Electromagnetic Theory (EMT)

BY VTU Academy (on YouTube)

Watch Full Video Lectures, Click Here –
✔️ All 5 Modules Explained

✔️ Model Paper – 1,2 Solution Explained

✔️ Important Questions Explained

✔️ Module wise PDF Notes

✔️ Passing package
 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

MODULE-4
MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS
If the current distribution is known, then we can easily determine, H, B and A at ever
point in space.
In this unit, we are going to determine the forces and torque exerted by the magnetic field
on the other charges.
The electric filed causes a force to be exerted on a charge which may be either stationary
or in motion.
We are going to study that steady magnetic field is capable of exerting a force only on a
moving charges.
A magnetic field may be produced by moving charges and may exert forces on moving
charge; a magnetic field cannot arise from stationary charges and cannot exert any force
on a stationary charge.
The problems associated with the motion of particles in a vacuum are largely avoided.

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE.

From the electric field intensity we have

F
E=
Q

Or force on charge particle is given as

F = QE --------------------------------------------- 1

The force is in the same direction as the electric field intensity (for a positive charge) and
is directly proportional to both E and Q.

If the charge is in motion then force at any point in its trajectory is given by equation 1.
i.e

F = QE --------------------------------------------- 1

A charge particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B; experience a force whose
magnitude is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charge, its velocity 𝑣, and the
flux density B and sine of the angle between the vector 𝑣 and B. the direction of the force is
perpendicular to both 𝑣 and B. and is given by a unit vector in the direction of 𝑣 x B is given as

F = Q 𝑣 Bsin 𝜃

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 1

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

∴ F = Q (𝑣 x B)---------------------------------------- 2

The fore on a moving particle is arising from both electric field and magnetic field and
the expression is obtained by superposition theorem and is given by adding equation 1 and
equation 2

F = QE + Q (𝑣 x B)

∴ F = Q (E + 𝒗 x B) ------------------------------------ 3

The above equation 3 is called LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION.

LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION and its solution has some applications such as

1. It is used in determine electron orbit in the magnetron

2. Proton path in the cyclotron
3. Plasma characteristics in a magneto hydrodynamics (MHD).

FORCE ON DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT ELEMENT.

The conventional current density J can be represented in term of the velocity of the volume
charge density and is given by

J = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣-------------------------------- 1

The force exerted on a differential element of charge dQ moving in a steady magnetic field is
given by

dF = dQ (𝑣 x B) ---------------------- 2

But we have,
𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣

 dQ = 𝜌𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ------------------------- 3

Substitute equation 3 in equation 2 we get

dF =𝜌𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 (𝑣 x B) ----------------- 4

but from equation 1, above equation can be simplified as

dF = J x B ∙ 𝑑𝑣 ----------------------- 5

the relationship between current element is given by

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 2

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = k ds = I dl ------------------ 6

∴ Lorentz force equation applied to surface current density is given by

dF = K x B ∙ 𝑑𝑠 ---------------------- 7

∴ Lorentz force equation applied to differential current element is given by

dF = Idl x B -------------------------- 8

Integrating the equations 5, equation 7 and equation 8 we get

F=∮
𝑣
F J x B ∙ 𝑑𝑣

= ∮𝑠 K x B ∙ 𝑑𝑠

F = ∮ Idl x B or - ∮ IB x dl

If the conductor is straight and the field B is uniform along it, then

F = Idl x B = ILBsin 𝜃

Where θ is the angle between the vector representing the direction of the current flow and the
direction of the magnetic flux density.

FORCE BETWEEN DIFERENTIAL CURRENT ELEMENTS:

The concept of the magnetic field was introduced to break into

two parts, the problem of finding the interaction of one current
(element) distribution on a second current distribution.

Let us consider two current carrying conductors are placed

parallel to each other, such that each conductor produces its own
flux around it, due to which there exists a force of attraction or
repulsion depending upon the direction of current on the
conductor.

 If the direction of the both the currents are same, then the
conductors experience a force attraction as shown in the
figure (a).
 If the direction of the both the currents are opposite to
each other, then the conductors experience force
repulsion as shown in the figure (b).

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 3

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

 Let us consider two current elements 𝐼1dl1 and 𝐼2dl2 as shown in the figure (c).
 Note the direction of current 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are same.
 Since the current is in the same direction, the force of attraction is as shown in figure (c).

From the equation of force, the force exerted on a differential current element is given by,

d(dF1) = 𝐼1dl1 × dB2------------------------------------------------ 1

But from BIOT-SAVART LAW

I2dl2×aR21
dB2 = μ0 dH2 = μ0 4πR212
------2

Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get

𝐼1dl1×(I2dl2×aR21)
d(dF1 ) = μ0 4πR212

Integrating above equation twice, we get

F = μ0I1I2 ∮ ∮ dl1×(dl2×aR21) ------3

1 4π L1 L2 R212

Similarly we get

F = μ0I1I2 ∮ ∮ dl2×(dl1×aR12) ------4

2 4π L1 L2 R122

From the above equations (3) and (4) are opposite to each other

i.e. F1 = −F2 or F2 = −F1 ----------------------------------------- 5

Thus from above we see that it obeys Newton’s third law, i.e. for every action there is equal and
opposite reaction.

∴ For the two current carrying conductors of length L each, the force exerted is given by
𝛍𝐈𝟏𝐈𝟐𝑳
𝐅=
𝟐𝛑𝐝

Where I1 and I2 are the current flowing through conductor 1 and conductor 2 and d is the
distance of separation between two conductors.

MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

The conditions of the magnetic field existing at the boundary of the two media when the
magnetic field passes from one medium to other are called boundary conditions.

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 4

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

Figure below shows a boundary between two isotropic homogeneous linear materials with
permeability μ1 and μ2.

To study the boundary conditions let us consider two cases.

1. Normal to the boundary.

2. Tangential to the boundary.

Boundary conditions for normal component:

To find the normal component of B, let us select a closed Gaussian surface in the form of a right
circular cylinder as shown in figure.

Let the height of the cylinder be ∆h and be placed in such a way that ∆h is in medium1 and
2
remaining ∆h is in medium2, and axis of the cylinder is in the normal direction to the surface.
2

But Gauss’s law for magnetic field is,

∮sB∙ds = 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1

⇨ L.H.S. is given by

∮sB∙ds = ∮topB∙ds + ∮bottomB∙ds + ∮lateralB∙ds =0 ---------------- 2

To calculate the boundary conditions let ∆h = 0 then surface integral is calculated for top and
bottom surface only.

Since these surfaces are very small. Let the magnitude of normal component of B be BN1 and BN2
in medium1 and medium2 respectively.

∴ ∮topB∙ds = BN1 ∮topds = BN1∙ ∆s ------------------------------ 3

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 5

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

Similarly, ∮bottomB∙ds = BN2 ∮bottomds = BN2∙ ∆s ---------------------- 4

∮lateralB∙ds =0 ⇨ ∆h = 0

But from figure, normal component is entering medium1 and leaving the medium2 so BN1
and BN2 are opposite to each other. Then equation2 becomes,

∴ BN1∙ ∆s − BN2∙ ∆s = 0

⇨ ∆s BN1 = ∆s BN2

⇨ BN1 = BN2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

Thus the normal component of B is continuous at boundary.

But B = μH ⇨ equation (5) can be written as,

⇨ μ1HN1 = μ2HN2
𝐻𝙽1 μ
⇨ H𝙽2
= μ2
1

𝑯𝐍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝐫𝟐
∴ 𝐇𝐍𝟐
= 𝛍𝐫𝟏
𝛍𝟏

∴ Normal component of H is not continuous at the boundary.

i.e. Field strength in two media are inversely proportional to their relative permeability.

Boundary conditions for tangential component:

From Ampere’s circuital law we have,

∮H∙dl = I -------------------------------------------------------------------1

Consider rectangular path a-b-c-d-a as shown in the figure, which is placed in a plane normal to
the boundary surface, then equation(1) can be written as,
b 1 c d 2 a
∮ H ∙ dl = ∮a H ∙ dl + ∮b H ∙ dl ∮1 H ∙ dl + ∮c H ∙ dl ∮d H ∙ dl + ∮2 H ∙ dl = I -------------- 2

From the figure it is clear that, closed path is placed in such a way that its two sides a-b and c-d
are parallel to the tangential direction to the surface while the other two sides are normal to the
surface at the boundary.

 This closed path is placed in such a way that half of its portion is in medium1 and
remaining is in medium2.

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 6

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

From the figure it is clear that the normal and the tangential components in medium1 and
medim2 are in opposite direction and equation(2) can be written as,
∆h ∆h
K ∙ dw = H (∆w) + H ∆h (∆w) − H ∆h -------------------
3
tan1 N1 ( 2 ) + HN2 ( 2 ) − Htan2 N2 ( 2 ) − HN1 ( 2 )

At boundary condition ∆h = 0

⇨ K ∙ dw = Htan1(∆w) − Htan2(∆w)

⇨ K = Htan1 − Htan2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

In vector form above equation can be expressed as,

Htan1 − Htan2 = aN12 × K ----------------------------------------------5

Where aN12 is the unit vector in the direction normal at the boundary from medium1 to
medium2, where K ⇨ surface current density.

But B = μH

Bta𝚗1 Bta𝚗2
⇨ − =K
μ1 μ2

 Consider a special case with current at the boundary, then

Htan1 = Htan2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 6

Bta𝚗1 Bta𝚗2
OR =
μ1 μ2

Bta𝚗1 μ1
− ------ 7
Bta𝚗2 μ2

From equation (6) the tangential component of H are continuous in nature.

And from equation (7) B are discontinuous at the boundary, with the condition that the boundary
is current free.

Let us consider the field makes an angle α1 and α2 with normal to the interface as shown in the
figure. Then,

In medium1,
Bta𝚗1
tan α1 = B𝙽1
------ 8

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 7

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

In medium2,
Bta𝚗2
tan α2 = B𝙽2
- ---- 9

Dividing equation (8) and equation (9), we get

tan 𝝰1 Bta𝚗1 B
= ∙ B 𝙽2
tan 𝝰2 B𝙽1 ta𝚗2

Since BN1 = BN2

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂𝟏 𝐁 𝛍𝐫𝟏
⇨ = 𝐁𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟏 = 𝛍𝐫𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS:

In magnetic circuits, we determine the magnetic fluxes and magnetic

field intensities in various parts of the circuits. If we study the analogy
between the electric and magnetic circuits, then it becomes very easy
for us to understand the magnetic circuit.

Let us study analogy between the electric and magnetic circuits. An

electric circuit with closed path form a circuit similar to these magnetic
lines of flux is continuous and can form closed path.

So a single magnetic line of flux or all parallel magnetic lines of flux

may be considered as magnetic circuit.

Similar to electromotive force (e.m.f) in an electronic circuit, we can

define a new quantity in case of a magnetic circuit called magneto
motive force (m.m.f). The magneto motive force is defined as,

em = NI = ∫ H ∙ dl

S. I. unit of m.m.f is Ampere (A).

Generally in magnetic circuits, the source of m.m.f is a coil carrying

conductors with N number of turns as shown in the figure (c).

∴ m.m.f is measured in Ampere-turn (A-t).

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 8

 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

In electronic circuits we have R = V

I

Similarly analogically in magnetic field reluctance is the ratio of the magneto motive force to the
total flux.

⇨ reluctance is measured in Ampere−turn

weber

The resistance in electric circuit can be expressed in terms of conductivity σ as,

1
=
𝑠

l ⇨ length, s ⇨ cross section, σ ⇨ conductivity of the linear isotropic homogeneous material. In case of
magnetic circuits, we can define reluctance in very much similar way as,

1
=
𝑠
where μ ⇨ permeability.

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT M4-Page 9

 ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY (BEC401)
MODULE-5

TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

In this unit, we will introduce two new concepts, i.e

 The electric field is produced by changing magnetic field and
 The magnetic field is produced by changing electric field.
These topics were researched by a person called Michel Faraday, and it was proved by Maxwell.
FARADAY’S LAW:-
Faraday introduces the concept i.e. a current could produce a magnetic field, then the magnetic
field should be able to produce a current.
We now say that time varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (e.m.f),
which may establish a current in a suitable closed path.
This e.m.f is merely a voltage that arises from conductor moving in a magnetic field or
from changing magnetic field.
Faraday discovered that the induced e.m.f is equal to the rate of change of flux (magnetic
flux).

i.e e.m.f = - Volts -------1

A non-zero value of may result from any of the following situation.

* A time changing flux linking a stationary closed path.
* Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed path.
* A combination of two.
The minus sign is an indication that the e.m.f. induced is in such a direction that produces
a current whose flux if added to the original flux, would reduce the magnitude of the e.m.f.
This statement that the induced voltage acts to produce an opposing flux is known as
LENZ’S LAW.
If the closed path is that taken by a N-turn filamentary conductor then e.m.f is

e.m.f = - N -------2

where is now interpreted as the flux passing through any one of N co-incident path.
Since the induced e.m.f is obviously a scalar, and is measured in volts then we define

MAHADEV S, [Link], ECE, DEPARTMENT MODULE-5-Page 1