Life Processes in Living Organisms Part - 2

Reproduction Some Concepts Related

to Reproduction
Asexual Sexual Reproduction and
Reproduction Reproduction modern technology

Twins IVF

Menstrual Surrogacy
Cycle
Reproductive Sperm Bank
health
 Asexual Reproduction

Unicellular Multicellular
organisms organisms

1. Binary Fission

2. Multiple Fission

3. Budding

1. Fragmentation 3. Budding
4. Vegetative
2. Regeneration Propagation
1. Binary Fission 1. Prokaryotes (Bacteria), Protists
(Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, etc.) and
eukaryotic cell-organelle like
Simple binary fission: Amoeba mitochondria and chloroplasts perform
asexual reproduction by binary fission.
Transverse binary fission : Paramecium 2. In this process, the parent cell divides
to form two similar daughter cells.
3. Binary fission occurs either by mitosis
Longitudinal binary fission: Euglena or amitosis.

1. Axis of fission / division is different in different protists.

2. Ex.: Amoeba divides in any plane due to lack of specific shape;
hence it is called as ‘simple binary fission’.
3. Paramecium divides by ‘transverse binary fission’
4. whereas Euglena by ‘longitudinal binary fission’.
2. Multiple Fission

1. Asexual reproduction by multiple fission is performed by Amoeba and other similar

protists. Amoeba stops the formation of pseudopodia and thereby movements whenever
there is lack of food or any other type of adverse condition.
2. It becomes rounded and forms protective covering around plasma membrane.
3. Such encysted Amoeba or any other protist is called as ‘Cyst’.
4. Many nuclei are formed by repeated nuclear divisions in the cyst.
5. It is followed by cytoplasmic division and thus, many amoebulae are formed.
6. They remain encysted till there are adverse conditions.
7. Cyst breaks open on arrival of favourable conditions and many amoebulae are released
3. Budding

1. Asexual reproduction occurs by budding in yeast- a unicellular fungus.

2. Yeast cell produces two daughter nuclei by mitotic division, so as to reproduce by
budding.
3. This yeast cell is called as parent cell.
4. A small bulge appears on the surface of parent cell.
5. This bulge is actually a bud.
6. One of the two daughter nuclei enters this bud.
7. After sufficient growth, bud separates from the parent cell and starts to live
independently as a daughter yeast cell.
1. Fragmentation

1. This type of asexual reproduction occurs in multicellular organisms.

2. In this type of reproduction, the body of parent organism breaks up into many fragments
and each fragment starts to live as an independent new organism.
3. This type of reproduction occurs in algae like Spirogyra, and sponges like Sycon.
4. Whenever there is plenty of water and nutrients are available to Spirogyra, its filaments
grow up very fast and break up into many small fragments.
5. Each fragment starts to live independently as a new Spirogyra fiber.
6. If the body of Sycon breaks up accidentally into many fragments, each fragment develops
into new Sycon.
2. Regeneration

1. the wall lizard breaks up and discards some part of its tail in emergency.
2. Discarded part is regenerated after a period.
3. This is an example of limited regeneration.
4. However, under certain situations, an animal
5. Planaria breaks up its body into two parts and thereafter each part regenerates
remaining part of the body and thus two new Planaria are formed.
6. This is called as regeneration
3. Budding

1. In case of Hydra, under favorable conditions, at specific part of its body, an outgrowth is
formed by repeated divisions of regenerative cells of body wall.
2. This outgrowth is called as bud. Bud grows up progressively and finally forms a small hydra.
3. Dermal layers and digestive cavity of the budding hydra are in continuity with those of
parent hydra.
4. Parent hydra supplies nutrition to the budding hydra.
5. Budding hydra separates from parent hydra and starts to lead an independent life when it
grows up and becomes able to lead an independent life.
4. Vegetative Propagation

1. Reproduction in plants with the help of vegetative parts like root, stem, leaf and bud is
called as vegetative reproduction.
2. Vegetative propagation in potatoes is performed with the help of ‘eyes’ present on tuber
whereas in Bryophyllum it is performed with the help of buds present on leaf margin.
3. In case of plants like sugarcane & grasses, vegetative propagation occurs with the help of
buds present on nodes.
 Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

in plants in animals

1. Sexual reproduction always occurs with the help of two germ cells.
2. Female gamete and male gamete are those two germ cells.
3. Two main processes occur in the sexual reproduction

1. Gamete formation 2. Fertilization

1. Gamete formation In Plants

1. Gametes are formed by the meiosis.

2. In meiosis, chromosome number is reduced to half; hence haploid gametes are formed.

2. Fertilization In Plants

1. A diploid zygote is formed in this process by union of haploid male and female gametes.
2. The zygote divides by mitosis and embryo is formed.
3. The embryo develops to form new individual.
4. Two parents i.e. male parent and female parent are involved in this type of reproduction.
5. Fusion of male gamete of male parent and female gamete of female parent occurs.
6. Due to this, new individual always has the recombined genes of both the parents.
7. Hence, the new individual shows similarities with the parents for some characters and has
some characters different than both parents.
8. Diversity in living organisms occurs due to genetic variation.
9. Genetic variation helps the organisms to adjust with the changing environment and thereby
to maintain their existence.
10. Due to this, plants and animals can save themselves from being extinct.
Sexual reproduction in plants

1. Flower is structural unit of sexual reproduction in plants.

2. It consists of four floral whorls as calyx, corolla, androecium and gynaecium; arranged in
sequence from outside to inside.
3. Androecium and gynoecium are called ‘essential whorls’ because they perform the function
of reproduction whereas calyx and corolla are called as ‘accessory whorls’ because they are
responsible for protection of inner whorls.
4. Members of calyx are called as ‘sepals’ and they are green coloured.
5. Members of corolla are called as ‘petals’ and they are variously colored.
1. A flower is called as ‘bisexual’ if both whorls i.e. androecium and gynoecium are present in
the same flower.
2. Ex. Hibiscus. A flower is called as ‘unisexual’ if any one of the abovementioned two whorls is
present in the flower.
3. If only androecium is present, it is ‘male flower’ and if only gynoecium is present, flower is
‘female flower’. Ex. Papaya.
• Pollen grains from anther are transferred to the stigma.
• This is called as pollination. Pollination occurs with the help of
abiotic agents (wind, water) and biotic agents (insects and other
animals).
• Stigma becomes sticky during pollination Pollens germinate when
they fall upon such sticky stigma i.e. a long pollen tube and two
male gametes are formed.
• The pollen tube carries male gametes. Pollen tube reaches the
embryo sac via style. Tip of the pollen tube bursts and two male
gametes are released in embryo sac.
• One male gamete unites with the egg cell to form zygote. This is
fertilization.
• Second male gamete unites with two polar nuclei and endosperm is
formed. As two male nuclei participate in this process, it is called
as double fertilization.
Sexual reproduction in humans

Human male reproductive system

Human female reproductive system

Human male reproductive system

• Male reproductive system of humans consists of testes, various ducts and glands.
• Testes are present in the scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity.
• Testes contain numerous seminiferous tubules.
• Germinal epithelium present in the tubules divide by meiosis to produce sperms.
• Those sperms are sent forward through various tubules. Sequence of those tubules
is as- rete testes, vas eferens, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and
urinogenital duct.
• As the sperms are pushed forwards from one duct to next, they become mature and
able to fertilize the ovum.
• Seminal vesicles secrete their secretion in ejaculatory ducts whereas prostate gland
and Cowper’s glands secrete their secretions in urinogenital duct.
• Semen is formed of sperms and secretions of all these glands.
• Semen is ejaculated out through penis.
• All the organs of male reproductive system are paired except urinogenital duct,
prostate gland, penis & scrotum.
Human female reproductive system

• All organs of female reproductive system

are in abdominal cavity.
• It includes a pair of ovaries, a pair of
oviducts, single uterus and a vagina. Besides,
a pair of Bartholin's gland is also present.
• Generally, every month, an ovum is released
in abdominal cavity alternately from each
ovary.
• Free end of oviduct is funnel-like. An
opening is present at the center of it.
• Oocyte enters the oviduct through that
opening. Cilia are present on inner surface
of oviduct.
• These cilia push the oocyte towards uterus.
1. Gamete formation In Humans

• Both gametes i.e. sperm and ovum are formed by meiosis.

• Sperms are produced in testes of men from beginning of maturation (puberty)
till death.
• However, in case of women, at the time of birth, there are 2 – 4 million
immature oocytes in the ovaries of female foetus. An oocyte matures and is
released from ovary every month from the beginning of maturity up to the age
of menopause (approximately 45 years of age).
• Menopause is the stoppage of functioning of female reproductive system.
• At the age of about 45 – 50 years, secretion of hormones controlling the
functions of female reproductive system either stops or becomes irregular.
This causes the menopause.
2. Fertilization In Humans

• Formation of zygote by union of sperm and ovum is called as fertilization.

Fertilization is internal in humans.
• Semen is ejaculated in vagina during copulation.
• Sperms, in the numbers of few millions start their journey by the route of
vagina – uterus – oviduct.
• One of those few million sperms fertilize the only ovum present in the
oviduct. From the age of puberty up the menopause (from 10 – 17 years of
age up to 45 – 50 years), an ovum is released every month from the ovary.
i.e. out of 2 – 4 million oocytes, approximately only 400 oocytes are released
up to the age of menopause. Remaining oocytes undergo degeneration.
Menstrual Cycle
• Female reproductive system undergoes some changes at puberty and those
changes repeat at the interval of every 28 – 30 days.
• These repetitive changes are called as menstrual cycle.
• Menstrual cycle is a natural process, controlled by four hormones.
• Those four hormones are follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone
(LH), estrogen and progesterone.
• One of the several follicles in the ovary starts to develop along with the oocyte
present in it, under the effect of follicle stimulating hormone.
• This developing follicle secretes estrogen. Endometrium of the uterus starts to
develop (during first cycle) or regenerate (during subsequent cycles) under the
effect of estrogen.
• Meanwhile, developing follicle completes its development. It bursts under the
effect of luteinizing hormone and oocyte is released.
• This is called as ovulation. Remaining tissue of the burst follicle forms the corpus
luteum. Corpus luteum starts to secrete progesterone.
• Endometrial glands secrete their secretion under the effect of progesterone.
• Such endometrium is ready for implantation of embryo.
• If oocyte is not fertilized within 24 hours, corpus luteum becomes inactive
and transforms into corpus albicans.
• Due to this, secretion of estrogen and progesterone stops completely.
• Endometrium starts to degenerate in absence of these two hormones.
• Tissues of degenerating endometrium and unfertilized ovum are discarded
out through vagina.
• This is accompanied with continuous bleeding. Bleeding continues
approximately for five days.
• This is called as menstruation. Unless the oocyte is fertilized and embryo is
implanted, this process is repeated every month.
• If the embryo is implanted, repetition of this cycle is temporarily stopped
till the parturition and thereafter period of breast feeding.
• Menstrual cycle is a natural process and the women experience severe pains
during this period. Severe weakness is felt due to heavy bleeding.
• There is higher possibility of infections too during this overall period.
• Due to all such reasons, there is need of rest along with special personal
hygiene.
Reproduction and modern technology

• Many couples cannot have children due to various reasons.

• In case of women, irregularity in menstrual cycle, difficulties in
oocyte production, obstacles in the oviduct, difficulties in
implantation in uterus and many other reasons are responsible for
this.
• Absence of sperms in the semen, slow movement of sperms,
anomalies in the sperms are the reasons in case of males.
• But now with the help of advanced medical techniques like IVF,
Surrogacy, Sperm bank the childless couples can have a child.
IVF

• In this technique, fertilization is

brought about in the test-tube
and the embryo formed is
implanted in uterus of woman at
appropriate time.
• IVF technique is used for having
the child in case of those
childless couples who have
problems like less sperm count,
obstacles in oviduct, etc.
Surrogacy

• Some women have problems in implantation of

embryo in uterus.
• Such women can take the help of the modern
remedial technique called as surrogacy.
• In this technique, oocyte is collected from the
ovary of the woman having problem in implantation
in uterus.
• That oocyte is fertilized in test-tube with the help
of sperms collected from her husband.
• The embryo formed from such fertilization is
implanted in the uterus of some other woman
having normal uterus. Such a woman, in whose
uterus the embryo is implanted, is called as
surrogate mother.
Sperm Bank

• There are various problems in sperm production

as mentioned above, in case of many men.
• So as to have the children in case of such
couples, new concept of sperm bank has been
introduced. This concept is similar to blood
bank.
• Semen ejaculated by the desired men is
collected after their thorough physical and
medical check-up and stored in the sperm bank.
• As per the wish of needful couple, oocyte of
woman of the concerned couple is fertilized by
IVF technique using the semen from sperm
bank.
• Resultant embryo is implanted in the uterus of
same woman. Name of the semen donor is
strictly kept secret as per the law.
 Twins

Monozygotic twins Dizygotic twins

• Two embryos develop simultaneously in the same uterus and thus two
offsprings are delivered simultaneously.
• Such offsprings are called as twins.
• Many couples have twins.
Monozygotic twins

Monozygotic twins are formed from single embryo. During early period of
embryonic development (within 8 days of zygote formation), cells of that embryo
divide into two groups.
Those two groups develop as two separate embryos and thus monozygotic twins
are formed.
Such twins are genetically exactly similar to each other.
Due to this, such twins are exactly similar in their appearance and their gender
is also same i.e. both will be either boys or girls.
In case of monozygotic twins, if the embryonic cells are divided into two groups
8 days after the zygote formation; there is high possibility of formation of
conjoined twins (Siamese twins).
Such twins are born with some parts of body joined to each other.
Some organs are common in such twins.
Dizygotic twins

• Occasionally, two oocytes are

released from the ovary of woman
and both oocytes are fertilized by
two separate sperms and thus two
zygotes are formed.
• Two embryos are formed from those
two zygotes and both of those
embryos are separately implanted in
the uterus and thus dizygotic twins
are delivered after complete
development.
• Such twins are genetically different
and may be same of different by
gender.
Reproductive health

• A person’s state of being physical, mental and social strongness is called as

health. In our country, there seems to be lack of awareness regarding
reproductive health due to various reasons like social customs, traditions,
illiteracy, shyness, etc.
• Especially, there seems to be indifference towards the reproductive health
of women. Occurrence of menstrual cycle is related with reproductive and
overall health of women.
• Now a day, women are working at par with men. Due to this, they have to stay
outdoors for whole day.
• Bleeding occurs during menstrual cycle.
• Due to this, private organs (genitals) need to be maintained clean time to
time, otherwise, problems regarding reproductive health may arise.
• Some problems regarding reproductive health may arise in men too.
• It is essential to maintain the cleanliness of their genitals.
• Among the various sexual diseases, syphilis and gonorrhoea occur on large
scale. Both of these diseases are caused by bacteria.
• Occurrence of chancre (patches) on various parts of body including genitals,
rash, fever, inflammation of joints, alopecia, etc. are the symptoms of syphilis.
• Painful and burning sensation during urination, oozing of pus through penis and
vagina, inflammation of urinary tract, anus, throat, eyes, etc. are symptoms of
gonorrhoea.

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