Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Water is without doubt the most frequent and most important substance on Earth. Figure 1.1 shows
an overview of the hydrologic cycle, which is essentially a summary of all the flow and storages of
water on the planet. Some interesting facts are:

• 96.5% of the water is in the oceans.

• Less than 1 one hundred thousandth is in the atmosphere.

• Sweet water: 2/3 is polar ice, 0.006% is in rivers, 0.003% is in biologic water.

• 60% of the precipitation is partitioned into evapotranspiration, the rest into river discharge.

• Evaporation of the oceans leads to 90% of the atmospheric water.

• Oceans evaporate more water than they receive precipitation, continents vice versa. This is
balanced by the discharge from the continents.

This unit will focus on water in its fluid state. More specifically, the unit focuses on the fundamen-
tals of hydraulics. The first broad topic is hydrostatics, which is the physics of fluids that are not in
motion. Using these principles, the design of dams and gates will be studied. After this, the con-
tinuity, momentum, and energy equations are discussed, based on which pressurised pipelines can
be designed. Flow in open channels will then be introduced, and applied to waterways, aqueducts
and partially full pipes. Using these principles, spillways and culverts can be designed. However,
before starting these topics, it is important to understand a number of essential fluid properties, and
the basics of hydrostatic pressure.

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 Figure 1.1: The hydrologic cycle ([Link]

1.2 Fluids

1.2.1 Definitions

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by a shearing stress of
any magnitude. Figure 1.2 further explains this. Imagine a fixed plate, with a layer of fluid on
it, and above the fluid another plate. If a force is exerted onto the top plate, the plate will begin
to move. This will lead to a velocity profile as shown in Figure 1.2, with the fluid having a zero
velocity at the bottom plate, and its highest velocity at the top plate. The fluid will thus not move
at the bottom plate, and have moved the largest distance at the top plate. The exact shape of the
velocity profile will be further discussed in Chapter 4.

The shear stress is the component of the stress parallel to the surface of the material:
F
τ= (1.1)
A
It arises from the shear force, the component of a force vector parallel to the material surface.

When describing the motion of water, in theory the motion of each molecule of interest should be
analyzed. However, the size of a water molecule is approximately 2.75·10−10 m, and at normal
pressure and temperature the spacing between the molecules is approximately 10−10 m, which

3
 Figure 1.2: Shear stress acting on a fluid.

Figure 1.3: The continuum hypothesis.

implies that a typical volume of water will contain a very large number of molecules. It thus
becomes unrealistic to describe the motion of each molecule. For this reason, we employ the
continuum hypothesis and consider water to consist of fluid particles that interact with each other
and their surroundings.

The left hand side panel of Figure 1.3 further explains this hypothesis. Imagine a very small cube
in which there is a fluid. There are only a few molecules in this space. If you increase the size of
this cube, you will also increase the number of molecules in this space. You want to measure the
temperature in this volume, and the temperature depends on the movement of the molecules. As
you change the size of the cube, the temperature will change. This will happen until the size of
the cube reaches are certain value. As you then increase the size of the cube, the temperature will
remain constant, until the size of the cube reaches another value. After this value, because of the

4
macroscale effect of larger volumes, the temperature will slightly increase if the volume increases.
This effect defines the microscale and the macroscale. At the microscale, the temperature varies
unpredictably as you increase the size of the cube. At the macroscale the temperature will increase
as you increase the size of the cube. In between, there is a scale in which the temperature of the
fluid will not depend on the scale of the volume.

The right hand side of Figure 1.3 provides a further explanation. We will divide the space in the
volume into very small spaces, which contain fluid molecules, and which we refer to as particles.
The particles are large enough to avoid the microscale effects, and small enough to have a uniform
temperature. The fluid thus consists of a continuum of particles that interact with each other and
with their surroundings. Each particle will have a certain position, velocity, temperature, pressure,
viscosity (see section 1.2.2), etc. We will describe the properties of these particles as a function
of space and time. This hypothesis makes the description of the flow of the fluid mathematically
feasible.

1.2.2 Fluid Properties

Heaviness

As stated above, we will analyze the properties of fluid particles. A first property is the density
(ρ), which is defined as the mass of the fluid per unit of volume. The SI units of density are
thus kg·m−3 . Figure 1.4 shows the relationship between the density of water and its temperature.
Everybody knows that pure water is solid (ice) at a temperature below 0◦ C. As the temperature
decreases, the density slightly increases, which means that a certain volume of ice becomes slightly
heavier with decreasing temperature. On the other hand, above 0◦ C water becomes fluid, and its
density shows a sharp increase. It has to be clearly stated that water is the only substance that has
an increase in density when it transitions from solid to fluid. In other words, a certain volume of
ice is lighter than the same volume of water. This allows the formation of icebergs.

A simple calculation can then be used to estimate the fraction of the iceberg that is above and below
water. The density of seawater is roughly 1030 kg·m−3 , while the density of sea ice is roughly 917
kg·m−3 . Assume a body of ice of 1 m3 . The mass of this body of ice is thus 1030 kg. In Chapter
2 the buoyancy force will be discussed, which is the same as the law of Archimedes: an immersed
volume will be subject to an upwards (buoyant) force that is equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid. Assume V the volume of the iceberg under water, and V ′ the volume of the iceberg above

5
 Figure 1.4: The density of water depending on the temperature.

water. We can thus write:

917(V + V ′ ) = 1030V (1.2)

The left hand side is the mass of the entire iceberg, the right hand side is the mass of the displaced
seawater. Some simple rearrangement then leads to:

V′ 113
917V ′ = 113V ⇒ = ≈ 0.123 (1.3)
V 917
Thus more than 87% of the volume of the iceberg will be under water.

Water has its highest density at 4◦ C. This is another important property, which allows life in the
deep ocean. If this were not the case, and water would have its highest density at 0◦ C, the deep
oceans would be frozen because of the high water pressure.

A second property is the specific weight (γ), which is the weight of the fluid per unit of volume.
For water this is:
γ = ρ · g = 9810 Nm−3 (1.4)

Throughout this unit, we will ignore temperature effects on the density of water and will use the
value in Equation 1.4

6
 ρ ρ +Δ ρ

V V +Δ V

Figure 1.5: The compressibility of water.

A third property is the specific gravity (SG). This is the ratio of a substance to the density of water.
This is dimensionless and for water equal to 1.

Compressibility

Another important property of water is its compressibility. The left hand side of Figure 1.5 explains
this property. Assume we put 1000 cubes of 1 m3 water on top of each other. The weight of this
entire column will then be approximately 9800·1000≈107 N. The pressure (defined as the weight
of the volume per unit area, see Section 1.3) is then 107 Nm−2 .

We can then apply the definition of the bulk modulus of elasticity. As shown in the right hand
side of Figure 1.5, if you increase the pressure above a fluid by △p, the volume of the fluid can be
expected to reduce by △V . The bulk modulus of elasticity, which is a fluid property, is defined as:

△p
E=− (1.5)
△V
V

For water this is 2·109 Nm−2 . We can then apply Equation 1.5:

△V △p 107
= = = 0.5 · 10−2 = 0.5% (1.6)
V E 2 · 109
This leads to the very important conclusion that water can be assumed to be incompressible. In
other words, ρ can be assumed to be independent of the pressure, and thus constant. We will make
this assumption throughout the unit.

7
 Figure 1.6: Relationship between the shear stress and the velocity profiles for different fluids.

Viscosity

Viscosity is related to the “fluidity” of a fluid. If a fluid is in motion, two adjacent particles
exchange a pressure force (which is normal to the contact surface) because the particles will collide
with each other. Two adjacent particles will also exchange a shear stress (which can be described
as internal friction), because they will have a different velocity while moving alongside each other.

Viscosity is the property of fluids which results in resistance to shear deformation via cohesion and
interaction between fluid molecules. In other words, for a fluid with a high viscosity, if a force is
applied to the fluid, its shape will change less than a fluid with low viscosity. Viscosity can thus be
interpreted as “stickyness”, and the higher the viscosity of a fluid, the less it will change location
if a force is applied to it. Liquids such as oil, blood, milk, etc., thus have much higher viscosities
than water.

Figure 1.2 in Section 1.2.1 further explains this. Assume that you have two horizontal plates, with
a fluid in between. You move the top plate, which for a Newtonian fluid will result in a linear
velocity profile of the water. For a Newtonian fluid we can write:
P du
τ= =µ (1.7)
A dy

8
 Figure 1.7: Shear thickening and thinning.

µ is the viscosity of the fluid. Very importantly, water and oil are Newtonian fluids.

This means that, for a given force, the larger the viscosity, the less the plate will move. This can
be be explained by Equation 1.7. For a high value of µ, a certain shear stress τ will result in a
certain value for du/dy. However, if µ is low, the same shear stress τ will result in a larger value
for du/dy. As stated above, viscosity can thus be interpreted as the “stickiness” of the fluid.

It is also very important to note that viscosity can be defined in two different ways. The dynamic
viscosity of water at 15◦ C is:
µ = 1.13 · 10−3 Nsm−2 (1.8)
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the mass density. The kinematic
viscosity for water at 15◦ C is:
m
µ 1.13 · 10−3 Nsm −2 kg 2 sm−2
ν= = = 1.13 · 10−6 = 1.13 · 10−6 s −3 = 1.13 · 10−6 m2 s−1 (1.9)
ρ 1000 kg · m−3 kg · m
Figure 1.6 shows the relationship between the shear stress and the velocity profile (which deter-
mines the viscosity) for a couple of fluids. Since the same shear stress leads to a higher value of

9
 Figure 1.8: Pressure acting on a surface.

du/dy for water at 40◦ as compared to water at 20◦ , the viscosity of water is thus lower at 40◦ than
at 20◦ . Increasing the water temperature thus decreases its viscosity. This explains why it is better
to wash dishes with warm water.

Figure 1.7 explains the difference between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. As stated above,
for a Newtonian fluid, the relationship between the shear stress and the velocity profile is linear.
For a non-Newtonian fluid that is not the case. A deviation can be shear thinning: for an increase
in du/dy, the increase in the shear stress τ reduces. For shear thickening the opposite occurs.

1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure

1.3.1 Introduction

Another very important concept in hydraulics is pressure. The pressure is the normal force per
unit of area and thus has units of N·m−2 , which is defined as Pascal (Pa):
 
F N
p= = Pa (1.10)
A m2

Figure 1.8 further explains this definition. Imagine a tilted plane submerged in water. As we will
see later in this section, the pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth, and works at the
centroid of the plane. The consequence is that the pressure is independent of the orientation of the

10
 Figure 1.9: Pressure for various shapes.

plane if the fluid is in rest.

Figure 1.9 shows that the pressure will be constant on a horizontal plane. A number of various
shapes are all connected to the same reservoir of water. At a depth h the pressure will be the same
everywhere. This is consistent with the law of communicating vessels, which states that in con-
nected containers filled with a homogeneous fluid (thus the same fluid everywhere), the water level
in each of these containers will settle at the same level. Since the pressure in a fluid only depends on
the depth and density of the fluid, at a certain depth the pressure will be the same everywhere. This
is also shown in the youtube video [Link] which
shows that the water level is the same for various reservoir shapes.

1.3.2 The Pressure Diagram

The important question is then how we can calculate the pressure at a point of a fluid at rest. The
left hand side of Figure 1.10 shows the schematic of a tank, for which we will calculate the pressure
at the bottom. The right hand side of Figure 1.10 shows an overview of all the forces acting on the
tank, which we will call the control volume. In static conditions, the sum of all the forces acting
on the control volume is zero:
−→ −→ −→ − → − →
F 1 + Ww + Wa + F L + F R = 0 (1.11)
−
→ −→
The units of all these forces are N. F1 is the force acting on the bottom of the control volume, Ww
−→ −→
is the weight of the control volume Wa is the weight of the air above the control volume, and FL
−→
and FR are the forces acting on the left and right hand sides of the control volume, respectively. At
any depth, for a small area, the force against the wall on the left hand side will be:

dF = p · dA (1.12)

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 Figure 1.10: Calculation of the pressure at the bottom of a tank.

On the right hand side the force will have the same magnitude but the opposite direction. At any
other depth, the magnitude of the force will be different than at this specific depth, but the forces
−
→ − →
on the left and right hand side will balance each other. Thus FL + FR is equal to zero.

We will use the convention that an upward force is positive. This choice is arbitrary, but it is
important to note that a different convention will lead to the same result. The consequence is that
−
→ −→ −→
F1 will be positive and Ww and Wa will be negative. The balance of the forces thus becomes:
−
→ −→ −→
F 1 + Ww + Wa = 0 ⇒ p1 · A − mw · g − pa · A = 0 (1.13)

p1 is the pressure of the water and pa is the atmospheric pressure (Pa). mw is the mass of the water
(kg) and A the surface area of the tank (m2 ). The mass of the water is equal to the density ρ (in
kg·m−3 ) multiplied by the volume of the tank (in m3 ). The volume of the tank is simply its surface
area (A, m2 ) multiplied by the depth (za -z1 , in m). We can thus rearrange Equation 1.13 as:

p1 A − ρ · A(za − z1 ) · g − pa A = 0 (1.14)

This can be further simplified as:

p1 − ρ · (za − z1 ) · g − pa = 0 (1.15)

This can then finally be rewritten as:

p1 pa
+ z1 = + za (1.16)
ρg ρg

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 Figure 1.11: Calculation of the pressure at a generic point in the tank.

Figure 1.11 shows how we can use the same principle to calculate the pressure at a generic point
(depth) in the tank. The balance of the forces becomes:
→
− −→ −→
F = Ww + Wa (1.17)

This can be expanded as:

pA = mw g + paA = ρA(za − z)g + pa A (1.18)

Rearrangement then leads to:

p pa
z+ = za + (1.19)
ρg ρg
To summarize, we can write:
p1 pa
z1 + = za + , Bottom of the tank
ρg ρg (1.20)
p pa
z+ = za + , Anywhere in the tank
ρg ρg
This leads to the hydrostatic law: In a fluid at rest the sum of the elevation plus the pressure head
is constant. This can be written as:
p
z + = constant (1.21)
γ
Equation 1.21 also leads to a number of important definitions:

• z: The elevation head (m).

• p/γ: The pressure head (m).

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Figure 1.12: Left hand side: The linear increase of the pressure with the depth. Right hand side:
Absolute and gauge pressures.

• z + p/γ: The piezometric head (m).

The consequence of the hydrostatic law is that the pressure on a point in the fluid increases linearly
with depth:
p = γ(za − z) + pa (1.22)
The left hand side of Figure 1.12 shows a schematic of the linear increase of the pressure in the
tank with the depth.

This leads to an important convention when working with pressure. We know the atmospheric
pressure, and we also want to keep the calculations as simple as possible. In engineering it is
common practice to use the value of the pressure minus the atmospheric pressure. This is called
the gauge pressure, which is further explained in the right hand side of Figure 1.12. Pressure can
this be defined in two different ways:

• The absolute pressure:

pabs = γ(za − z) + pa (1.23)
This is what is shown in the left hand side of Figure 1.12, and the green line on the right
hand side of Figure 1.12.

• The gauge pressure:

pg = pabs − pa = γ(za − z) (1.24)
This is the red line shown in the right hand side of Figure 1.12.

In this unit, unless specified otherwise, we will use the gauge pressure.

14
 Figure 1.13: Difference in pressure between two depths.

It should be noted that this keeps the calculations easier. However, whichever of the two definitions
that are used, the results of all calculations will be the same, as long as the definitions are used
consistently.

There are a number of obvious properties of the gauge pressure:

• p = 0 when the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

• p > 0 when the pressure is larger than the atmospheric pressure.

• p < 0 when the pressure is smaller than the atmospheric pressure.

Throughout the unit, many calculations regarding pressure will be performed. To keep the calcula-
tions as simple as possible, it is usually a good idea to choose a surface at atmospheric pressure
as the reference for elevation. More specifically, we know that:

p = ρgh = γh (1.25)

Figure 1.13 further explains this concept. The pressure at any depth is equal to the specific weight
γ, multiplied with the depth, h, from the surface at which p=0. So we can write:

p2 = p1 + γ△h (1.26)

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Figure 1.14: Left hand side: the tank with two immiscible fluids. Right hand side: the pressure
diagram.

1.3.3 Exercise

The left hand side of Figure 1.14 shows a tank with two immiscible fluids one above the other.
We want to calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank, and also sketch the evolution of the
pressure with the depth in the tank (the pressure diagram). The specific gravities of the two fluids
are: (
SGA = 0.72
(1.27)
SGB = 2.36
First we calculate the pressure at location 1:

p1 = γA h1 = SA γh1 = 0.72 · 9810 · 1.7 = 12007.4 Nm−1 (1.28)

The pressure at location 2 is then:

p2 = p1 + γB h2 = SB γh2 = 12007.4 + 2.36 · 9810 · 0.3 = 18952.92 Nm−1 (1.29)

The right hand side of Figure 1.14 shows the pressure diagram.

1.4 Manometers

1.4.1 Definitions

A manometer is a device that measures the pressure acting on a column of fluid. The most com-
monly known is a barometer, of which the left hand side of Figure 1.15 shows an example. A

16
 Figure 1.15: Left hand side: A mercury barometer. Right hand side: A piezometer tube.

barometer consists of a small closed column filled with mercury. The top of the column is vacuum,
which leads to the mercury evaporating into this vacuum, which in its turn results in a low pressure
of the evaporated mercury (the vapor pressure, or pvapor ). This vapor pressure will be very low
compared to the air pressure. So we can apply the laws of hydrostatics:
pB = ρHg gh + pA ⇒ patm = ρHg gh + pvapor ≈ ρHg gh (1.30)
What is thus happening is the air exerting a pressure on the horizontal plane of mercury (at ele-
vation B), which will cause a rise of the mercury in the column to point A. If water were used in
this setting, the atmospheric pressure would push the water all the way to the top of the column.
A much higher column would need to be used. More specifically, since mercury is roughly 13
times heavier than water (see many times later in this unit), a column 13 times the height of the
column using mercury would be needed. That is why mercury is used: it has a high density, so for
a reasonable column of mercury one can accurately measure the air pressure.

A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes. These can be classified into two categories:

• Piezometer tubes.

• U-tube manometers.

The right hand side of Figure 1.15 shows an example of a piezometer. The simplest type consists
of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the container of which the pressure needs to be

17
Figure 1.16: Left hand side: Application of a piezometer. Right hand side: A U-tube manometer.

known. Following the law of hydrostatics, the pressure at point A can be calculated as:

pA = γ 1 h 1 (1.31)

1.4.2 Example

The left hand side of Figure 1.16 shows the tank from Figure 1.14 with two piezometers attached.
Because the manometer for fluid A is directly connected to the tank, and contains the same liquid,
the level in the piezometer will be equal to the level in the tank (also see Figure 1.9). For liquid B,
we can write (assuming the piezometer measures at level 2):
p2 18952.92
p2 = γ B h B ⇒ h B = = = 0.819 m (1.32)
γB 2.36 · 9810

1.4.3 The U-Tube Manometer

As useful and easy to install (and use) as they are, piezometer do have some disadvantages. More
specifically, they can only measure positive pressures (p >= patm ). Second, they can only measure
small pressures, because the liquid column needs to be kept at reasonable heights. And third, the
liquid in the tank needs to be liquid, gas pressures cannot be measured.

For these reasons, the U-tube manometer has been developed. The right hand side of Figure 1.16
shows an example of this device. Very importantly, the gauge fluid should be heavier than the fluid

18
in the pipe or tank. Because of the law of hydrostatics, we can write:

p3 = p2 = γ 2 h 2 (1.33)

And we can also write for the pressure at point A:

pA = p1 = p2 − γ 1 h 1 (1.34)

Substituting the expression for p2 from Equation 1.33 into Equation 1.34 leads to:

pA = γ 2 h 2 − γ 1 h 1 (1.35)

If the cylinder contained a gas, γ1 would be very low compared to γ2 , and pA would be approxi-
mately equal to p2 .

1.5 Problem Set

1.5.1 Question

Figure 1.17: The inclined tube manometer.

Inclined tube manometers are used to measure small pressure differences. Given the example in
Figure 1.17, find he relationship between PA − PB and the geometry of the manometer (l2 and θ).

1.5.2 Answer

At locations 1 and 2, we can write:

(
P1 = PA + γ 1 h 1
(1.36)
P2 = PB + γ 3 h 3

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e can also write, for the pressure difference:
P1 = P2 + γ2 h2 = P2 + γ2 l2 sinθ (1.37)
h2 is the difference in elevation between points (2) and (1). We substitute P1 and P2 from the first
system of equations into the second equation:
PA + γ1 h1 = PB + γ3 h3 + γ2 l2 sinθ (1.38)
This can be rewritten as:
PA − PB = γ3 h3 − γ1 h1 + γ2 l2 sinθ (1.39)
If the density of the oil in the manometer is much higher than in the reservoirs (γ2 >> γ1 , γ3 ), this
simplifies to:
PA − PB = γ2 l2 sinθ (1.40)
This can be rewritten as:
PA − PB
l2 = (1.41)
γ2 sinθ
By making the angle θ small, l2 increases, which facilitates the measurement of small pressure
differences.

1.5.3 Question

Air
Δ

γm

H
γ

Figure 1.18: The tank containing water and air.

Figure 1.18 shows a schematic of a tank containing water and air. We know the value ∆ read by
the manometer with mercury connected to the part of the tank with air is 4.0 cm. The water level
H is 1.8 m. The density of the mercury is 13553 kg·m−3 . Calculate the height h from the bottom
of the tank reached by the water in the manometer connected to the lower part of the tank.

20
1.5.4 Answer

Since the air mass on top of the tank is small, we can assume that its pressure is constant in
each point. At the water surface, the pressure is thus equal to the air pressure measured by the
manometer with mercury. This pressure can be calculated as

pair = pH = −ρM · g · ∆ (1.42)

Entering the numbers this leads to:

pH = −13553 · 9.81 · 0.04 = −5318.197 N · m−2 (1.43)

As indicated by the manometer, this pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure and is thus
negative. The level h in the manometer connected to the part of the tank with water is the level
at which the pressure in the tank equals the atmospheric pressure, i.e., ph =0. At each level of the
water inside the tank, the sum z + p/(ρ · g) is constant, so that one can write

ph pH
h+ =H+ (1.44)
ρ·g ρ·g

Entering the numbers this leads to:

5318.197
h + 0 = 1.8 − → h = 1.258 m (1.45)
9.81 · 1000

1.5.5 Question

Figure 1.19 shows a schematic of a double column enlarged ends manometer containing water and
oil. This is used to measure a small pressure difference between two points of a system conveying
air under pressure, the diameter of the U-tube being 1/9 of the diameter of the enlarged ends. The
heavy liquid used is water and the lighter liquid in both limbs is oil with a relative density 0.82.
When p1 =p2 , the fluids are at the same levels. Assuming the surfaces of the lighter liquid to remain
in the enlarged ends, determine the difference in pressure in millimeters of water for a manometer
displacement of ∆ of 51 mm. What would be the manometer reading if carbon tetrachloride
(specific gravity 1.8) were used in place of water, the pressure conditions remaining the same?

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 Figure 1.19: The double column manometer containg oil and water.

1.5.6 Answer

Starting from the left side, the equations for the pressures in B and C can be written as

 pB = p1 + 0.82 · ρ · g · h

pB = pC + ρ · g · ∆ (1.46)

pC = p2 + 0.82 · ρ · g · (2x + h − ∆)


These equations can then be combined:

p2 + 0.82 · ρ · g(2x + h − ∆) + ρ · g · ∆ = p1 + 0.82 · ρ · g · h (1.47)

Simplification then leads to:

p1 − p2 = 0.82 · ρ · g(2x − ∆) + ρ · g · ∆ (1.48)

The depth x can be calculated by noticing that the volume of fluid displaced in the enlarged ends
is equal to the volume of fluid displaced in the U-tube. We can thus write:
D2 d2
π 2x = π ∆ (1.49)
4 4
We can thus calculate x as:  2
1 d
x= ∆ (1.50)
2 D
Entering the numbers leads to:
 2
1 51 1
x= = 3.148 · 10−4 m (1.51)
2 1000 9

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The pressure difference in equivalent height of millimetres of water is thus:
 
p1 − p2 2 · 3.148 51 51
= 0.82(2x − ∆) + ∆ = 0.82 − + = 9.696 mm (1.52)
ρg 10000 1000 1000

If we change the fluid in the manometer, the difference between the pressures is:
 
∆
p1 − p2 = 0.82ρ · g(2x − ∆) + 1.8ρ · g · ∆ = 0.82ρ · g − ∆ + 1.8ρ · g∆ (1.53)
81

This equation can be rewritten:

   
p1 − p2 1
= 0.82 − 1 + 1.8 ∆ (1.54)
ρg 81

Rearrangement leads to:

p1 − p2
ρg 9.696
∆=   = = 9.793 mm (1.55)
1 0.99
0.82 − 1 + 1.8
81

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