 Species-the fundamental unit of biological classification, representing a group of

organisms that share common characteristics based on reproductive compatibility,

structural similarity, and niche specialization,
 The three-domain system, classifies life into Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya based on
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) analysis, membrane lipid structure, and antibiotic sensitivity. This
classification splits prokaryotes into two distinct domains (Archaea and Bacteria) and
separates them from the nucleus-bearing eukaryotes (Eukarya)
 Domain bacteria comprises of prokaryotes that lack a nucleus and membrane bound
organelles, have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, and found in soil water and human
bodies, and carry circular DNA without histone proteins and divide by binary fission.
 Domain Archaea consists of prokaryotes that also do not have a nucleus but have genetic
material similar to that of eukaryotes, they consist of histone proteins to wrap around
DNA, they also have unique branched hydrocarbon chains having ether bonds that enable
survival in extreme environments,
 Domain Eukarya consists of organisms whose cells contain a true nucleus enclosing their
DNA, along with membrane-bound organelles, with cell walls made of carbohydrates i.e.
cellulose chitin and glycoproteins,
 The Eukarya are divided into four kingdoms. Kingdom Protoctista these organisms have
eukaryotic cells. They mostly exist as single cells, but some are made of groups of similar
cells. Kingdom Fungi, Fungi have eukaryotic cells surrounded by a cell wall, but this is not
made of cellulose and fungi never have chloroplasts. Kingdom Plantae, These are the
plants. They have eukaryotic cells surrounded by cellulose cell walls and they feed by
photosynthesis. Kingdom Animalia, they have eukaryotic cells with no cell walls.
 Viruses are not included in the three-domain classification. This is because they are on the
borderline between living and non-living things. They have none of the characteristics of
living things, except for the ability to reproduce. However, even this can only be done
when they have entered a host cell, where they use the host cells’ ability to copy,
transcribe and translate base sequences, in order to synthesis proteins and nucleic acids
to make new viruses.
 Viruses are classified according to the type of nucleic acid that they contain — that is,
whether it is DNA or RNA. They can be further classified according to whether the nucleic
acid is single-stranded or double-stranded.

 Ecosystem is an interacting system of all the living and non-living things in a defined area.
 Niche is the role of a species in an ecosystem.
 Biodiversity can be assessed at different levels, including, the number and range of
different ecosystems and habitats, this is the range of different ecosystems
or habitats within a particular area or region. If there is a large number of different
habitats within an area, then that area has high biodiversity
 Second is the number of species and their relative abundance, Species richness is
the number of species within an ecosystem, Species diversity looks at the number
of different species in an ecosystem, and also the evenness of abundance across
the different species present. The greater the number of species in an ecosystem,
 and the more evenly distributed the number of organisms are among each species,
then the greater the species diversity
 Third being the genetic variation within each species, the genetic diversity
within a species is the diversity of alleles and genes in the genome of species. Although
individuals of the same species will have the same genes they will not necessarily
have the same alleles for each gene. Genetic diversity is measured by working out
the proportion of genes that have more than one form (allele) and how many
possible alleles each gene has. There can be genetic differences or
diversity between populations of the same species. This may be because the two
populations occupy slightly different ranges in their habitat and so are subject to
slightly different selection pressures that affect the allele frequencies in their
populations. Genetic diversity within a single population has also been observed. This
diversity in a species is important as it can help the population to adapt to, and
survive, changes in the environment. The changes could be in biotic factors such as
new predators, pathogens and competition with other species. Or the changes
could be through abiotic factors like temperature, humidity and rainfall
 One cannot usually count every single organism in the area, so a sampling technique is
used. It is important that this is random, to avoid bias in your choice of area in which to
make your measurements.
 Frame quadrats this is a square frame that is placed onto the ground to define an area
within which organisms are counted. Within this quadrat no of species could be counted or
percentage cover could be measured.
 Line transect (placing quadrats along the transect) is a sampling technique consisting of
making a line on the ground between 2 points, within the sampled area. The species
touching the transect at regular intervals are recorded to find their abundance and
distribution
 Belt transect is a sampling technique consisting of making 2 parallel lines between the 2
points within the sample area and placing quadrats, species touching or inside the quadrat
are recorded to find their abundance and distribution
 Mark–release–recapture this is a method for estimating the population of species of mobile
animal. First, a large number of animals is captured. Each one is marked in a way that will
not affect its chances of survival. The number of marked animals is recorded. The marked
animals are released, and time is allowed for them to spread naturally back among the
population. A second sample is captured. The number of animals is recorded, and also the
number of these that were marked. The total size of the population can then be estimated
by this calculation: number in population = number in first sample × number in second
sample number of marked animals in second sample
 Spearman’s rank correlation this is a statistical test that can be used to see if there is a
correlation between the distribution and abundance of two species or if there is a
correlation between the distribution and abundance of a species, and a particular
environmental factor. Pearson’s linear correlation this test tells you if there is a linear
correlation between the distribution and abundance of two species, or if there is a linear
correlation between the distribution and abundance of a species, and a particular
environmental factor.
 Populations and species can become extinct when they are unable to adapt to or
escape from external pressures. These drivers often work together to reduce
population numbers below a critical threshold, leading to a loss of genetic diversity
 that makes survival impossible. Climate Change: Shifts in global temperatures
and precipitation patterns can occur faster than species can evolve or migrate.
This leads to the loss of specialized habitats (e.g., melting sea ice for polar bears)
or disrupts vital biological events like food availability during breeding seasons.
Competition: When resources like food, water, or nesting sites are limited, better-
adapted species (often invasive or human-introduced) can out compete native
populations. If a species is consistently denied access to these essential resources,
its birth rate falls below its death rate, eventually leading to extinction. Hunting
by Humans: Overexploitation occurs when humans remove individuals from a
population faster than they can reproduce. Direct hunting for food, sport, or
commercial trade (e.g., the dodo or passenger pigeon) can drive even large
populations to extinction by drastically reducing their numbers in a short period.
Degradation and Loss of Habitats: This is the primary cause of modern
extinctions. Activities like deforestation, urbanization, and pollution destroy the
specific environmental conditions species need to survive. Habitat fragmentation
also isolates small groups, making them more vulnerable to disease and
inbreeding

Reasons to maintain biodiversity

Moral and Humans have a responsibility to reduce their impact on the planet and on other
ethical species
Ecological Biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystems
Organisms provide essential environmental services (e.g., water cycle, nutrient
Environmental
cycle, absorption of carbon dioxide, pollination
Economic A range of organisms contribute to medicine, ecotourism, science and technology

Aesthetic Humans take pleasure from the sensory stimuli that biodiversity can provide

Agricultural Genetically diverse wild species can rescue crops from catastrophes

Zoos help conserve endangered species through captive breeding programmes, which
increase population size while maintaining genetic diversity using methods like animal
exchange, IVF, and frozen sperm or embryos (“frozen zoos”). Successful programmes
aim for reintroduction of species into safe natural habitats, supported by habitat
preparation and local involvement. Zoos also contribute through education, funding, and
research.

Similarly, botanic gardens conserve plant species, while seed banks store seeds for long-
term preservation. Assisted reproduction methods like IVF and embryo transfer
(surrogacy) are used to increase reproduction rates and support conservation efforts.

Removing top predators (like wolves) can cause prey populations (like deer) to grow too large,
leading to overgrazing, habitat damage, and loss of plant species. To maintain ecosystem
balance, humans may need to control animal populations using methods such as culling
(selective killing under regulation) or contraception (preventing reproduction, e.g., in elephants)

Controlling invasive alien species is important because they can seriously disrupt
ecosystems and cause multiple problems:

 Protect native species: Invasive species often out compete local organisms for
food, space, and resources, or prey on them directly, which can lead to population
declines or extinction.
 Maintain ecosystem balance: Natural ecosystems are adapted to specific
species interactions. Introducing a new species can upset food chains and
ecological relationships.
 Prevent habitat damage: Some invasive species overgraze, overgrow, or
physically alter habitats (e.g., plants that dominate land or animals that destroy
vegetation), reducing biodiversity.
 Reduce spread of disease: Invasive species can introduce new diseases or
parasites that native species (and sometimes humans) have no resistance to.
 Protect agriculture and economy: Many invasive species damage crops,
livestock, fisheries, and infrastructure, leading to economic losses.
 Avoid long-term irreversible impacts: Once established, invasive species can
be very difficult or impossible to remove, so early control helps prevent permanent
damage.