 In chi-squared test, if the value is greater than critical value, we can say the difference is

due to chance, if the value is smaller than critical value, then difference is significant and
due to something else.
 Degree of freedom is (n-1) where “n” represents the no of phenotypes and or no of
comparisons.
 People with albinism lack the pigment melanin, melanin is produced when tyrosine is
converted to DOPA by tyrosinase and DOPA is converted to dopaquinone by tyrosinase
again and then it is converted to melanin, TYR gene on chromosome 11 codes for
tyrosinase, and the recessive allele produces inactive tyrosinase or no tyrosinase as a
result melanin is not formed.
 People with sickle cell anaemia have abnormal red blood cells, due to the presence of
abnormal allele HBB on chromosome 11 of haemoglobin, which produces amino acid
valine (nonpolar) instead of glutamic acid (polar) due to change in gene code. This makes
transport of oxygen difficult, and causes red blood cells to clump together.
 People with hemophilia, have abnormal allele of F8 that codes for factor VIII protein which
is a coagulating agent. This results in less no of factor VIII inactive Factor VIII and or no
Factor VIII. Preventing blood clotting. F8 is a sex linked gene only found on X chromosome.
 People with Huntington’s disease experience neurological disorder because of abnormal
alleles of HTT gene which codes for protein Huntington. People that have greater number
of CAG triplets in the nucleotide sequence of HTT (greater than 40) suffer from this
disease. The allele for this is dominant over all alleles.
 A structural gene codes for a protein that has function within a cell whereas a regulatory
gene codes for a protein that helps control the expression of another gene.
 Inducible enzymes are only synthesized when their substrate is present, and repressible
enzyme is synthesized as normal unit a repressor protein binds to the operator.
 Operon is a group or cluster of genes that are controlled by the same promoter.
 In the lac operon when lactose in absent, regulatory gene is transcribed and translated to
produce lac repressor protein which binds to operator, due to its presence RNA
polymerase is unable to bind to promoter region, as a result transcription of structural
gene does not occur, and no lactase is synthesized.
 In the lac operon when lactose is present, it binds to the other binding site on repressor
protein as a result its shape is distorted thus it cannot bind to operator, allowing RNA
polymerase to bind to promoter and transcription takes place producing lactase to
breakdown lactose.
 Structural enzyme lac Z codes for lactase, lac Y codes for permease that makes walls
more permeable.

 Transcription factor is a protein that controls the transcription of genes by binding to a

specific region of DNA; ensuring genes are expressed in correct cell at correct time.
 Plants use transcription factor PIF to stimulate growth using hormone gibberellin.
Repressor DELLA protein is bound to PIF preventing it from binding to promoter of amylase
gene. Gibberellin binds to a receptor and enzyme, breaking down DELLA protein, which
allows PIF to bind to promoter of amylase gene, transcription of gene begins and amylase
is produced.
 Selection is sorting of individuals in a natural population on the basis of differences in their
characteristics. Tool for selection is variation
 Variation is the difference in phenotypic characteristics among individuals of same
species. Its five tools are random assortment, crossing over, random fertilization, random
mating and mutation.
 Evolution is the arrival of new species from a pre-existing species.
 Variation produces different and new characteristics; these characteristics are selected by
natural selection process based on struggle for existence and fittest to the survival, which
gradually causes evolution.
 Discontinuous variation involves qualitative differences that fall into distinguishable
categories with limited intermediates, no range of data. Where only limited no of alleles
are responsible. The different alleles at the same locus have a large effect. And the
different genes affect different traits.
 Continuous variation involves quantitative differences, which has a large range of
intermediates; this is due to polygenic characteristics and is largely impacted by
environment. The alleles at the same locus have small effect, and the genes have a
combined additive effect.
 Stabilizing selection is against both extremes, when an environment has been stable for a
long period of time, natural selection does not bring about a change in allele frequency, as
the most common allele will be the one with the desired traits that are surviving the
environment.
 Directional selection, because of the change in environment the phenotype of allele that
was less favored is now more favored, selection against extreme is done, this shifts the
range of variation towards one phenotype.
 Disruptive selection; natural selection that favors both extremes in a population, where
selection pressure is acting against the mean (middle). This forms a polymorphic
population.
 Genetic drift- evolutionary mechanism that brings about a random change in allele
frequency overtime. With its effect being strongest in small populations. It may also result
in loss of alleles.
 For genetic drift population size matters because bigger populations are more stable
where chance has less impact and smaller populations change more easily just because of
random events.
 Bottleneck effect is when a natural disaster, causes a genetic drift as the populations size
is greatly reduced, and so the allele frequency is not the same as original, and some
alleles may be missing.
 Founder effect is genetic drift when small group of individual goes a separate way from a
larger population, and so their allele frequency will be different, and some may even be
missing. This is colonization.
 Artificial selection is applied by humans to get advantages, from phenotypes of organism
in a population. Individuals with desired traits are selected for breeding to get offspring
with a combination of desired qualities; further breeding is done from the best of this
generation to increase allele frequency of the desired traits ultimately decreasing allele
frequency of undesired traits.
 Problems that arise with this are that, crosses take a longer time to reach maturity having
a longer gestation period, less no of offspring are produced each time, and that some
characters are only based on sex of organism so if gender is that which is not required,
than desired feature is not assessed. Some background genes can also contaminate
desired allele proving to be lethal.
 Artificial selection in dogs results in purebred ( comes from the same dog breed that has
never mated with other breed), cross breed ( offspring of 2 different pure breds) and
mixed breeds ( a combination of multiple breeds where parents are not pure breds)
 Cross and mix breeding is advantageous because some genetic mutations that frequently
occur in same lineages are bred out.
 Species are a group of organisms having same morphological, physiological, biochemical,
and behavioral characteristics that can breed together to produce fertile offspring’s.
 Speciation is the process by which new species form, it happens when groups in a species
become isolated cannot reproduce between each other, and so they evolve as a result can
no longer interbreed.
 Allopatric speciation is when speciation occurs due to geographic separation causing
evolution, meaning organism are different from their ancestral species, this may be due to
them undergoing genetic divergence, their genetic makeup changes overtime due to
natural selection developing traits that act as pre zygotic and post zygotic barriers in
reproduction.
 Sympatric speciation is speciation occurring within a parent species living in one location,
they can be separated due to ecological reasons, living in different environments in the
same area, and or behaviorual separation, due to difference in their behavior. Speciation
would occur because of no gene flow between the groups of these organisms.