questions in the study that remain unanswered and
therefore ought to be explored further.

46
 Methodological issues that could be addressed and refined to improve future research in that
area of study.
 Actions that should be taken to address the problem based on the research findings. Solving
specific problems could involve designing and implementing an intervention or project. For
example, a counseling programme could be initiated in secondary schools to reduce dropout
rate and frequent student strikes or riots in Kenya
References
In writing a research report, a researcher relies heavily on published or unpublished documents
that bear some relationship to the researcher’s area of study. The researcher should give credit to
authors of any work or materials quoted from or referred to by listing them.
There are several formats or styles of referencing documents used in a research report. The
American Psychological Association Manual is a good example of a referencing style.
Acknowledgements
The research process takes a lot of time, money and energy. During the study, a researcher may
require help from other individuals such as professional colleagues, respondents, research
assistants, etc. The researcher may also seek materials or information relating to the stated area
of research front institutions or originations. It is therefore only a matter of courtesy for the
researcher to acknowledge the help received from various individuals, institutions or
organizations. Because it ma he impossible to name all the people that contribute in one way or
another to the research, it is important to mention only a few individuals by name to keep the
acknowledgement section as short as possible.
Appendices
The appendix Section of the report contains information that the researcher does not deem
necessary to include in the body of the report. Most of the time, such information makes the
report unnecessarily long without adding much value to the content of the document However,
the reader may use such information as reference material to clarify some statements appearing
in the body of the report.
Instruments used in collecting data, statistical tables from data analyses correspondence related
to the study such as letters of respondents’ consent to participate in the study and letters of
approval to conduct research arc examples of the type of information that may be included in
appendices It is advisable to include a copy of the research permit and the terms of reference, if
any.

Further Readings
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:
Routledge Falmer.
47
Gay L.R., (1996). Educational Research Competence for Analysis and Application. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kertinger, F.N. & Howard, B.L. (2000). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York
Harcourt College Publishers.
Mason, E.J. and Bramble W., (1997). Research in Educational. Dubuque: Brown &
Benchmark. Meredith, D.G., W.R.B. and Gall, J.P., (1996). Educational Research. While
Plains, N.Y: Longmans.
Mertens, D.M., (1998). Research Methods in Education and Psychology. Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications.
Ogula, P.A. (1998). A Handbook of Educational Research Nairobi: New Kermit.
Orodho, A. J (2003) statistics made user friendly for Education and Social Science
Research. Masola Publishers
Wamahiu, S. P; Karagu, A. K. and Mwiria, K. (1996). Qualitative Resaerch in Education.
issues Education Research in Africa. Nairobi. East Africa Publishers

SAMPLE CONTINOUS TASKS (CATS)

SAMPLE CAT PAPER

Mt Kenya University

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME
UNIT CODE: CCU 213
TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS
SAMPLE CAT 1 (30mks)

48
  Give four reasons for sampling 4 mks
 List two basic ways of sampling 2 mks
 Briefly describe judgment sampling 4 mks
 Explain two situations when it is advisable to use cluster sampling 2 mks
 Briefly explain four criteria for a good scientific hypothesis 8 mks
.
 Briefly explain the five stages in the research process 10 mks

SAMPLE PAST PAPER

Mt Kenya University

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
END OF SEMESTER UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION
DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME
UNIT CODE: CCU 213
TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS
Time: 2 Hours

Answer Question one and any other two questions.

1
i) a) Briefly explain the following;
ii)Variable 2marks
iii)
Data 2marks
iv)Objectives
2marks
v) Problem 2marks
b) Name the two approaches of research design and give two features of each approach.
8marks

49
 c) List down three purpose of a research proposal.
3marks
d) Briefly explain the following;
i) Qualitative research paradigm.
3marks
ii) Case study 2marks
iii) Experimental design.
2marks
e) Differentiate between;
i) Reliability and validity.
4marks
ii) External and Internal validity.
4marks
2. Describe the process of qualitative research.
20marks
3. Describe how a survey design could be used in a study of your choice.
20marks
4. “Literature review is very important in research”, substantiate this statement.
20marks
5. You have been sponsored to undertake research on HIV/AIDS patients at all district
hospitals in Kenya.
a) Discuss five (5) logical issues you would consider.
10marks
b) Discuss five (5) ethical considerations you would bear in mind.
10marks

50