Module 4

CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 4 – Beam Deflections

2. Introduction

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to
forces. Other common causes of deformations of structures include temperature changes and
support settlements. If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape
when the actions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic
deformations. The permanent deformations of structures are referred to as inelastic, or plastic,
deformations. In this chapter, we will focus our attention on linear elastic deformations. Such
deformations vary linearly with applied loads.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Establish the stability and determinacy of structures
 Determine the reactions and moments of determinates structures
 Recognize the different external forces acting on structures
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

I. Direct Integration Method

The direct integration method essentially involves writing the expression for M=EI
(bending moment divided by flexural rigidity of the beam) in terms of the distance x along the
axis of the beam and integrating this expression successively to obtain equations for the slope
and deflection of the elastic curve. The constants of integration are determined from the boundary
conditions. The direct integration method proves to be most convenient for computing slopes and
deflections of beams for which M=EI can be expressed as a single continuous function of x over
the entire length of the beam. However, the application of the method to structures for which
the M=EI function is not continuous can become quite complicated. This problem occurs because
each discontinuity, due to a change in loading and/or the flexural rigidity (EI), introduces two
additional constants of integration in the analysis, which must be evaluated by applying the
conditions of continuity of the elastic curve, a process that can be quite tedious. The difficulty
can, however, be circumvented, and the analysis can be somewhat simplified by employing the
singularity functions defined in most textbooks on mechanics of materials.
Example 1
Example 2
II. Superposition Method

The slope or deflection at any point on the beam is equal to the resultant of the slopes or
deflection at that point caused by each of the load acting separately.
Example 1

Example 2
III. Moment-Area Method

The moment-area method for computing slopes and deflections of beams was
developed by Charles E. Greene in 1873. The method is based on two theorems, called the
moment-area theorems, relating the geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its M=EI
diagram, which is constructed by dividing the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the
flexural rigidity EI. This method is more convenient to use for beams with loading discontinuities
and the variable EI, as compared to the direct integration method described previously.

Procedure for Analysis:

In order to apply the moment-area theorems to compute the slopes and deflections of a
beam, it is necessary to draw a qualitative deflected shape of the beam using its bending
moment diagram. In this regard, recall that a positive bending moment bends the beam
concave upward, whereas a negative bending moment bends it concave downward.
Also, at a fixed support, both the slope and the deflection of the beam must be zero;
therefore, the tangent to the elastic curve at this point is in the direction of the undeformed
axis, whereas at a hinged or a roller support, the deflection is zero, but the slope may not be
zero.
To facilitate the computation of areas and moments of areas of the M=EI diagrams, the
formulas for the areas and centroids of common geometric shapes must be noted. Instead of
adopting a formal sign convention, it is common practice to use an intuitive approach in solving
problems using the moment-area method. In this approach, the slopes and deflections at the
various points are assumed to be positive in the directions shown on the sketch of the deflected
shape or elastic curve of the structure.
Any area of the M=EI diagram that tends to increase the quantity under consideration is
considered to be positive and vice versa. A positive answer for a slope or deflection indicates
that the sense of that quantity as assumed on the elastic curve is correct. Conversely, a
negative answer indicates that the correct sense is opposite to that initially assumed on the
elastic curve.
In applying the moment-area theorems, it is important to realize that these theorems in
general do not directly provide the slope and deflection at a point with respect to the
undeformed axis of the beam (which are usually of practical interest); instead, they provide the
slope and deflection of a point relative to the tangent to the elastic curve at another point.
Therefore, before the slope or deflection at an arbitrary point on the beam can be computed, a
point must be identified where the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve is either initially
known or can be determined by using the support conditions. Once this reference tangent has
been established, the slope and deflection at any point on the beam can be computed by
applying the moment-area theorems.
In cantilever beams, since the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve at the fixed
support is zero, this tangent can be used as the reference tangent. In the case of beams for
which a tangent with zero slope cannot be located by inspection, it is usually convenient to use
the tangent at one of the supports as the reference tangent. The slope of this reference
tangent can be determined by using the conditions of zero deflections at the reference support
and an adjacent support.
The magnitudes of the slopes and deflections of structures are usually very small, so
from a computational viewpoint it is usually convenient to determine the solution in terms of EI
and then substitute the numerical values of E and I at the final stage of the analysis to obtain
the numerical magnitudes of the slopes and deflections. When the moment of inertia varies
along the length of a beam, it is convenient to express the moments of inertia of the various
segments of the beam in terms of a single reference moment of inertia, which is then carried
symbolically through the analysis.

Example
Example
IV. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BY PARTS

The application of the moment-area method involves computation of the areas and
moments of areas of various portions of the M=EI diagram. When a beam is subjected to different
types of loads, such as a combination of distributed and concentrated loads, determination of the
properties of the resultant M=EI diagram, due to the combined effect of all the loads, can become
a formidable task. This difficulty can be avoided by constructing the bending moment diagram in
parts—that is, constructing a separate bending moment diagram for each of the loads. The
ordinates of the bending moment diagrams thus obtained are then divided by EI to obtain the
M=EI diagrams. These diagrams usually consist of simple geometric shapes, so their areas and
moments of areas can be easily computed. The required areas and moments of areas of the
resultant M=EI diagram are then obtained by algebraically adding (superimposing) the
corresponding areas and moments of areas, respectively, of the bending moment diagrams for
the individual loads. Two procedures are commonly used for constructing bending moment
diagrams by parts. The first procedure simply involves applying each of the loads separately on
the beam and constructing the corresponding bending moment diagrams. Consider, for example,
a beam subjected to a combination of a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load, as
shown in Fig. 6.9(a). To construct the bending moment diagram by parts, we apply the two types
of loads separately on the beam, as shown in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c), and draw the corresponding
bending moment diagrams. It is usually convenient to draw the parts of the bending moment
diagram together, as shown in Fig. 6.9(d). Although it is not necessary for the application of the
moment-area and conjugate-beam methods, if so desired, the resultant bending moment
diagram, as shown in Fig. 6.9(a), can be obtained by superimposing the two parts shown in Fig.
6.9(b) and (c).
 An alternative procedure for
constructing bending moment diagrams by
parts consists of selecting a point on the
beam (usually a support point or an end of
the beam) at which the beam is assumed to
be fixed, applying each of the loads and
support reactions separately on this
imaginary cantilever beam, and constructing
the corresponding bending moment
diagrams. This procedure is commonly
referred to as constructing the bending
moment diagram by cantilever parts. To
illustrate this procedure, consider again the
beam examined in Fig. 6.9. The beam is
redrawn in Fig. 6.10(a), which also shows the (b)
external loads as well as the support
reactions determined from the equations of
equilibrium. To construct the bending
moment diagram by cantilever parts with
respect to the support point B, we imagine
the beam to be a cantilever beam with fixed
support at point B. Then we apply the two
loads and the reaction at support A separately
on this imaginary cantilever beam, as shown
in Fig. 6.10(b)–(d), and draw the
corresponding bending moment diagrams, as
shown in these figures. The parts of the
bending moment diagram are often drawn
together, as shown in Fig. 6.10(e). The
resultant bending moment diagram, as
depicted in Fig. 6.10(a), can be obtained, if
desired, by superimposing the three parts
shown in Fig. 6.10(b)–(d).
Example
Example
V. CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method, developed by Otto Mohr in 1868, generally provides a more
convenient means of computing slopes and deflections of beams than the moment-area method.
Although the amount of computational effort required by the two methods is essentially the same,
the conjugate-beam method is preferred by many engineers because of its systematic sign
convention and straightforward application, which does not require sketching the elastic curve of
the structure.

The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the relationships among
load, shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M=EI, slope, and deflection. The
slope and deflection can be determined from M=EI by the same operations as those performed
to compute shear and bending moment, respectively, from the load. Furthermore, if the M=EI
diagram for a beam is applied as the load on a fictitious analogous beam, then the shear and
bending moment at any point on the fictitious beam will be equal to the slope and deflection,
respectively, at the corresponding point on the original real beam. The fictitious beam is referred
to as the conjugate beam, and it is defined as follows:

A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same length
as the real beam, but it is externally supported and internally connected such that if the conjugate
beam is loaded with the M=EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending moment at any
point on the conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and deflection at the
corresponding point on the real beam.

The conjugate-beam method essentially involves computing the slopes and deflections
of beams by computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding conjugate
beams.
Supports for Conjugate Beams

External supports and internal connections for conjugate beams are determined from the
analogous relationships between conjugate beams and the corresponding real beams; that is, the
shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent with the slope
and deflection at that point on the real beam. The conjugate counterparts of the various types of
real supports thus determined are shown in the figure below. As this figure indicates, a hinged or
a roller support at an end of the real beam remains the same in the conjugate beam. This is
because at such a support there may be slope, but no deflection, of the real beam. Therefore, at
the corresponding end of the conjugate beam there must be shear but no bending moment; and
a hinged or a roller support at that end would satisfy these conditions. Since at a fixed support
of the real beam there is neither slope nor deflection, both shear and bending moment at that
end of the conjugate beam must be zero; therefore, the conjugate of a fixed real support is a
free end, as shown in the figure below. Conversely, a free end of a real beam becomes a fixed
support in the conjugate beam because there may be slope as well as deflection at that end of the
real beam; therefore, the conjugate beam must develop both shear and bending moment at that
point. At an interior support of a real beam there is no deflection, but the slope is continuous
(i.e., there is no abrupt change of slope from one side of the support to the other), so the
corresponding point on the conjugate beam becomes an internal hinge at which the bending
moment is zero and the shear is continuous. Finally, at an internal hinge in the real beam there
may be deflection as well as discontinuous slope of the real beam. Therefore, the conjugate beam
must have bending moment and abrupt change of shear at that point. Because an interior support
satisfies both of these requirements, an internal hinge in the real beam becomes an interior
support in the conjugate beam, as shown in the figure below.

The conjugates of some common types of (real) beams are depicted in the succeeding
figure indicates, the conjugate beams corresponding to statically determinate real beams are
always statically determinate, whereas statically indeterminate beams have unstable conjugate
beams. However,
since these
unstable
conjugate beams
will be loaded
with the M=EI
diagrams of
statically
indeterminate real
beams, which are
self-balancing,
the unstable
conjugate beams
will be in
equilibrium.

Sign
Convention
 If the positive ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam as
upward loads (in the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in the conjugate
beam denotes a positive (counterclockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the
undeformed axis of the real beam; also, a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam
denotes a positive (upward or in the positive y direction) deflection of the real beam with respect
to the undeformed axis of the real beam and vice versa.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can
be used for determining the slopes and
deflections of beams by the conjugate-beam
method.

1. Construct the M=EI diagram for the given

(real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
loading. If the beam is subjected to a combination
of different types of loads (e.g., concentrated
loads and distributed loads), the analysis can be
considerably expedited by constructing the M=EI
diagram by parts, as discussed in the preceding
section.

2. Determine the conjugate beam corresponding

to the given real beam. The external supports and
internal connections for the conjugate beam must
be selected so that the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are
consistent with the slope and deflection,
respectively, at that point on the real beam.

3. Apply the M=EI diagram (from step 1) as the

load on the conjugate beam. The positive
ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied as
upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice
versa.

4. Calculate the reactions at the supports of the

conjugate beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any).

5. Determine the shears at those points on the

conjugate beam where slopes are desired on the
real beam. Determine the bending moments at
those points on the conjugate beam where
deflections are desired on the real beam. The
shears and bending moments in conjugate beams
are considered to be positive or negative in
accordance with the beam sign convention.
6. The slope at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam
is equal to the shear at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive shear in the conjugate
beam denotes a positive or counterclockwise slope of the real beam and vice versa.

7. The deflection at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real
beam is equal to the bending moment at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive bending
moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive or upward deflection of the real beam and
vice versa.

Example
Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown by
Conjugate-beam Method.

Solution

This beam was analyzed in our example in

the Moment-Area Method. he M=EI diagram for a
reference moment of inertia I= 3,000 in.4 is shown.

Conjugate Beam in figure (c) shows the

conjugate beam, loaded with the M=EI diagram of
the real beam. Note that point A, which is fixed on
the real beam, becomes free on the conjugate
beam, whereas point C, which is free on the real
beam, becomes fixed on the conjugate beam.

Because the M=EI diagram is negative, it is

applied as a downward load on the conjugate beam.

Slope at B The slope at B on the real beam is equal

to the shear at B in the conjugate beam. Using the
free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B and
considering the external forces acting upward on the
free body as positive, in accordance with the beam
sign convention, we compute the shear at B in the
conjugate beam as
 Deflection at B The deflection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment at B
in the conjugate beam.

Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the clockwise
moments of the external forces about B as positive, in accordance with the beam sign convention,
we compute the bending moment at B on the conjugate beam as

Example

Use the conjugate-beam method to

determine the deflection at point C of the beam
shown
 Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in the moment-area method. The M/EI diagram by
cantilever parts with respect to point B is shown in figure (b) and Conjugate Beam in figure (c).
5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. Solve the given beam

a. Determine the location of maximum deflection by Integration Method

b. Determine the maximum deflection Integration Method.
c. Determine the deflection at midspan by Superposition Method.
d. Determine the slope at point B by Moment-Area Method.
e. Determine the deflection at point C by Moment-Area Method.
f. Determine the deviation of B relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-Diagram
by Parts.
g. Determine the deviation of D relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-Diagram
by Parts.
h. Determine the deflection at B by Conjugate Beam Method
i. Determine the slope at C by Conjugate Beam Method.

2. Solve the given beam

a. Determine the location of maximum deflection by Integration Method

b. Determine the maximum deflection Integration Method.
c. Determine the deflection at midspan between A and B by Superposition Method.
d. Determine the slope at point A by Moment-Area Method.
e. Determine the deflection at point C by Moment-Area Method.
f. Determine the deviation of A relative to tangent drawn at B by Moment-Diagram
by Parts.
g. Determine the deviation of B relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-Diagram
by Parts.
h. Determine the deflection at C by Conjugate Beam Method
i. Determine the slope at B by Conjugate Beam Method.
6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku
Beam Deflection topics @ [Link]

7. Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…