Guyana

Ministry of Education

Education
Management
Certificate
Course

Managing the Curriculum

and Resources
Module Four
Drive
Developing

Teamwork

Influencing LEADERSHIP Vision

Confidence
Accountability

Commonwealth Secretariat
Modified from
Better Schools
Resource Materials for School Headteachers
 These materials were prepared co-operatively under the Training and Support
Programme for School Headteachers in Africa in the 1990s. They were adapted and updated
considerably in Guyana in 2000, 2008 and 2019 to meet the needs of the Guyanese
educational context.

Governments in developing Commonwealth countries wishing to reproduce or adapt the

materials in whole or in part in any language should inform the Commonwealth
Secretariat which may be able to offer some assistance in doing so.

For further information, write to the Director of the Education Programme, Commonwealth
Secretariat, London.

COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT

Education Programme
Human Resource Development Group
Marlborough House
Pall Mall
London,
United Kingdom
SW1Y 5HX
or
THE DIRECTOR

National Centre for Educational Resource Development, MOE

3, Battery Road
Kingston
Georgetown
Guyana

Prepared for publication by the Materials Production Unit (MPU), National Centre for
Educational Resource Development (NCERD).
Originally designed and formatted by Geoffrey Wadsley.
Updated design and format by NCERD staff in partnership with

© Copyright Commonwealth Secretariat & Ministry of Education, NCERD Guyana 2019

Notes on Assessment
Please note that each unit contains two kinds of activities as follows: e.g.

1. Reflection – You will see these from time to time throughout the booklet in bold
text. You are not required to submit your thoughts on these issues to your
Master Trainer. You may make notes if you wish but they are your own
personal reflections on the issues raised.

2. Activities – These are formal assessments which you will have to submit to
your Master Trainer as part of your portfolio. You should number them in the
same way as the units and carry out the activity as stated.

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 Managing the Curriculum
and Resources Module 4
Introduction
The Education Management Programme caters for teachers
from all levels of the education sector from Nursery, through
Primary and finally Secondary. This module will provide you with
an insight into all three. If your experience is limited to one level,
please ensure that you work through the parts pertaining to the
other levels because it is essential that, as a headteacher in
Guyana, you understand the issues faced by all. It is only
through having a detailed understanding of the whole school
system that you will be thoroughly prepared to meet any
challenges which you may face. In addition, many teachers
change levels and you will therefore need to be prepared in
advance if such a move becomes necessary.

The curriculum of a school includes not just the planned academic programme but also all
co-curricular activities and other events, as well as that which learners learn through the
nature and quality of the school ethos.

The main task of the headteacher of each school is to provide and deliver an appropriate
curriculum using all the resources - human, material and financial - which are readily available.
This involves mobilising all possible resources including those from the Ministry of Education,
the community and other organisations, and then ensuring their full and effective use.

In this module, we aim at improving your skills in different aspects of curriculum management,
including timetabling, curriculum development and assessment, and resource management,
including the provision of textbooks, library and media resources, and their control. The
material in Module 5 on Financial Management will provide you with more information about
mobilising and managing financial resources.

Individual study time: 27 hours

Objectives
After working through this module you should be able to:

• improve your effectiveness as the manager of the curriculum and the resources
which support it
• identify how to mobilise financial and material resources for your school and ensure
their full and effective use
• demonstrate improved asset management and registering of stock in your school

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 • know how the curriculum of nursery, primary and secondary schools may be adapted
to the human and natural environments where they are located, and ensure these
environments are used.
• be a more effective manager of change, and know how to regularly update your
school curriculum
• ensure your school has a well designed and operational timetable and that the national
timetable is used effectively
• draw up and apply criteria for the selection of textbooks, and ensure that those
available are fully used and properly managed
• suggest ways of improving the library, media and the production of low costs teaching aids,
and their use
• improve the quality of learner assessment, through regular and systematic testing,
formative and summative assessments, target setting and full and accuarate records
• be aware of the need to cater for the educational needs of all learners in your school,
especially those with S.E.N.

Units
This module is divided into nine units.

Unit 1: Establishing the curriculum 2 hours

The curriculum of your school needs to be adapted to the human and natural environments
within which it is located, and to be continuously updated. This unit aims at enabling you to
establish your curriculum within the national framework, recognise the diverse nature of the
curriculum and undertake its development.

Unit 2: Timetabling 4 hours

In this unit, you will identify some of the issues in designing and operating school timetables,
including the need for careful preparation and finding ways of organising the timetable to
make full use of your teachers, to follow Ministry of Education’s requirements and yet adapt
it to the special conditions of your school, and to provide your learners with choice.

Unit 3: Organising resources to support the curriculum 2 hours

Through this unit, you will be able to identify the range or resources which are needed by your
school, and the difficulties of obtaining them. You will learn how resources may be produced and
acquired, and how they may be properly managed.

Unit 4: Selecting and managing textbooks 3 hours

Textbooks are one of the key teaching and learning resources in your school. You will
develop criteria for their selection, and learn how to ensure that the books are fully and
properly used.

Unit 5: Libraries, media, and low cost teaching aids 3 hours

There are many ways in which the resources of your school may be improved. In this unit,
you will identify ways of developing three particular types of resources and how they may be
managed.

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Unit 6: Examinations, testing and record-keeping 3 hours
The assessment of the progress of your learners provides a measure of the level of their
performance, which is one of the purposes for which your school exists. In this unit, you will
review different aspects of assessment, including the importance of record-keeping as a
means of maintaining a profile of the progress of each learner.

Unit 7. Resource maintenance 3 hours

Through this unit you will recognise the importance of keeping good asset management
records and learn of ways in which this may be done.

Unit 8: Finding financial resources 3 hours

Here you will recognise that although governments provide some resources for your school,
you cannot expect to rely entirely on this source, and so you need to find ways of adding to
those you have.

Unit 9: Special Educational Needs 4 hours

In this unit, we will look at the role of the teacher as one who will include every learner in his /
her classroom. We will examine the nature of Special Needs and some of the issues
relating to “Inclusion” in the mainstream classroom. In, particular, we will examine ways that
the Headteacher will lead his / her staff to ensure that all learners are catered for equally.

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Establishing the Curriculum Unit 1

Introduction
In the Introduction to the module on Managing the Curriculum and Resources, an apt
definition of the term “curriculum” is given. This definition embraces the planned
programme, all co-curricular activities, learners’ learning, and the quality of the school
ethos. It is necessary to observe and emphasize that the effective curriculum refers to the
whole school.

In this unit, we consider the meaning of the term curriculum and some of the basic things we
need to know about it, including the importance of adapting it to your local contexts and to
the needs and abilities of your learners. Each headteacher must know how to manage the
curriculum: to follow national guidelines, to develop a school life in a way which will enhance
the hidden curriculum which mainly affects learners’ attitudes, maturity, growth and behaviour
and their total overall development .

In Guyana, schools are provided with subject-based Curriculum Guides but it is essential that
headteachers understand the process of curriculum design and how to adapt it to meet
their own local needs.

Individual Study time: 2 hours.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain how to manage the establishment, adaptation and development of

the school curriculum
• identify key factors which need to be taken into account in curriculum design
• produce a school curriculum which is compatible with the guidelines laid down by the
Guyana Ministry of Education.

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Principles and constraints of curriculum design

Activity 1.1
Explain in your own words the meaning of the term curriculum and identify some
constraints which would make it quite difficult to design a good curriculum.

Comments
The curriculum has been defined as all the experiences provided by a school to educate
the learners. It also involves helping teachers provide the best information on subject
matter, taking into account the interests of learners and contemporary social needs. A
curriculum is a course of subjects and extra-curricular activities that must be covered by
the learners, but it should also aim at developing them intellectually, physically and morally,
and at embracing the hidden curriculum which includes behaviour patterns and attitudes
of the learners and staff and the general tone and ethos of the school. The curriculum
should be dynamic and be evolving all the time. It is the job of the headteacher to manage this
process in the school.

Although it is recognised that in Guyana the Ministry of Education will provide a National
Curriculum, it is important to understand some of the basic principles which should be
taken into account in designing a school curriculum. It should:

• embrace all learners whatever their gender, race, ethnic group or ability
• satisfy the philosophy and educational purposes of the school and the nation.
• be developed from 'grassroots' level and include parent and community
contributions.
• make allowance for the special education needs of learners.
• take into consideration the culture, customs and traditions, both of the
country and the region.
• provide practical educational experiences.

Though the list given above is quite extensive, it is not exhaustive.

Constraints
Some of the constraints in developing your curriculum might include the following:-

• it is not a task with which everyone is familiar.

• it is unlikely that the curriculum can take into account every local tradition.
• a lack of physical resources.
• problems in selecting a language of instruction which suits the needs of every learner.
• belief that there must be strict adherence to the official curriculum.
• No procedures have been developed in our school or time allowed for curriculum
development work.

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Using local resources

Activity 1.2
Subjects where local studies and interpretation should be encouraged include Art and
Craft, Geography, History, Social Studies, Agriculture and Science. For each of these
subjects indicate some possible ways in which the local environment can be used to enrich
the curriculum:

Comments
In Guyana, where the curriculum is designed and decided centrally, it may appear as
though teachers have little or no input. But by indirectly interpreting and implementing
the curriculum, successful innovative ideas can ultimately lead to curriculum
modification at the national level. You probably thought of many ways in which you
already use local resources, for example:
• Art and Craft: local designs in cloth, pottery and architecture
• Geography: the relationships between the way people live and their environment
• History: learning from oral traditions of the people
• Agriculture: applying the lessons from local progressive farmers and modern
agricultural methods to practice in other local farms and agricultural work that may
be done in the school.
• Science: aspects of the natural and human environments.
• Mathematics – seeds, leaves, rocks for counting, sorting and grouping
• Language Arts – scenes from the local environment for the Language Experience
Approach

Factors governing the curriculum

Consider for a moment the basic factors which need to be considered in curriculum
development.

Comments
You could also have considered:
• the age of the learners;
• the range of ability levels of the learners;
• inter-relationships between subjects;
• the time available for teaching and learning;
• the availability of funds to provide both specialist facilities, such as science and
Information Technology laboratories, consumable resources and books
• the level of training and experience of the average teacher
• employment opportunities - the type of work and its availability open to those learners
completing school.
• In schools with 6th forms, further and higher education specialization and
possibilities
• The needs of people in the society- what is needed for them to be happy and productive
• Learning occurs through four domains cognitive (knowledge and intellectual skills),
affective (feelings and attitudes), interpersonal (behaviour and relationship with others)
and psychomotor (physical skills)

8
The Hidden Curriculum
A school curriculum consists of a number of subjects which give learners a body of knowledge
and skills, co-curricular activities which create and develop their interests, and the 'hidden
curriculum' which mainly affects learner attitudes, maturity, growth and behaviour. In effect,
this is about the personal, social and health education of the learner.

Think for a moment why such issues as the attendance and punctuality of teachers,
the way teachers interact with each other, the cleanliness of the school compound,
the personality of the headteacher and the choice of subjects by learners might be
regarded as part of the hidden curriculum.

Comments
Although we may reveal some aspects of the hidden curriculum, in fact there will always be
many influences on the way learners behave, on what they learn and on the interests they
develop, which we can never plan for in the curriculum or the co-curricular programme, or,
indeed, ever find out about.

Perhaps one of the most important factors which influences the behaviour of learners is the
way their role models behave, both learners and teachers / parents. Such behaviour is
learnt and copied. If teachers do not attend or arrive late, if they do not show respect for
each other and their learners, if teachers are in school but not at their classooms, if cliques
and groups are allowed to operate, those behaiours will be copied by the learners.

It is your responsibility, as Headteacher, to ensure that all of the influences on learners,

whilst they are in school, are positive ones. If you allow your staff and learners to behave
in this way, you are failing in your duty to the learners. There is a lot we can do to try to
influence what happens; your answers to the items above should have illustrated this.

The Hidden Curriculum - Support for students

The section immediately above signals the importance of the “hidden curriculum” which
affects mainly learners’ attitudes, maturity, growth and behaviour. These features of the
learners’ learning can be considered desirable for young people with regard to their life-long
education and development.
In this context, the Ministry of Education has
initiated studies within the core curriculum areas
such as managing social and sensitive issues and
health and family life education. These programmes
are a societal intervention aimed at preparing young
people for the challenges of adolescence and
adulthood.

These have been identified as essential components

of meaningful involvement and interventions,
improving the quality of learners’ learning in a better
educational environment.
Headteachers can employ various strategies in dealing with some of the following
issues:

• Training for diversity

• Social and peer pressures on young people

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 • Physical punishment in schools
• Awareness of Special Educational Needs
• Awareness of disability
• Stress-reduction and relaxation
• Health and Family Life Education issues.

Consider for a moment whether you actively deal with the above issues in school either
through a recognized Ministry of Education programme or your own intervention and
whether you leave such issues to chance. Do you think what you do is successful?

Comments
You should have evaluated the level of intervention in your own school. Hopefully you will
be satisfied with what you do and the results. If there is little happening in your school in
this area, it is essential that you initiate a programme as soon as possible.

Creating a total curriculum

In Guyana, the concepts of democracy, self-reliance and national identity are deliberately
included in the daily activities and general running of each school.

Activity 1.3
Which of the statements below is describing something which supports either the
Core Curriculum, the Hidden Curriculum or is part of Co-curricular activities?

Identifying the total curriculum

Core Hidden C0- Curricular

STATEMENTS Curriculum Curriculum Activities
1. Discuss moral issues at the school
assembly.

2. Ensure that the school library is stocked

with relevant, up-to-date texts.

3. Organize internal school and staff

development workshops for teachers.

4. Encourage learner participation in running

the school through a prefect system.

5. Request and ensure adequate and

appropriate facilities and supplies.

6. Allow teachers to participate in

curriculum panels.

7. Check the effect of curriculum on

the attitudes and behaviour of learners.

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 Core Hidden C0-Curricular
STATEMENTS CONT’D Curriculum Curriculum Activities
8. Encourage the formation of clubs
and societies and participation of
learners.

9. Expect good work ethics amongst

teachers.

10. Ensure that supplementary books

and support materials are available.

Comments
Many of these statements support two or more areas of the curriculum. In essence, that
which forms part of the National Curriculum and relates to traditionally taught subjects or
even deals with moral and social issues and is taught formally to all learners in a year
group forms the Core Curriculum. That which is not necessarily taught formally and deals
with the general ethos of the school and how people behave is the Hidden Curriculum.
All other activities which are not part of the normal curriculum, are taught to all, are
generally voluntary and often take place outside of normal school hours are Co-curricular.

Learning about the curriculum

In Guyana, as already stated, there is a National Curriculum and therefore all learners in all
parts of the country are expected to follow the same programmes of study, Curriculum Guides
are provided in all subjects at the different levels and are regularly updated. In areas such as
Literacy and Numeracy, Scope and Sequence Charts are also provided and considerable
advice is given to teachers through this literature to assist them in their teaching.

It is essential, therefore, that you as the Headteacher are familiar with all of this information
and can advise teachers in its use. This, of course, is more of a challenge when we consider
the range and variety of subjects offered in secondary schools. Here we will rely on others to
assist us in our dissemination of information.

A thorough knowledge of curricular issues is essential for you to be the Lead Professional in
your school.

Consider the following case study about a new headteacher and arrive at your own
conclusions about the wisdom of the preparations she/he made. Would you have added
any or have considered any of them to be unnecessary.

Case Study
A teacher was appointed to head a new secondary school, 200 kilometers from her home in
an area unknown to her. Before arriving at her new school, she did some advance work
on curriculum planning. In order to do this, she collected data and advice from a number of
sources as follows:-
• Her current Headteacher
• Her father, a subsistence farmer
• The Captain of the village, one of the most respected of traditional leaders in the area

11
 • Published educational legislation
• Her former primary school headteacher
• A visiting teacher on holiday from the region to which she has been appointed
• Curriculum Guides in all subjects
• The REDO
• The DEOs
• The officers of the RDC
• The outgoing Headteacher
• The school staff

A new headteacher will have a lot to learn about the curriculum existing in his / her school
and about the developmental work which will be needed. (S)He will need to learn about the
'official' curriculum, but also about the nature and quality of the work currently done in the
new school, about the learners, the teachers and the community, as well as about the whole
environment in which the school is located. Thus (s)he should consult with a wide variety of
persons in order to inform himself / herself about every aspect of school life.

Literacy and Numeracy across the Curriculum

It is important that, in this unit, reference is made to
the basic curriculum without which all other areas would be
difficult to access. Learners need a firm foundation in all
aspects of Literacy –Reading, Writing, listening, speaking,
thinking and research. Competencies in all of these aspects
of literacy will ensure success in all curriculum areas.
Numeracy is also essential and is the basis of so many
other areas such as science, technology and agriculture.

For Nursery and Primary teachers, providing for this basic

curriculum is second nature. However, there is a tendency,
sometimes amongst secondary and upper division
primary school teachers, to believe that it is not their role to
teach these areas. They consider it to be the job of those lower
down the school.

In Guyana, this is a fallacious argument. Literacy and Numeracy levels in many schools
especially at Lower Secondary Schools and Primary Tops and those where learners with poor
reading and writing skills attend, are not always as good as they should be. We have already
established that without basic literacy skills, learners will not be able to successfully access and
excel in other curriculum areas. It is, therefore, essential that the school provides a
programme which ensures that there is a literacy and numeracy element in every lesson
which is supported by a policy of “Literacy and Numeracy across the Curriculum”. Teachers
need to accept that it is not only their role but their responsibility to ensure that within their
own subject all learners can function in these vital areas. All teachers, therefore, are not only
teachers of their own subject but also support English and Mathematics teachers to provide
adequate practice within their own classrooms.

Special Educational Needs

Finally, we must remember that all learners have needs but for some those needs are
greater and often more permanent. We are not referring here merely to those learners who
may have a physical or mental disability which challenges them in their education but also

12
to the many who have learning difficulties as a result of a variety of reasons from general
lower ability to more serious difficulties such as autism or dyslexia.

All of these learners must be catered for and it is the responsibility of the headteacher to
ensure that this happens. We will go into much more detail in the final part of this module in Unit 9.

Summary
In this unit, we have demonstrated that there are many forms of curriculum, all of which need
to be recognized and planned. A school curriculum embraces the whole life of the school
and is the main resource for improving the quality of learners’ learning – that is, the learning of
ALL learners. Some important concepts are use of resources, the hidden curriculum, the
total curriculum and factors governing the curriculum. Every headteacher has a considerable
task in ensuring a full and balanced curriculum in his/her school.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE

CURRICULUM

CREATING THE TOTAL PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRAINTS

CURRICULUM OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

ESTABLISHING THE
CURRICULUM

LOCAL RESOURCES AND

CORE CURRICULUM
LEARNING

EXTRA CURRICULAR
THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM
ACTIVITES

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 Timetabling Unit 2

Introduction
Timetabling is the method by which the curriculum is brought to the learners. The headteacher
has a number of resources at his or her command - teachers, teaching areas, finance
and time. A timetable is the means by which these resources are organized to provide the
greatest possible educational opportunities and alternatives for learners in the most cost-
effective manner. In Guyana, the emphasis on cost-effectiveness cannot be overstated.
The more efficiently resources are utilized, the better the education for the greater number
of learners. Decisions expressed by the timetable affect the entire school population and
reflect the educational programme and philosophy of the school.

In Guyana, there is a National Curriculum at all levels and teachers are expected to follow it.
In primary schools, the curriculum is delivered to the learners through a timetable produced
by the Ministry of Education. This is translated by the Headteacher and his / her staff into an
Operational Timetable which reflects the local and school situation and is adjusted
according to the staff and resources available. If, in a primary school, there is no teacher
available to teach Spanish or Physical Education, local changes will have to be made until
this can be resolved. In Nursery schools, a National Timetable is provided and there is some
flexibility as to how this is interpreted as long as the main principles are followed.

In secondary schools, for the most part, there is more flexibility as the curriculum is
organized into a wider range of subjects, some of which are part of the core curriculum and
others are optional. Whereas in primary and nursery schools, learners tend to be taught by
one teacher or their respective class teachers, secondary school learners are taught in
classes with different teachers for different subjects. All schools have,to a certain extent,
the opportunity to organize classes according to ability through streaming and setting or
banding for different subjects. This complex situation means that the secondary timetable
cannot be a national one. Much of this unit will look at the way this timetable might be developed.
In many countries, timetables are no longer produced by hand but by complex computer
programs which will provide individual timetables for teachers and learners as well as the main
timetable for the staffroom, room availability and a considerable amount of data which
enables the headteacher to fully understand what is happening in his/her school through a

14
detailed curriculum analysis. There is no doubt that schools in Guyana have begun to follow
this trend in good time.

Individual study time: 4 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• have a basic understanding of timetable construction

• appreciate the timetable as a device enabling quality education
• realize the amount of time and the complexity of thought that go into the production
of a good timetable
• recognize the limits and constraints of a timetable
• comply with the period allocations prescribed by the Ministry of Education
• be aware of the need to:

✓ make full use of all teaching and specialist areas in the school;
✓ ensure the workloads of all teachers comply with Ministry’s requirements;
✓ allow for immediate changes to meet emergency situations;
✓ give learners a choice of optional subjects to fit their career prospects.

Principles and constraints of timetable design

Let us first of all identify some of the principles upon which you should base your timetable
design and which the Ministry of Education would have taken into account in producing the
national timetable for younger children.

1) Principle of fatigue – the best period for the fatigue creating subjects such as
Mathematics and Science are the second and third period in the morning and second
period in the afternoon. Subjects which are less likely to cause fatigue should be best
taught during the first and fourth periods in the forenoon and the first and third
periods in the afternoon. The time table should take into account the concentration
span, age, ability, interests and motivation of its learners. There should be a balance
in the timetable in the sense that not too many double periods or practical subjects
should follow one after the other.

2) Principle of Variety – It is better not to have the same subject for more than two
consecutive periods. There should be alteration for mental and physical task. The
timetable should be arranged with a variety of activities; subjects should be spaced to
sustain learner’s interests and motivation.

3) Principle of Justice - The teaching establishment of the school has to be correctly

determined to ensure that all of the subjects are fully covered. Work among teachers
must be equally distributed. The teaching loads must be balanced across the
timetable. There must be equilibrium in terms of experience, gender and age. No
teacher should be asked to teach a subject for which he/she is not qualified.

4) Principle of rest and recreation – Provision must be made for learners to have
periodic sessions for rest and or recreation.

15
 5) Principle of Flexibility - A good timetable should be flexible, allowing adjustments or
necessary changes to be made according to the circumstances. Allowance has to be
made within the timetable organization, including non-teaching time for:

• learner registration, assemblies, time between periods to change books and

materials, learner guidance and welfare
• staff development including departmental meetings, staff meetings and in-service
workshops.

6) Staff should be deployed vertically and horizontally across the timetable; this means
that teachers should teach at different levels and not just be allocated completing or
beginning classes.

Constraints
The following are some of the factors which will limit your freedom in your design of the
school timetable in secondary schools and the operational timetable in nursery and primary
schools.

Time: 'Restricted time' is time determined by the Ministry’s policies over which the headteacher
has no control - for example, when the following are determined - the number of periods per day,
the number of periods per subject, the length of a period, and the time of school broadcasts.
'Disposable time' is controlled by the school and reflected in the timetable, such as when a
subject is taught, when registration occurs, the length of formal study time, the allocation of
non-teaching time, and the use of double, single or triple periods.

Teacher availability: This can seriously affect a timetable, determining class sizes, subject
choice and the quality of education offered.

School buildings: The design, type and number of these directly affect the timetable in
the number and variety of subjects offered, the number of classes, the size of classes, the
size of the school, the quality of study opportunity, library access and usage, and
teacher-learner ratios.

Traditional attitudes: These can militate against the innovative use of resources which
would add to the school's efficiency, such as how the school hall is used, and the time of
registration and assembly

Lack of public utilities: This can restrict the timetable, for example, no electricity can mean
no evening work; a lack of water can affect Art, Science, Agriculture and Home Economics.

The timing of the school day: This is related to the size of the school's catchment area.
The greater the travelling distance for learners the shorter the school day.

Adhering to the timetable: If teachers do not adhere to the timetable, this will reduce its
effectiveness as the framework for planning the time available for learning.

In this unit, we consider the operational timetable for formal lessons in nursery and primary
schools and the master timetable for secondary schools. As the degree of timetabling
complexity differs for the various levels of primary and secondary education, it is better to
consider each level separately.

16
Before studying the following steps in the use of a nursery timetable, consider for a
moment your experience in this area and what you feel you need to learn about it

Timetable preparation in nursery schools

There is a national timetable in nursery schools to which
teachers are expected to adhere. It allocates time and
establishes a sequence for activities in the classroom. It
is important that the daily schedule suits the
development and individual needs of the learners which
ensures that classroom life proceeds smoothly and is
enjoyable and productive for everyone. The schedule
for nursery schools includes the following different
types of activity:-

• Active and quiet time

• Large group activities
• Small group activities
• Time to play individually or in groups
• Teacher directed activities
• Time for learners to select their own activities
• Choice Activities

The daily schedule establishes the consistency that helps children predict the sequence
of events and thus feel more secure in the classroom. A schedule also helps children
develop a time concept. This does not mean, however, that a special occurrence can not
be a good reason for altering the daily routine. Likewise, when learners are engrossed in an
activity, it is perfectly acceptable to extend the time. Thus, it is perfectly all right to be flexible
about the time when learners are working well and purposefully engaged.

The Headteacher is responsible for ensuring that the timetable is carried out, to
monitor its use and to ensure that it runs smoothly. This will be done by being
around the school, observing lessons and giving feedback to teachers on their
performance.

The following components are included in the timetable and are delivered in a variety of ways:-

Language Experience (e.g. Daily News, observation and recall), Phonemic Awareness,
Story telling, Reading, Mathematics (e.g. numbers, rhyme and song), Science, Social
Studies, Health and Family Life, Skill Development (e.g. colouring, modeling), Singing,
Music, Movement, Drama.

Activity 2.1
If you are a Nursery School Teacher, please obtain a copy of the “Teacher’s Manual
for the Timetable – Nursery Years 1 & 2” which is available in all schools from the
Headteacher. Examine the various learning sessions and detail the expectation for each
learning session.

17
Timetable preparation in primary schools

Under normal circumstances there is one classroom or teaching area, and one teacher for
each class.

The timetable is directed by the Ministry of Education and it must be followed. However,
there are practical and local issues which will affect its operation. This is why an operational
timetable needs to be drawn up. Often, in lower classes teachers draw up the timetable
themselves, adopting a flexible approach to the day’s activities, whereas in the remaining
classes teachers follow a formal timetable. However, when there is only one teacher for a
specialist subject, timetabling will have to take account of this.

Before studying the following steps in the production of a primary timetable, consider for a
moment your experience in this area and what you feel you need to learn about it.

If you have not yet had the opportunity to prepare a timetable to meet the needs of your
school, try to go through the following steps as far as it is practicable.

Step 1: Collect and have available all relevant Ministry directives on time and subject
allocations. It is important to ensure that the timetable meets all the requirements of these
directives.

Step 2: List all the teaching areas in your school. For example:-

• classrooms
• science room
• library
• hall
• playing fields
• garden
• benab
• other spaces

Calculate how many classes may be accommodated in your school at one time. You should
note that a class working for a period of time in the school library or on the playing field may
be regarded as accommodated for that period. However, the extent to which it is necessary
to plan with such attention to the full use of every space will depend upon the pressure of the
numbers of learners.

Step 3: Note how many class teachers are on your establishment. Allocate teachers and
classes to classrooms or teaching spaces.

Step 4: Special Education and Reading Specialist teachers, if availabe, will have to be
timetabled, separately to serve the needs of learners with special needs whilst they are part
of a class. Individual class timetables will have to be consulted and possible adjusted to allow for
classroom pull outs for the learners who need this kind of intervention.

Step 5: Note any situations where you have only one teacher who can deliver a subject, e.g.
Spanish. Make arrangements for that teacher to give lessons to all who should be taught
Spanish, and for the teacher who is replaced to take the Spanish teacher’s class for another
subject on a regular basis. This should be a regular timetabled slot which takes place each
week.

18
Step 6: If you wish to set classes, i.e. divide them up according to ability for a particular
subject, e.g. English and Mathematics; ensure that all classes which are to be set are timetabled
for those subjects at the same time. Learners in each set will move to the different
classrooms for that period of time and return to their normal teacher at the end of the period.

Step 7: In the event that you have additional staff (although a rare occurrence but it does
happen from time to time) ensure that they are fully timetabled either as Special Education
Needs Support Teachers or to take classes for absent colleagues. They may be used also
to reduce class sizes or team-teaching as appropriate.

Responsibilities of the headteacher

The teachers in the primary school need to have an input into the Operational Timetable.
The headteacher then takes into account their needs and then prepares the Operational Timetable
for the school. The overall responsibilities of the headteacher are to ensure that:

• government directives and policies, and especially the national timetable, are
complied with;
• each teacher makes the fullest use of school resources;
• clashes between individual teacher's timetabling demands are resolved amicably
and fairly;
• special education and reading specialists teachers are used appropriately;
• all teachers are used to the fullest extent;
• teachers are prepared to deliver the instructional programme.

The Headteacher is responsible for ensuring that the timetable is carried out, to
monitor its use and to ensure that it runs smoothly. This will be done by being
around the school, observing lessons and giving feedback to teachers on their
performance.

Double session primary schools

Double session arrangements occur where the
number of learners in a school catchment area
exceeds its learner capacity. It can also happen on
a temporary basis when there is refurbishment
or rebuilding is taking place. It is therefore
necessary to maximize the use of the physical
plant and facilities by operating the school in two
sessions. As many primary schools in the
Guyanese interior do not have electricity, the
time when the school can operate is determined
by the daylight hours. The first session may
begin as early as 08.00 and continues till 12.00;
the second session may be from 12.30 to 16.30.
In some primary schools the two sessions overlap.

Two sessions do not mean two schools; one headteacher is in charge of the school for both
sessions. Opportunities for extra-curricular activities are reduced, but can exist for each
session provided there is a timetabling plan to make use of the recreational and game
facilities, the school garden and library. Without such timetables (one for each session)
classroom instruction and learning will remain the sole means of education and many of the
wider values of schooling will be lost.

19
Preparation for writing the timetable in secondary schools
A secondary school timetable consists of three major components which in themselves can
be the bases of separate timetables, namely: teachers, classes or teaching groups, and
rooms. It is essential that thorough preparation takes place before the timetable is properly
constructed. The steps below will take you through this phase.

It is not for this programme to give detailed instructions about the formulation of a timetable
as this is better learnt through working with others and in a separate workshop. However, it
is important that all Headteachers understand the principles involved and the implications
for providing quality education.

As you did for the nursery and primary, reflect for a moment on your experience in this
area and what you feel you need to learn about it.

If you are a secondary teacher and you have not yet had the opportunity to prepare a
timetable to meet the needs of your school, try to go through the following steps as far as
it is practicable.

How you approach this will, of course, depend on the size and type of your school and the
age range and ability levels of your learners. In Guyana, secondary students are taught in:-

• Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) or Sixth Form Schools cater for learners of
mainly higher abilities. Only 5% of students attend these 9 schools. Their programme of
work spans Grades 7- 11. Students are candidates at the CSEC Examinations in Grade
10, and CAPE and/or GCE/ Cambridge Examinations in Grade 11. Entry to these schools
is determined by learner performance at the National Grade 6 Assessment or CSEC
Examinations.

• Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) which have a programme of work from Grades 7 - 10
Students are candidates at the CSEC (CXC) Examinations in Grade 10. Some of the
schools offfer a one-year transition programme aimed at equipping the learners with the
required knowledge and competencies for for the formal Grade 7 class. Entry to a JSS is
determined by learner performance at the National Grade 6 Assessment. Additionally,
learners in the Tops of Primary Schools could gain entry to a JSS via their performance at
the National Grade 9 Assessment.

• Primary Tops (PT) or Secondary Departments of Primary Schools

Although these are being phased out, at the time of writing,these still cater for
secondary learners in some regions. They are extensions to the primary schools
and the timetables will often be similar in structure to that stipluated for the
discrete primary schools. However, some of the Primary Tops are making limited
use of the type of timetables used in secondary schools- specialist teachers and
stipulated workloads, etc.

• Practical Instruction Centres (PICs): These cater to the pre-vocation education

disciplines- Home Economics, Industrial Technology, Agriculture Science, etc. They
are relatively few in number, and are not in Regions1, 2, 7, 8, 9 and 10. Students in
the Secondary Schools and Tops of Primary Schools attend classes at the PICs within
their catchment area or at centres contiguous to their schools.

20
Schools with 6th forms leading to A Level or CAPE and with Grades 10 and 11 students who will
write the CSEC examinations will have timetables which will be extended beyond the core
curriculum to allow learners to take optional subjects. This must be taken into consideration
when following the steps below:-

Step 1: Collect and have available all relevant Ministry directives on time and subject
allocations. It is important to ensure that the timetable meets all the requirements of these
directives.

Step 2: List the number of teaching areas in the school.

• Classrooms
• laboratories
• workshops
• outdoor teaching areas
• gymnasium
• library (if classes are held there)
• school garden
• school hall
• any other space

Step 3: Note any limiting factors: the teaching space can only accommodate half a class,
cannot be used for academic work or examinations, or can only be used for certain types of
lessons.

Step 4: List the number of teaching subjects and identify each as either 'core' or 'optional'.
A core subject is one which all learners must study; an optional subject is one which a learner
can opt to study. Forms 1 - 3 generally follow a core curriculum with older learners following
a core e.g. English, Maths, Science, Social Studies, IT which takes up 60% of curriculum
time. Other optional subjects will occupy 40% of the total curriculum.

Step 5: Ensure that the time allotments prescribed by the Ministry of Education are adhered
to. Perhaps the most common pattern is 40 minute teaching periods, an eight-period day,
and a five-day week with each covering 40 periods a week.

Step 6: List your teachers by name and subject according to their responsibilities, starting
with the Senior Leadership Team, other Senior Teachers, Heads of Department and so on.
Ensure that you are fully aware of the subjects your teachers are qualified to teach and are
able and willing to teach. There is a big difference and the latter should only be used when
you have no other options.

Name of Teacher Subject 1 Subject 2 Subject 3

Mr. Samaroo Spanish English (A) English (B)

Step 7: Decide on the teaching load of each of your teachers according to their level of seniority
and time required to fulfill other duties. This should be an agreed formula and be fair and
transparent to all. This may very well form part of a Ministy of Education or Teaching Service
Commission’s directive for some schools. You will express this both as a percentage teaching load
and numbers of periods out of the maximum, e.g 35 periods = 87.5%.

21
 Name of Teacher Designation Number of Percentage
Teaching Periods Teaching Load

Mr. Scott Sharland SM 30 75%

HOD(Social
Mr. Johnson Studies) 33 82.5%

Step 8: Meet senior staff and Heads of Department to find their timetabling needs with
regard to:
• preferred teaching time during the day
• subject weekly timetable distribution
• single or double periods
• study time requirements
• departmental meeting time requirements so that all within a department might be
timetabled to have non contact time together. This is not always possible.

Step 9: Collect data on learner preference in optional subjects. Note that this is a simplified
chart for demonstration purposes. Most schools would have considerably more options.

Student English Geography Food Design & Home Agriculture Art

Name Literature Studies Technology Economics

R. Singh 1 1 1

Totals

If Geography is the most popular subject and Commerce the least popular, are there enough
teachers of Geography? If not, some learners opting for Geography will have to be encouraged
to choose Commerce instead. Are there sufficient learners to make up a class of Design and
Technology? (Remember in some practical subjects, such as Design and Technology and
Food Studies, usually, usually only half the normal sized class can be accommodated at one
time.)

Either:

Step 10: This stage is complex and requires great skill and practice. The options you have
decided upon and learners have chosen will need to be divided into blocks for timetable
purposes. That is, 4 or 5 of the options will all have to be taught at the same time. The
composition of the blocks will depend on the learner choices. It may be necessary to place
some more popular subjects into more than one option block so that you can meet the
needs of all your learners.

22
A simplified version of this can be found below for illustration purposes. Most schools will be
much more complex than this.

Option One Option Two Option Three

3 Periods 3 Periods 3 Periods
per week per week per week

English A English B History

English B MU Communication Studies
Geography Spanish Chemistry
Physical Education Biology Information Technology
Agriculture Science Technical Drawing DR
History DA D&T
Physics Physical Education Tex

You will have decided on these blocks based on the choices of the learners to be able to
give the maximum number the exact options they require. However, unless the school is very
large, it is unlikely that you will please all because you will be restricted by some practical
issues:

• The number of teachers you have to teach the subject.

• The optimum class size. It cannot be too large and too small is uneconomical and you
will not be able to afford the staff.
• The number of specialist rooms you have available at any one time.
• The resources available to you in each subject area.

Activity 2.2
In the above option blocks, identify the following:
• The most popular subjects the learners have chosen
• Combinations of subjects that learners will be unable to choose

Comments
The most popular subjects will be those that have been placed in two option blocks or for
which there are two groups in the same block (e.g. English (B) and History). When there
are two groups in the same block, the learners can be set according to ability.

Learners will not be able to choose two or more subjects from the same block because they
are being taught at the same time. e.g. Drama, Dance and P.E. This can be used to
restrict learners’ choices and ensure that they have a balanced curriculum, e.g. not too
many physical or practical subjects.

When putting four practical subjects together such as in Option 3, it is essential to note
whether you have sufficient rooms to be able to accommodate them.

23
Or

Step 10 (b): A simpler although more restrictive process is to create the blocks first and
allow the learners to choose from them. You will probably have to adjust the blocks
somewhat after the choices have been made to accommodate as many learners as
possible.

N.B. It is unlikely that you will have 100% success using either of these methods, especially
in a school with only a few Grade 10 and 11 learners. Even computer programs rarely achieve
this. Remember also that when doing timetabling you will have to place the options of Grades
10 and 11 at different times as you will not have enough rooms or teachers.

In schools with 6th forms, options are the greater part of the curriculum for 16 – 19 year olds.
Class sizes will be smaller and the provision of specialist rooms is even more critical. We
will not deal with this here as it is better that on-the-job training is done by an experienced
timetabler in the school.

Remember to involve all the teachers in timetable compilation whenever possible.

Step 11: Decide which subjects each teacher will teach to which classes for how many
periods to fill their timetable loading.

Teacher Subject 1 Classes Periods Subject 2 Classes Periods

F. Gomes Spanish 1A, 1B, 1C 9 English 4A, 4C 8

Step 12: Using the above information, adjust your optional subject programme to ease the
teacher shortage, if this is possible. If not, there are alternative methods which could be
used to ensure as many options are available as possible. For example, you could reduce
the number of weekly teaching periods.

Step 13: Identify the amount of non-teaching time which should be timetabled to allow for
registration, for student welfare and guidance, for assemblies and for meals.

You are now ready to construct the timetable itself and will be asked to follow the steps
below. Firstly, however, you will need to decide by which method you are going to display it.

Timetable Display
There are several ways of presenting a timetable, for example, a large sheet of paper using
colour coding, blackboard, whiteboard, magnetic board, peg board, pin board, computer
printouts. Choose the most convenient way for your situation. Study the sample shown
below.

24
Sample timetable presentation
1. Class timetable

Teacher

Subject

Room
MONDAY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1A 1A

A margin along the left hand side is left for the name of each class. On each line, each
column has space for three entries, namely, 'subject', 'room' and 'teacher'. All this
information is essential.

The teacher timetables and room timetables should be compiled simultaneously. Examples
for Monday only can be found below:-

2. Teacher Timetable
Subject
Class

Room
MONDAY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

R. Singh R. Singh

3. Room Timetable
Subject
Teacher

Class
MONDAY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Room 6 Room 6

Note that the sample given above is limited in that it can only be used for a weekly, five-day
timetable. No allowance is made for six, seven or two-weekly timetables preferred by some
headteachers. Comments on this type of timetable are made later in this unit.

25
Constructing the Timetable

Step 1: Determine the order in which information is going to be entered on the timetable.
Priorities will be decided by demand. If there is great demand on specialist teaching
facilities, then the subjects, teachers and classes using these rooms should be entered first.

Case study

A school has three science rooms and 27 classes, with each class having six periods of
Science in the form of three double periods a week.

The school operates a 40-period per week timetable.

With three rooms this means 120 periods a week can be taught in the science rooms each
week.

But there are 27 classes, each of which has six periods of Science a week. So the total
demand on the science rooms is:

27 classes x 6 periods a week = 162 science periods a week.

Activity 2.3
If the science rooms are fully utilized, how many science periods will have to be
taught in non-science rooms?

If a double period was added to the timetable every afternoon, would this solve the
problem?

Which classes, if any, should receive priority for accommodation in the science rooms?

Comments
The number of science periods taught in non-science rooms would be equal to the
number of periods required (162) less the availability of rooms (120).

A double period at the end of every day would provide 10 extra periods. It would
help but not solve the problem but would create other problems in terms of learner
departure times and the availability of teachers.

Priority would always be given to examination classes and those for which practical
facilities are essential – usually the older learners.

You should now see the reason for timetabling subjects with specialist rooms and a
large number of periods, such as Science, before any other subject.

26
If the school is just opening, or for some reason its facilities are under-utilized, then it might be best
to timetable first a teacher teaching two subjects, or a subject which has the greatest number of
teaching periods.

Step 2: Choose the most difficult subject to timetable (see above) and work across the
timetable entering three pieces of information at the same time: 'subject', 'teacher' and
'room'. Do not try to complete one day and then move onto the next - such an approach will
lead to chaos! At this stage, it is essential that you have chosen the right media for display,
i.e. one where corrections and alterations can be made easily.

Step 3: After entering a subject across the timetable, check teacher and room timetables to
ensure that all the information matches.

Step 4: In making entries, think both laterally and vertically so that the final entries will cause
fewer problems.

A typical Grades 7 - 9 programme, on a 40-period cycle, may be built up of English (6),

Mathematics (6), Science (4) Social Studies (4), Reading (2), Spanish (2) Visual Arts (2),
Expressive Arts (2), Agricultural Science (4), Home Economics (4), Industrial Technology
(4)

The element of subject rotation arises in Technical /Art/ Home Economics where rotation
between these subjects may take place to enable learners to experience each subject and
decide (with guidance) which subject to study in depth in later years. Rotation may take
place throughout the course or for a limited period of time in the first few weeks in these
particular subject areas.

At the end of Grade 9 (Form 3) learners, with guidance, opt for the CSEC subjects they will
study. Learner choice, within the other parameters we have identified, will help to determine
the character of the timetable.

Before carrying out the final steps, you will need to consider the time frame and devices for
learner grouping.

The time frame

1. LENGTH OF PERIODS

The 40-minute period fits well with research that the attention span of the average secondary
student begins to decline after 30/40 minutes. Double periods of 80 minutes reduce the amount
of work for timetablers but their desirability must be carefully considered, taking into account the
amount of project and practical work in a subject. Multiple periods suit practical subjects but
create problems when dealing with option blocks.

2. LENGTH OF DAY/NUMBER OF PERIODS PER DAY

Usually the morning hours are timetabled for the teaching and learning of more academic
subjects whilst the afternoons are often devoted to more practical subjects and sporting
activities. This, of course, cannot be the case for every day of the week. However, a
timetable based on nine 35-minute periods gives greater flexibility for the timetabler. In
Guyana, timings are often standardized where possible.

27
3. LENGTH CYCLE
Instead of the conventional five-day week, it is possible to have six-, seven- or even 10-day
weeks (fortnightly timetable), an arrangement which gives more flexibility in subject/period
allocations, and also means that teachers/learners are not tied to a particular subject for
Fridays and Mondays throughout the term or year. This is rare in Guyana although it
provides flexibility.

Timetabling devices for alternative learner grouping

1. BLOCKING
This occurs where certain classes are timetabled together throughout the timetable for key
subjects such as Mathematics or English. The number of groups created depends on the
number of subject teachers available. Given this arrangement it is possible to

• form ability groups or mixed ability groups of different sizes

• change teachers according to the topic being taught
• cover for absent teachers with the minimum disruption
• form smaller or larger groups according to teacher availability

This device can only be used in larger schools where there are sufficient classes in the same year
and sufficient subject teachers.

For an example, see below (E = English; M = Mathematics).

Example of blocking

MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1A E M M E E M
1B E M M E E M
1C E M M E M E
1D E M M E M E
1E E E E M M E
1F E E E M M E
1G E M M E E
1H E M M E E

28
Mathematics and English have been blocked on the timetable for Monday, Tuesday and
Wednesday.

2. SETTING
This device is used to provide alternatives for learners
within the slot on the timetable. It is essential where classes
have to be half the normal size, for example, Design and
Technology, Art, Home Economics. A number of classes within
the same year can be timetabled together throughout the
timetable and offered a number of options. A pupil chooses one
from the selection of optional subjects on offer. There is no
reason why the same option group cannot be offered twice on
the timetable affording the learners a second alternative.
Option columns may contain more classes than the nominal
number of classes having access to them, permitting the
creation of small classes in certain practical subjects without
overloading other subject classes. Adjustments can be made
from year to year in the contents of these option columns. Thus if the demand for
Geography falls and that for History rises, Geography can be replaced in part by History,
provided the school has teacher capability.

Example of setting

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1A
G

1B H

1C SS G

1D SS

1E H

1F G

1G SS

1H H

In the example given, Geography (G) is set against Social Studies (SS) and History (H).

Both blocking and setting are infinitely better than streaming where whole classes are decided on
the ability levels of learners.

Step 5: List the option groups you intend to form, indicating subjects and size of classes in each
subject. Enter these groups as blocks into the timetable.

29
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4A O O O
P P P
4B T T T
I I I
4C O O O
N N N
4D
3 1 2

In this example, 4A, 4B, 4C and 4D will study the options they have chosen from the block at the
times stated for Option One Subjects, Option Two Subjects and Option Three Subjects.

Step 6: Enter the core subjects for Grades 10 and 11 (Forms 4 & 5)

Step 7: Work out a first year (year 7) programme which will meet learner needs. Translate the
programme into timetable form. Repeat for the other years.

Although the method above has been simplified considerably, it should assist you in
understanding the process.

It is imperative that each headteacher selects or devises a learner-centered timetabled

programme which is most appropriate to the school's circumstances.

Activity 2.4
We recommend strongly that you read the following:-

“Towards School Effectiveness” – Guidelines for Secondary Teachers and

School Management Dr Kenneth Hunte 2005

This should be available in most Regional Departments of Education and in many

schools from the Headteacher. If you are able to obtain your own copy it would be an
asset.

Summary
A school timetable should give full information in three distinct areas, namely: teaching
stations, teaching staff, class distribution, and subjects taught at certain times for each
teaching day.
In order to compile a meaningful timetable, the headteacher must be aware of the necessity
to consult others so as to make full preparations and collect all the relevant data. He or she
must command the expertise to direct the production of a timetable which will serve the
needs of all categories, intellects and aptitudes among the school's learners. Finally, the
headteacher must know and be able to apply such timetable devices as blocking, setting the
extended day and week, and double sessions, in order to meet the special circumstances
which may prevail in the school.

30
 Organising Resources to Support
the Curriculum Unit 3
Introduction
The nature and quality of the curriculum offered in a school
is closely related to the resources which are available, and,
most importantly, how well they are used. It is necessary to
understand that the quality of learning and therefore the
nurturing of learner behaviour hinge on how well the
available resources are used. In this unit, we consider the
issues of the availability and adequate use of resources and
some of the problems headteachers face in managing
resources. Even where finance is available, it is still
important to improvise and adapt from the local environment.

Individual study time: 2 hours.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• display a thorough knowledge of resources and the way they should be

organised for the promotion of learning/ teaching in schools
• explain the need to produce and acquire resources
• recognise constraints in the management of resources
• find ways of managing resources properly.

Types of resources and constraints

Reflect on some of the resources which are available to all of us in schools.

Think about the constraints you have as a headteacher in managing your
resources

Comments
Resources are essential to get our work done. The four main types of resources
are: material, human, financial and time. Some of the principles which we need to
apply in their management are as follows:

• All possible resources should be identified and used appropriately.

• There should be a maximum use of all available resources.
• Local resources should be sought or manufactured wherever possible.
• The use of resources should be carefully monitored and controlled.

31
 Constraints
You will probably have identified quite a number of constraints which considerably hinder the
ability
of you and your teachers to provide the curriculum you would wish. Which of the following did
you identify?

• shortage or lack of storage facilities

• lack of skills and expertise needed to identify and use resources properly
• inadequate sources of supply of the required resources
• insufficient means of transport to distribute resources
• lack of skills in how to manage time and space effectively
• insufficient financial provision
• inappropriate and unimaginative training of teachers

Identifying resources

Activity 3.1
Take the examples of resources in the chart below and place them in the correct
category.

Material Human Financial Time Material

Resource Resource Resource Resource
s s s s
• textbooks
• teachers
• school day
• learners
• Vehicles
• Classrooms
• audio-visual aids
• PTA funds
• Subjects
• period allocations
• furniture study time
• ancillary staff
• kits for science
• school infrastructure
• board of governors
• petty cash
• library books
• teachers' guides
• community resource persons
• manipulative
• syllabii
• schemes-of-work
• software programme
• laboratories

32
 Comments
This list and your answers demonstrate the range of resources available to us.
Everything we see and touch is a resource which perhaps we could use. Thus
resources extend far beyond textbooks, and include many things which cannot be
provided by the Ministry of Education. Many of these resources cost nothing. From
this, you may see that the management of resources by a headteacher required
considerable skills.

Managing resources

Activity 3.2
Everyone uses resources.
1. What resources do the following persons use: headteacher, learners, teachers,
security guard and secretary?
2. Who, in your school, is directly responsible for securing the following resources
for the school: teachers, stationery, information on careers, classroom furniture,
science kits, sports equipment and food?
3. In what ways can the persons named above be helped to make effective use of
these resources?

Comments
We are all users of many resources, some of which are our own, but most of which we
share with other persons. Similarly we all have responsibility for managing resources,
both our own and those we share. For teachers and other staff, it is important that the
extent of their individual responsibilities be written into their job descriptions. The
appraisal of th work of everyone in a school should take into account how well they
manage resources. The qualities of leadership which we look for in both learners and
teachers (and most of all headteachers) depend to a large extent on their resource
management abilities. Everyone needs to be helped to develop their skills in this area, both
through pre-service training on the part of teachers and through everyday training and
supervision. The headteacher is responsible for developing this appreciation of resources
and the involvement of everyone in their management.

Maintaining resources

Activity 3.3
Resources have to be looked after properly. The school delegates this responsibility
and monitors the performance of the individuals concerned. For each of the
resources listed below give the post of the person responsible, where the resource is
normally stored and any special management this requires.

33
 Resources Post of Storage Management
Responsibility Arrangements
Textbooks

Exercise Books

Art equipment

Surplus furniture

Agricultural tools

Cooking utensils

Computer Equipment

Musical instruments

Chemicals for Science

Report cards

General stationary

Schemes-of-Work

Tool Kit materials

Comments
Resources which are purchased from school funds require special attention. For this
reason the
headteacher usually delegates authority and responsibility to key teachers and
members of the support staff, and ensures the provision of storage and appropriate
management.

The shortage of any resource - teachers, classrooms, finance, time - reduces the extent
to which the curriculum can be delivered effectively. Shortages can occur because of
poor school
managerial procedures, including, for example:

• failure to make proper staffing vacancy returns

• failure to keep appropriate records of consumable stock
• poor maintenance routines
• poor planning of use of available funds
• inability to maintain resources to acceptable standards resulting in
deterioration
• Failure to keep an up-to-date asset register
• lack of time management
• poor recording keeping and documentation
• failure to implement Ministry of Education policies, e.g textbook policy

34
 Shortages can also occur because of factors external to and beyond the control of the
school management, including, for example:
• inadequate funding
• lack of available transport
• limitations in the capacity of the supplier making it impossible to meet the
needs of the school
• inability of the Teaching Service Commission to provide suitably qualified
teachers as and when required
• lack of creativity and resourcefulness on the part of staff members
• Non-existence of environmental resources, for example, a lesson on
mountains could suffer in a place where there are none
• no electricity or source of power.

From your own experience consider the main problems you face as a headteacher
in the maintenance of resources? How does it compare to the list above?

Comments
It is important to recognise that shortages originating within the school may be overcome
by good school managerial practices, but first it is necessary to identify the cause of the
shortages and then make the required changes in the school's internal routines to try to
improve the situation.

More effective resource maintenance

The management of resources needs to be planned. You and your staff could manage the
resources in your school more effectively by:

• better planning to identify resource needs and how they may be satisfied and, in
particular, linking curriculum planning to resource development
• better pre-service, in-service and on-the-job training for those who use resources
• more effective use of storage facilities
• more accurate and punctual maintenance of all resource records and the asset
register
• setting up systems by which resources are shared both within the school and
between schools
• closer supervision and more accountability of both staff and learners.
• using more low cost/local products from the environment e.g seeds for counters.

There are many benefits your school will derive from a more effective management of
resources.

By managing the school’s resources more effectively the headteacher will achieve
easier access to available resources, a higher level of achievement of the curriculum
objectives and full and proper utilisation of all resources. In addition, it is likely that the
teachers will become more creative and positive and their lessons will become more
varied, focused and interesting, resulting in more use of learner-centered methods.

35
Production of resources

A fundamental characteristic of a good learning environment is one where creativity and

innovation are demonstrated, fostered and promoted. Do your teachers experiment with
new ideas with regard to locating, developing and using new resources?

Resources in Guyana can often be scarce. Such items as paper, card, scissors and glue
are not always readily available in schools. Sometimes this is because of a lack of
funds and on other occasions it occurs through lack of planning and organization.
Therefore headteachers and teachers need to learn how to improvise. Cardboard boxes
can be used instead of sheets of cardboard to create word cards and charts, sticky plastic
wraps can be used for an electric laminator.

Reflect for a moment on one or two ways in which you and your staff have recently
demonstrated a capacity for self-help and experimentation in resourcing your
school and its curriculum. Consider, in this context, which resources you are often
short of and how you could replace them with something else.

As with all human endeavours, team work in the production and care of resources is not
only beneficial but much less labour-intensive. It helps also to catalogue and carefully
store resources, especially multiple copies of worksheets, so that they can be used by all
and will last longer.

Summary

In every school there should always be

an emphasis on improving the
conditions for learning, which will in
turn depend on teacher self-
development, motivation and
commitment. Good, available
resources will lead to greater
satisfaction amongst both learners and
staff. In order to accomplish this, the
headteacher must plan, anticipate,
consult, supervise and act in a timely
manner; so as to ensure that all
the resources which are required are
identified, developed and fully used in a
responsible manner. It is useful to
emphasize that the nurturing of student
learning behaviour is determined in the main by the effective use of curriculum resource
material.

36
 Identifying
Resources

Managing Types of resources

Resources and constraints

Organizing resources to
support the curriculum

Maintaining More effective

Resources resource maintenance

Sharing
Resources

37
 Selecting and
Managing Textbooks
Unit 4
Introduction
Textbooks are an integral part of the resources for curriculum implementation. In recent
times, the publications of text books have improved considerably with regard to learner’s
learning and teacher development – texts are now prepared with the teaching activity in
[Link] contain knowledge, explanation and exercises essential to the
understanding of each subject.

In Guyana, serious attention has been given to the production and

publication of local textbooks. Inputs have come from overseas
publishing houses and UNESCO consultancies. Above all, the production
of local texts have emphasized the local customs, culture and
environment. In addition, teachers have been involved in the selection,
writing and testing of the material.

In this unit, we consider different aspects of the management of textbooks

including their selection, distribution and care. Within this framework, the
durability and care of textbooks combine to give special importance to a
policy of the Ministry of Education. This policy is a commitment to ease the
pressure on parents and at the same time to remove some of the social and economic
barriers to learners’s learning.
Individual study time: 3 hours.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• know how to select appropriate textbooks for learners within the constraints of finance
and governing policies
• know how to ensure that the school is properly stocked with appropriate textbooks
• create a fair system for the distribution of textbooks to all learners
• establish procedures for the proper care of books.
Principles and constraints of textbook management
In an ideal world, all textbooks would be selected by specialists based on the books’
qualities and use as a teaching and learning aid. However, in reality, this is not always
the case as such resources are often scarce. Furthermore, the choice of textbook by and
outside “expert” might limit the creativity of individual teachers. In addition, a number of
practical issues will come into play. Some of the basic principles which should guide you in
the management of textbooks in your school are likely to include the following:
1. The topics should be relevant to the curriculum.
2. Changes of standard textbooks should be restricted and spaced across a number of
years.
3. A textbook should be either robust and have a long life expectancy, or be very
cheap and be expected to last only the length of a course.

38
4. A workbook in which learners write can only be used once and may be considered a
luxury when resources are limited.
5. The choice, type and quantity of textbooks required is determined by the school's
annual budget, learner needs and curriculum requirements.
6. The value of textbooks must be appreciated by all who handle them.

Constraints
Almost every school faces problems in ensuring there is an adequate supply of textbooks and of
the right quality. Some of the reasons this is so include the following:

1. There are not enough funds to buy the textbooks needed. There is no guarantee that
adequate funds will be provided in future years.
2. The chosen textbook is not available at the time and in the numbers required.
Replacement copies cannot be easily found or purchased.
3. Within the school, there might be insufficient expertise and knowledge to make a
meaningful choice of textbook.
4. In some schools, there is a lack of secure, weatherproof storage facilities.
5. Teachers are concerned that using books may damage them and they will be held
accountable.
6. The process of requisiting for replacement or new books is lengthy.
Qualities of a textbook
A textbook is a printed and bound artefact for each year or course of study. (Encyclopedia of Education,
2008b). They contain facts and ideas around a certain subject.

Qualities of good textbooks include the following:-

1. They should be useful for the learners as well as teachers

2. The size of the book should be handy. Learners should be able to carry them properly
3. Painting and layout of the books should be interesting and attractive
4. They should serve the purpose of the subject – matter as well as the aims and objectives of
teaching
5. The books should be accurately written and there should be no flaws in them
6. The style of the books should also seve the pyschological requirements of learners of different
stages.

A textbook usually consists of text, index, diagrams, illustrations and exercises. The quality
can range from a simple text with line drawings printed on inferior paper to a full colour
glossy publication. The cost implications for the latter are considerable. However, we will
need to be clear about how the text can support the required learning. Is it better, for
example, for learning material to be available to all learners through a cheaper text than
for it to be shared using a more expensive publication? This is partly the rationale behind
Guyana’s production and publication of local textbooks.
We need to consider how important such content as diagrams, full colour photographs,
illustrations and exercises are to learners in a Grade One class in Mathematics or a
Secondary CSEC class in Biology. Although the nature and level of content in a textbook is
important, so is the design, and this must be matched to the level of the learners, the subjectand the t
eaching /learning style which is being encouraged.

Consider for a moment what you feel are the important features you would look for in a
textbook in your own subject for the age range you are currently teaching.

39
 Criteria for selection
If you are ever in the fortunate position of being able to choose a textbook as opposed to
using existing ones or having textbooks chosen for you, you should consider some of the
criteria you would use in their selection.
Some of the factors which you would probably have included in your selection might be:

• suitability of the material for the age of learner

• language level within the learner's grasp
• good, clear, interesting expression
• cost within the school's budget
• accuracy and relevancy of information presented
• contains graded activities and practice exercise
• durability
• content at the correct ability level and relevant to the course of study
• diagrams and illustrations appropriate to the learner's experience
• good, usable index
• uses culturally unbiased language
• material is related to the cultural contexts of all the learners and is free of bias.
• scope and sequence is appropriate

Given that textbooks are used across international barriers and cover the experiences of
a wide range of cultural practice, reflect for a moment on which of these you would
consider to be the most important and would influence your choice most.

Practice with regard to the purchase of textbooks varies consid-

erably. For example, subject specialists, after consultation, may
compile a list of the required textbooks which each school must
order. They may also be provided directly from the Book Distribution
Unit (BDU) either on the recommendation of a specialist or as a
donation from an NGO or another donor. Funds are made
available for this purpose but the school can decide the number of
textbooks and the supplier. In Guyana, some publishers are
under contract to produce specific textbooks which are then
supplied directly to schools. The National Centre for
Educational Resource Development (NCERD) also supplies
texts which are directly linked to the Curriculum Guides or Scope
and Sequence Charts which they produce. Perhaps, in an
ideal situation, all decisions about the selection of textbooks would be left to headteachers and
teachers who would understand their own local context and needs. However, for
practical reasons and because there is an economy of scale, schools in Guyana are more
likely to be provided with books than to have to choose them.

Textbooks may be classified in four types: Basic Text, Class sets, Teacher’s Reference and Library
Set.

1) BasicText: These are issued to each individual learner who becomes responsible
and accountable for them. The basic texts are usually given for the core subjects, reading in
the primary school and for literacy and numeracy in the nursery school.
2) Class Set : One per every three (3) learners. However, if there are several classes across the grade
using the same National Timetable then more than one set may be required. In general, class sets
are for group work and are also Supplementary Texts/Readers.

40
3) Teacher’s Reference – one per teacher.
4) Library Set

With the increasing cost of textbooks, often because of the quality of their production, the
main reason for deciding whether a textbook should be ordered as a basic text or as a
class set is likely to be differences in cost. Hence, the reason in Guyana, so many texts
are directly produced and published by the Ministry of Education.

Cost

Activity 4.1
1. Explain why it may be less expensive for a school to buy class sets than textbooks
for individual learners.
2. Class sets have to be accessible to learners when required. Where should they
be stored to enable this to be possible?
3. How many books should there be in a class set? Check your answer because it
may not be the same number as the number of learners in the class.
4. Under what circumstances might you have fewer books in a set than the number
of learners in the class, and under what circumstances more?

Comments
Using class sets can be cheaper because one set of books can be used several times
with different classes. Thus the ratio of learners to books may be 3:1, instead of 1:1. If the
system of class sets of textbooks is used, then the teachers must be trained as to how to
operate it effectively as much time and effort may be wasted. The sets must be stored in
the classrooms where they are needed. If one book is shared between two learners,
then only half sets need be purchased, but if there are several classes and clashes
in the timetable, then more than one set may be required.

The question of cost may be critical, but it is also important to think about cost
effectiveness. If textbooks are only available in class, then how do learners have time to
read them at leisure in order to really get to know a book, or have access to them when
they have homework to do? Class sets may reduce immediate costs, but we also need to
know what effect this option may have on levels of learner attainment.

Durability
Think for a moment about how long textbooks used in your school last for.
Consider the main factors which determine the life of a textbook.

41
The life of a textbook varies a lot. One of the key factors is who is looking after a book. A
well bound book belonging to a serious learner is likely to last much longer than a poorly
bound book of a careless learner who feels no responsibility for it, nor is held accountable by
the school or by his parents. Other factors are changes that are made in the curriculum or
the arrival of a new teacher who has his / her own preferences. When resources are scarce,
then clear policies are required within each school which are then implemented effectively.
A considerable factor in the non-use of textbooks which are available in schools is the
concern of the teacher about being held accountable for their safety. This is an anomaly
because unless the books are used they cannot be effective as a learning tool. Whereas
teachers must be held accountable, they have to be confident enough to realize that they
will not be penalized for that which is beyond their control.
This is probably best encapsulated in the following quotation from the Introduction of a series
of books produced for the learners of the North Rupununi District of Guyana.

We urge learners and teachers to keep them off the shelves and firmly placed in the
hands of learners. Books are not ornaments and these particular books are to be read and re-
read, used and re-used and put into practice by all of us who get the chance to read……….”

Vanda Radzik (Community Development Fellow, Iwokrama) referring to the Lolita and Maria series by
Liz Schuster.

Local production of textbooks

Activity 4.1
1. What proportion of the textbooks used in your school are locally written and
produced?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of locally produced textbooks?

Comments
Locally produced textbooks should be purchased wherever possible. Local authors
are most likely to know both the curriculum, understand the needs of the children
and provide culturally relevant content and concepts.

Local publishers may design and print books in a way which is more
appropriate for the market.

Activity 4.2
A teacher has reported to the deputy headteacher that a learner has not handed in a
homework assignment. This is her third offence. On investigating the case, the
deputy headteacher finds that almost half the class is without textbooks. He then
reports this situation to the headteacher.

(1) Who may be responsible for this situation and why? Is it the learner, the teacher,
the headteacher, the parents, the Ministry of Education, nobody or everyone?

(2) What steps could you take to alleviate the situation?

42
 Comments
It may not be appropriate to spend much
time blaming people. If we look at the
situation more positively as a challenge
rather than a problem, then we may see
that each of these people may have a
contribution to make to alleviate the
situation. The lesson of this case should be
that the quality of learning by learners and
their levels of achievement are closely
related to the quality availability and use of
textbook, and thus the quality of textbook
management by the headteacher.

Activity 4.3
The annual order of textbooks has just been delivered at your school. You arrange to
issue textbooks to the various departmental heads, who in turn issue them to
class teachers who issue them to the learners.

Check what you and your staff do in each of the following areas.

1. How are the books identified, so that one copy can be distinguished from another?
2. There is another school in the locality. How is it possible to identify to which school
the books belong?
3. What steps are taken when a learner wantonly damages a book? Are the nature
and level of action related to the degree of damage?
4. What happens when a learner loses a book?
5. Whose responsibility is it to check on books issued to learners and
teachers, and how often?
6. Whose responsibility is it to:

• report lost books to the headteacher?

• charge for lost books?
• store surplus textbooks?

7. What happens to textbooks which are surplus, redundant and no longer of

value to the school?
8. Design a book issue form for the learner. Remember to leave space for the learner's
signature.

43
Comments
You may have discovered that what would be considered to be good practice may be
very different from the actual practice in your school.

All textbooks must be identified by a unique number which is clearly marked on the book
and cannot be removed. Often this number will also be represented on a page number.
For example, Book number 20 would be marked on page 20. This is an additional
way of ensuring that book numbering is not tampered with. All books should bear the
school stamp in a prominent place to identify them from those of other schools.

The Headteacher, class teachers and learners must be held accountable at all levels
and, where they have been found to be negligent, there must be consequences.
Learners and their parents must pay for lost or damaged books. It is the responsiblity
of the teacher who issues the books to check them on a regular basis and to ensure their
safe return.

Reporting and charging for lost books and the storage of surplus books will be a matter
for individual schools to decide. However, accountability must be maintained at all levels
at all times. When books are no longer of use to the school, they may be written-off with
approval from the auditors. The books may be of use in another school and so the
Department of Education may arrange for them to be so transferred, observing due
process.

Activity 4.4
The headteacher is tasked with completing a self-audit of textbooks within his/her
custody.

Prepare a reporting format that can be used to find out the quantity and useability of
the books. Be sure the teacher indicates how often this exercise should be conducted
and the purposes for which the activity is conducted.

Comments
The school based audit is conducted annually for the purpose of ascertaining the
quantity, titles and levels of books in stock and use. The audit also reveals the books
which are serviceable, and unserviceable and will need to be written off.

A good reporting format will follow the guidelines contained in the School Records and
Documents page 103 – 105.

44
The care of textbooks
___________________________________________________________________
Case study
____________________________________________________________________
The life of any book will be extended, if it is properly looked after. Consider this case:

A cartoon of new books had arrived at the school for the library. The teacher in charge of the
library was determined that learners should be introduced to these books and learn to respect
them and treat them properly. She asked permission of the headteacher and then visited each
class to give a talk on the books and their contents. In one class she selected a book, and
opened it infront of the class, only to find that because the binding was stiff the book would not
remain open. She took the book and bent it backwards, there was a loud 'crack' – the spine of the
book had broken.

What should the teacher do next?

1. Report the matter immediately to the headteacher?

2. Pretend nothing has happened and carry on?
3. Say she has broken the book deliberately to show the learners how easy it is to maltreat
books?
4. Explain to the learners what has happened and why; that this thoughtless action will cost
her money because the book must be replaced otherwise the learners will be deprived?

Comments
Clearly the teacher has to set an example and so the last option is the best. Always
remember care reduces costs.

Think for a moment about the best ways of caring for books when they are in storage,
when they are being transported and when they are in use.

Do you think learners should be allowed to write in books, mark pages or underline
words?
Summary
The availability, quality and effective use of textbooks are some of
the important factors affecting the quality of learning in a school.
Textbooks support the curriculum by reinforcing and extending the
work of teachers; thus good textbooks can lead to better teaching
and effective learning. The growth and development of the
publication of textbooks provide for closer relations to curriculum
choices and teacher development in the use of subject materials. It
must be realized how important it is to have a system of text-book
management within your school in order to maximise this important
resource and achieve higher levels of learner attainment.

Textbooks have a life span of 3 to 4 years, if learners mark up in them then they will not last as long
as they are intended to last.

45
 Selection and management of textbooks

Local
Production

Principles & constraints of

textbook management
Durability

Selection and
management of textbooks

Care of Criteria for

textbooks Selection

Quality of Textbook

46
Libraries, Media and
Low Cost Teaching Aids
Unit 5
Introduction
Libraries, media and low-cost teaching aids are all
ways of enhancing the learning environment in
schools. This unit is very important, in the context
of improving learner performance and making
schooling worthwhile and beneficial to the growth
and development of both the individual learner
and the nation as a whole. In Guyana, at this
point in time, many educators are complaining of
the poor reading ability of a large section of any
given school population.

Libraries, media and low-cost teaching aids

combine to support, in its widest sense, classroom teaching. Libraries offer opportunities to
develop life-long reading habits and skills, which will support self-development and thereby
higher levels of attainment and achievement of learners. Media and use of media in school is
the way forward in view of the technological revolution that is spreading across the globe. A
learning and teaching aid is the use of any object to promote good teaching and therefore
better schools. In this unit, you will consider why libraries, media and such aids should be
given priority if you wish to improve the quality of learning in your school.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• be more aware of the ways in which a school library, the media and low cost
teaching aids can enhance the learning of learners
• understand the implications of the growing use of computers in schools
• promote the use of school library facilities and develop good reading habits amongst
the learners
• encourage teachers to produce low cost teaching aids, and see that they have the
means to do so
• develop the skills in teachers of identifying, and taking advantage of, usable teaching
resources in and from the local environment
• explore ways of expanding and improving library resources
• appreciate the need to involve the community in school library activities.

Importance of library, media and low-cost teaching aids and constraints

Consider for a moment why a school library, media and low-cost teaching aids are
important for enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in schools.

47
What do you think are some of the constraints you face in providing them in your school?

The library
Firstly, it is important to point out that, of course, not all schools have libraries and those that
do may have a very old stock of books. Some schools will have chosen to use their books in
the classroom rather than collecting them all in one place. Other schools only have access
to a collection of books through a public local library, the National Libraries in Linden and
Georgetown or the Regional Resource Centre if it exists.

In the narrowest sense, a school library offers learners an additional choice of reading
material with a variety of reading levels and topics; in the broader context, through
instructed and controlled use of the library, they are encouraged to develop life-long reading
habits and skills which will support their own self-development.

A library is mainly a collection of books but can also include non-book materials such as
video and audio cassettes, DVDs, CDs (e.g. Interactive Radio Instruction – IRI materials),
computers and software, magazines, newspapers display and resource material.

A library does not have to be in a designated building. A classroom that is not being utilized may be
converted into a library. All books can be kept in boxes and labelled then distributed as the need
arises or learnes should have assess to the boxes.

Media
This is a popular term for mass communication involving the press, radio and television.
This unit does not deal with the structured and planned use of the media for education in
the sense of school radio broadcasts, television programmes or professional journals, but
rather covers the use of the media as a resource for school based or individual initiatives.
However, Guyana is advanced in its radio broadcasts for schools for younger learners and
television tuition for CSEC students especially in English and Mathematics.

Low-cost teaching aids

Low-cost teaching aids are attractive if there is little or no cost and they aid the teacher.
Later in this unit, we will consider such questions as: What are they? Are they a substitute
for higher cost, professionally made and commercially sold teaching aids? Can a
home-made teaching aid be superior to the commercial article, and if so, in what ways? We
need to remember that a teaching aid is the use of any object, manufactured, homemade or
natural, which is used to promote good teaching and learning.

Some of the reasons these resources should be given priority include the following:

1. The headteacher and teachers should be creative and should not become over dependent
on outside resources.
2. Through the use of resources, life-long learner attitudes, skills and responsibilities in
terms of creativity, innovation and self-reliance can be developed.
3. Teaching /learning can become more positive, interesting, varied, and therefore
more effective, through the frequent and selective use of resources.

48
 4. Cost is always a factor in education, but it does not always have to be the factor
which determines the quality of teaching.

Constraints

Some of the constraints which hinder the provision and uses of resources include the
following:

1. Financial provision is usually too low to buy sufficient library books initially, or on a
regular basis. Teachers may lack training, creativity and work capacity and may
therefore be unable to explore, experiment with, develop and use low cost teaching
aids.
2. The media, in a usable form, sometimes does not reach the locality of the school.
For example, radio instruction may not be a possibility in hinterland areas and CDs
and players need to be provided as a replacement.
3. There may be limitations in the provision of space and storage facilities.

Libraries
The school library has a significant role to play in the education of the learner as a result of the
emergence of multi-media education and resource based learning. Learner-centered
education takes into account an individual's interests and abilities and facilitates much
greater participation, allowing the learner to progress at his or her own pace. The library
should be a centre for active learning not simply a repository of books and resource
materials. It may also be seen as a centre for the production and storage of materials
including low cost teaching aids.

A school library is for learner use, during and after the school day, to encourage an enjoyment
of reading and to supplement specific subject areas being taught in the curriculum. Not only
do learners have to be trained in the use of the library but also in the care and use of books
and other reading materials.

In this increasingly technological world, learners should have access where possible to
learning materials accessed via computers. There are an increasing number of
computer programs designed to assist learners in every aspect of the
curriculum. The internet grows daily and its use in schools fortunate enough to have
this resource is becoming primary to the learning experience. However, achieving internet
access and the computer hardware to support it can be a serious challenge in financial
terms to many schools in Guyana. On the other hand, the internet is becoming an essential
learning and research tool throughout the world and it is essential that headteachers make
every effort to provide it for their learners where possible. Often this is done through
alumni and connections with NGOs.

Activity 5.1
Look at the checklist below and indicate which relate most to practice in your school.
If you do not have a library, consider what you would do if you were in a school with
one.

49
Checklist for use of the library
1. Which of these describes how you timetable use of the library during the day?
• Reading Clubs after school for struggling readers
• a voluntary arrangement with teachers making bookings according to their needs
• on the main timetable as a permanent feature
• allocating subject departments certain specific times
• other arrangements
2. If you agree that the school library should be open for learners after school, who amongst
the following should administer the library after school?
• the teacher responsible for the library
• library prefects working under the supervision of a member of the school administrative staff
• someone else
• member of the Parent-Teacher Association.
3. Do you limit access and the times of access to learners? If so, what criteria do you use? For
example, do you limit access to the library to one class or one year group at a time?

4. Books are expensive and security can be a major concern. What do you do about:

• protecting your stock?

• allowing learners to carry textbooks from the library?
• Making your borrowing system secure - what system of borrowing do you use?
5. If a learner loses a book, what action do you take?
6. If a learner damages a book, what action do you take?

7. The library supports the curriculum. Remember if a teacher knows what reading material is
in the school library and is involved in ordering new books, then the project method of
teaching with groups of learners preparing material to present on a certain topic encourages
library usage. However, there must be material available in the library and the learners must
have access to it at the time when they need it.

How do you decide on what books to order? Do you:

• allow the librarian to decide on her own?
• form a committee of subject heads to decide?
• divide the available funds using a set formula?
• target different subjects each year?
• follow some other scheme?
• take only what is given as donations.
8. Do you subscribe to the national press and international news media? Do you feel this is of
value?

9. To have a viable library you need direct teacher involvement. How do you involve
teachers? What training do you provide them with?

10. Each library should have a reference section but often reference books are the most
expensive. What sort of reference books should a school library have? What is the ratio of
seating spaces to the total number of learners in the study area within the library?

50
11. The appearance of the library should help to create an environment conducive to work,
including display boards, furniture arrangements and sign boards. How well would you rate
the quality of the library environment in your school?

12. In the rural areas the school may become the centre of the cultural life of the village. In this
situation how can a school library also be a community library? For example, what
adjustments will have to be made to library routines, procedures, the book stock and book
distribution system?

Taking into account the twelve areas covered above, consider whether you have up-to-
date rules for library usage and guidelines for its management in your school?

Comments
Your answers to these twelve sets of questions will demonstrate the extent to which you
have been able to develop a positive management strategy towards the provision,
organisation and operation of your school library. Sometimes libraries appear rather
isolated from the mainstream of learning in classrooms, and neglected by the headteacher
as an area over which he or she has little active authority Your answers should provide
you with ideas about what could be done to improve the library provision in your school.

The library in the classroom

Many nursery and primary schools have no library room; instead each teacher builds his or
her own library in boxes, shelves or racks in a designated area in the classroom. Ideally
such boxes should contain 40 to 60 books carefully selected for language and content, and with
with 40 learners it is necessary for the teacher to keep a careful record of books issued and
books read.
NCERD LIBRARY – Children’s Reading Room

Activity 5.2
1. Design a book issue/return record sheet
which could be used with a class library.

2. Suggest three ways in which it would be

possible for a teacher to check whether
a learner has read a book or not.

3. A problem with book boxes is that

learners have access to only small
number of books which limits the choice
of abler learners.
How could we overcome this problem?

51
 Comments
A simple form should be kept with each book with the library box, so that the name of each
learner may be recorded. It is important to check all the time how much and how well the
learners are reading. This can be done by spending time with them as they read, by asking
them questions about a book when they would have finished it and by asking them to write
something about the contents (about the story if the book is a novel). The books should be
graded using a simple colour code, perhaps with three colours, to indicate levels of
language and content, and this will enable both the more able and less able learners to
choose books they can manage.

Benefits of school libraries

Develops reading

Improves research Promotes appreciation of the

skills value of books

School Library

Increased Develops
knowledge Writing skills

Improved spelling

Expanding a school's library service

Most school libraries have a limited stock. Headteachers continually face the problem of
renewal, updating and replacement with very little provided for this purpose, and they
will need to seek other ways of expanding the library service. Here is a list of suggestions:

1. Contact nearby schools to set up a book exchange service.

2. Ask for assistance from the National Library Service.
3. Ask the PTA to raise funds for the purchase of books and resources.
4. Seek help from alumni.
5. Seek donor assistance (see Unit 8 'Finding Financial Resources').

Consider whether any or all of these suggestions would help in your own school situation.

52
 Comment
Supporting the school library as an active
centre of learning is something which may
well interest individuals and groups outside
the school. Launching an appeal for funds by
the school will bring to their attention an area
where they can help. They should be
encouraged to supply funds, rather than
books, since it is very unlikely they will know
your needs. Bad books are no better than no
books. If every school looked to donor
agencies or national bodies for help, they
would be overwhelmed, however, there is no
harm in asking. On the other hand, your most
reliable source of funds is likely to be from
those who are closer to your school.

Community involvement

Activity 5.3
A parent in your school is forever encouraging his/her child to read and improve his/her
academic performance but is never seen to be reading anything himself. Another parent
visits the school library on occasions to browse through magazines and newspapers and
periodically checks out a book to read at home.

1. Of the two parents, which is the better model for their child and why?
2. How can parents provide a good model for their learners to follow?
3. How can you and your staff help parents to help their learners?

Comments
It has been noted that successful learners more often come from homes where there are
books to read and where the parents demonstrate their own interest in the written word.
The more adults, including parents, teachers and headteachers, can provide role models
the more learners will be encouraged to read.

Characteristics of a good library

Activity 5.4
The quality of a school library can be quite easily measured in a number of different ways.
One such Performance Indicator is the rate at which the learners borrow books. Identify
five other key indicators through which you would be able to determine how well your
policies on the school library are doing.

53
Comments
The borrowing rate per learner is perhaps the best indicator of the quality of a school library, but
there are many others. The expenditure per learner per year gives a clear guide as to how well
the library is being maintained and developed. The number of books per learner is another good
indicator, though if old and out-of-date books are not weeded out then the rate may be inflated.
The rate of accession of new books and of weeding out old stock will provide an indication of the
way the collection is being maintained. Old stock should be given away, not destroyed. Security
is often a problem in schools and so the loss rate provides a quality indicator, though this can
only be done if a full stock-taking exercise is regularly carried out. Two other indicators are the
length of time the library is opened each week and the seating capacity to allow individual study
in the library.

Media and low-cost teaching aids

Through newspapers, magazines and journals learners are kept fully informed on national and
international current events. Where possible, the library should stock a selection of daily,
weekly and monthly publications.

Activity 5.5
1. What criteria do you think you should use for the selection of newspapers
magazines and journals?
2. How would you ensure that a cross-section of political viewpoints is represented.?
3. Can you demonstrate how well you are able to obtain free materials which are
available from national and international agencies, and from the private sector?
4. How would you use these materials once they are no longer needed in the library?
5. How would you teach your learners to differentiate between fact and opinion?

Comments
In Guyana, there is quite a range of newspapers, magazines and journals available or to
purchase. As these can be expensive, it is important to ensure that you make a careful
selection. Factors such as cost, regular availability and appropriateness of the contents
to the needs of your learners, must be considered. Materials such as these are
often promoting particular political viewpoints, and so it is important to ensure that a
cross-section of views are represented, and that you provide opportunities, for example,
in Social Studies, language teaching or History, to teach learners how to differentiate fact
from opinion and to select what they read.

Library materials should be actively and positively used by both learners and teachers. In
using material of this nature in the classroom, learners are made aware of the value of
such sources in forming or influencing opinion and conveying up-to-date information and
adding to knowledge acquired through textbooks.

Some embassies, NGOs, agencies such as UNESCO, banks and commercial

organisations distribute newsletters and information sheets at no cost. Posters and
calendars can be obtained from publishers, school suppliers and other companies.
Schools should take advantage of these offers - if only to use the illustrations, update
data and for display purposes.

54
 Certain broadcasts can be of value, for example, speeches on historic occasions,
budget speeches, radio and TV plays and debates on environmental matters. By
taping such broadcasts, editing them for classroom usage, and inserting them at
the appropriate point in the curriculum, a valuable resource can be built up for the
school. The art teacher can use magazine pictures for collages and newspaper
for papier mâché work. The teacher of English can use 'headlines', serious
articles and crossword puzzles.

Production of teaching aids

Low-cost teaching aids are attractive to all headteachers who manage their schools on a
small budget. Obviously cost is no longer a factor and the teachers are using teaching aids
other than the chalkboard. Very often in fact, there is no cost at all in that many teaching aids
can be made from scrap items such as empty matchboxes, cardboard cylinder interiors of
toilet rolls, bottle tops, rubber bands, pieces of wire and the reverse sides of discarded posters

Think for a moment about what low-cost or no-cost teaching aids your teachers should be
using in their classrooms in Art and Craft, Science and Mathematics.

Comments
In the widest possible sense, the
entire local environment can be
regarded as the principal source
area for such teaching aids, not
just in the search for usable
materials, but in locating and
identifying local seasonal
phenomena which may reinforce
concepts taught in the classroom.
For instance, after a heavy
rainstorm, ground with no
vegetation cover shows many
examples of drainage features to
be found in river systems, as well as
Reflect on how the local environment of a erosion mechanisms and patterns. A
school can be used positively in a rural Geography/Social Studies teacher can
setting (for example, collecting seeds for a take learners outdoors to learn these
lesson) and in an urban setting (for example, concepts. Seeds and rocks can be
collecting cans for re-cycling) used as counters for Mathematics.

Comments
The extent to which low-cost or no-cost teaching aids are used in a school is indicative of
the commitment and quality of the teachers. You may readily identify creative teachers,
who are prepared to take extra trouble for the sake of their learners. Obviously teachers of
this calibre are valuable in any school.

55
Summary
In the school context, the ‘library’ has become increasingly important in the enrichment of
learning and teaching in the classroom. In some instances, the storage and retrieval
facilities have been incorporated into the facets of a library. This unit has reinforced the
importance of the library by emphasizing the following features:

(a) management strategies for provision, organization and operation of your school library;

(b) benefits of school libraries in terms of

• research skills;
• writing skills;
• valuing books;
• increased knowledge;
• improved ability to spell

(c) the characteristics of a good library.

The headteacher should involve the local community in library development. Supporting the
school library as an active centre of learning is an activity which can involve individuals and
Non Government Organizations (NGOs) outside of the school. Organisations such as the
Lions and Rotary Clubs and other social groups can assist in this venture.

Parents are also useful allies in this activity. The media and teaching aids are useful
implements for reinforcing learning and teaching skills. Through magazines and
newspapers, learners can be informed about current events. In its widest sense, the local
environment can be regarded as a principal source for teaching aids. Libraries, media and
teaching aids and their effective use combine to improve the quality of the learning activity
in the classroom and thereby improve the quality of education provided in the community.

56
 Assessment and Record
Keeping Unit 6
Introduction
Monitoring and Evaluation are necessary tools in ensuring and determining school
effectiveness. Learners would not benefit much from a system of education unless there was
some form of evaluation aimed at assessing learner performance levels at different stages in
their school career. If such assessment did not take place one of the main purposes for
which schools exist would be defeated. In this context, the school system would be unable
to monitor the growth and levels of attainment of the learner population. In this unit, we review
various aspects of evaluation of learner performance levels through assessment procedures
including examinations, testing and record keeping.
Although examinations, testing and record keeping are three distinct activities they are
mutually interdependent. It is important to understand that without the presence of each, the
whole process of measurement of learner performance and our skills as teachers would be
very difficult indeed. Examinations and testing provide one objective measurement of learner
attainment. However, the teacher is a professional and should also be able to draw
conclusions about the performance of his / learners based on experience. Although these
may be subjective, they will be based on evidence and can be a support to objective
testing. Indeed, headteachers ought to be aware, that qualities other than academic
performance must also be developed and assessed in each learner. This is often done better
through teacher observation and assessment rather than formal testing.
Without a well maintained system of record keeping for learner examination and test
performance, there will be nothing to build on. Records provide a long-term profile of
achievement for each learner. It is noteworthy that every effort must be made to use the
results of examinations and tests as feedback mechanisms for the improvement of
learning, teaching strategies and other curriculum processes.
In this unit, we will also consider “baseline testing” or “pre-tests” as a means of determining
the initial level of performance of the learner, setting targets and measuring performance
against those targets. This is particularly important for learners with learning difficulties or
with some form of Special Educational Needs. Reference will also be made to Formative,
Summative and Continuous Assessment procedures.
In this unit we will discuss:

• principles and constraints of assessment

• examinations and tests
• baseline testing and target setting
• Formative, Summative and Continuous Assessment procedures.
• reasons for internal school examination
• influence of external examinations on teaching, and
• learner assessment records.

Individual study time: 3 hours.

57
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• differentiate between the purposes of examinations and tests

• identify other ways of assessing the all-round capabilities of learners
• understand the conditions necessary to maintain validity and reliability in
examination and test scores at the school level
• understand the importance of baseline testing and target setting
• devise ways of keeping records of the levels of attainment of each learner
• present and interpret learner records for the benefit of learners, parents and employers.

Principles and constraints of assessment procedures

Consider for a moment the main principles upon which the assessment procedures
are based in your school. Consider also the restrictions you may face when carrying
out assessment.
In giving thought to this, you will perhaps have identified some of the following:-

• Any form of assessment must be learner-centered and discriminative.

• Assessment is used to determine the current performance of a learner
• It can be used to set targets for future performance for individual learners or classes
• Assessment procedures can help to determine the effectiveness of a teacher’s
learning strategies
• Examinations should be guided by the syllabus or scheme-of-work.
• Learner assessment records should be up-to-date and as comprehensive as possible.
• Such records should be shared with the learner and his / her parents
• All efforts must be made to create satisfactory conditions for examinations. An
invigilators' manual with guidelines for standard procedures should be available.
• All internal tests and examinations should contain a diagnostic component to reveal
the learning needs of the learners.
• Tests, where possible, should be standardized and given under similar conditions of
invigilation, time and venue, to all the learners concerned. However, learners with
learning difficulties or Special Educational Needs should be given assistance to
ensure that what is being tested is not hindered by their disability or learning
difficulty. For example, a reader to be provided when testing concepts rather than reading
ability.

The above may be considered to be ideal but reality often produces constraints. Some of
these listed below may have been part of your deliberations.

• It is very difficult, if not impossible, to reproduce similar conditions for school

examinations and tests across a year group in terms, for example, of time, nature of
invigilation, distractions and noise level, unless the whole group sits the examination at
the same time in the same room.
• Learner environmental differences, for example, deprivation in early childhood, home
conditions, family size, income level, and variables in previous experience and practice,
affect school performance.
• Learners with learning difficulties or Special Educational Needs will often find
assessment procedures challenging.

58
 • The atmosphere of an examination room affects learners differently, for example, into
conditions of over stimulation or fear. For many learners examinations are written under
duress.
• There may be a lack of adequate and secure storage space for learner assessment
records.
• Teacher skills and knowledge in examination and test setting and marking, and in
record-keeping may be inadequate.
• Teachers may lack the ability to make appropriate assessments of learners’ work based
on experience.

The difference between examinations and tests

Tests provide a means for learners and teachers to take a
regular measure of the extent to which understanding
and skills are being achieved and a means of diagnosing
problems both in learning and teaching which may
then be given additional attention.

Examinations provide a much more formal and public means of

measuring the level of achievement of each learner in
respect of the objectives of a course of study available to
everyone within a system. By providing a common 'currency' the abilities and qualities of
each learner may be described. We need to distinguish between internal school examinations
and external public examinations.

In this sense, tests are formative in character and provide continuous assessment of the
child’s progress and examinations are summative. See section below on Formative and
Summative Assessment.

Activity 6.1
Consider the statements below and decide, based on the information above,
which of the factors listed would apply to examinations, to tests or to both?

• Set by an individual teacher for his/her own learners

• Set by an individual teacher for other learners
• Taken by the whole year group at the same time
• Set as a departmental exercise
• Subject to formal supervision
• Moderated by external personnel
• Assesses performance over the whole syllabus
• Learner results are often on a synthesis of practical work projects and written
work
• Correct answers are provided immediately by the teacher on completion
• Used to reinforce acquired skills
• Provides immediate feedback to learners
• Facilitates progression from one stage of learning to the next.

59
 Comments
There is a thin dividing line between tests and examinations. It is essential, though,
that what is being tested is the work of the individual learner and therefore, good test
conditions must be observed. In essence, tests provide an ongoing or continuous
assessment at learner or class level, indicate areas for improvement and usually
provide immediate feedback; whereas examinations are more summative in nature,
test a whole unit, syllabus or programme and are used to supply the learner and
teacher with a formal result of their interaction.

Reasons for internal school examinations

Internal examinations are held in every school. It would help to consider why this happens
so that we can gain the greatest benefit from them. Below are some of the reasons:

• to check the learning progress of each learner in order to report to parents, teachers
and the school managers
• to identify current performance and set targets for future development
• to describe the performance of learners preparing for certification, through public
examinations
• to diagnose any learning difficulties so that appropriate remedial actions can be
taken by the teachers. This is particularly important when identifying any special
needs that learners may have.
• to provide feedback for learners about their performance and thereby motivate them to
improve
• to identify learners with the abilities and interests for specialized subjects or courses
• to have informed instructional decision-making and planning by the teachers, for
example, on where to begin teaching a topic for a teacher new to a class
• to assess the levels of performance relating to a topic, unit or course by a class of
learners
• to provide data for the learner record of attainment.

Think for a moment about any other uses that the results of internal examinations can be
put to.

Baseline testing and target setting

“Weighing a pig will not make it any fatter”

Indeed this is very true and could equally apply to the indiscriminate use of tests with
learners. There is often a tendency to over-test in schools. Indeed so many tests are often a
substitute for quality teaching and learning in the classroom. The pig farmer who weighs his
pig every day to ascertain his potential profits would be better spending his time providing a
nutritious diet for the animal. Likewise testing learners in itself, does not necessarily develop
their knowledge and skills. For this reason, we must be very clear about why we test.

One good reason for a diagnostic test is to ascertain the current performance of a child, rate
his / her potential and set an appropriate target for improvement based on the age and
ability level of the child. To some teachers, this will appear to be an onerous task with so

60
many learners with whom to deal. Indeed it is, but good teachers will understand that a curriculum
based on the needs and potential of individual learners, i.e. a child-centred approach, will
produce the best results.

In Guyana, the curriculum which has been developed,

for example in English and Maths, bases its lessons
on the average expected performance for a child of
that age group. By carrying out a baseline or pre-test,
underperformance will be identified and corrective
measures taken. Likewise, those learners performing
above and beyond expectations can be stretched to
achieve the highest limits. Target setting has benefits
for average learners, those with learning difficulties
and also gifted learners. Such a method encourages
the teacher to see learners as individuals rather than
groups and focus his / her lessons on their individual
needs rather than “teaching to the class”.

When setting targets, it is essential that thorough record keeping is carried out. It is better
that this process is at the level of the school and is common to all and part of school policy.
Baseline testing and regular (but not too frequent) repeat tests will become part of the
normal procedures of the school by which it will measure its success and that of individual
learners and teachers. Results will be recorded and examined by the headteacher or those
with responsibility for an area of the school. Appropriate action, rewards or sanctions, will be
the result of this analysis.

Targets can be set at the level of the learner, the teacher or the school. Remember, however,
that targets must be S.M.A.R.T
Setting targets for improved learner performance is crucial in the school’s self improvement
cycle. Targets drive school improvement and provide impetus to challenge complacency.
To be effective, targets for school improvement need to be S.M.A.R.T. This means
they should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable and Realistic, and set against an
appropriate Timescale.

Specific targets
Analysing learner performance enables teachers to identify specific areas of work in the
school which could be improved. For example, analysis may reveal that learners, or groups of
learners, in the school make better gains in communicating than early number skills, in which
case the teaching of early number skills needs to be targeted for improvement. Through
professional discussions and the sharing of judgements about the effectiveness of current
teaching practices in the school, the target can be refined to identify more specifically the
particular elements of Mathematics teaching for improvement.

Measurable targets
SMART targets will be measurable, and reflect the criteria used for measuring learner
performance. Having identified and agreed on the aspects of teaching and learning to target
for improvement, teachers will need to make judgements about translating teaching practice
into improvement in learner performance in the future. This involves deciding what more
learners will achieve when more successful teaching practices are implemented, over and

60 61
above what they would be expected to achieve, given current teaching practice. Those
outcomes are the school’s measurable targets.
Achievable and realistic targets
Targets should be set that closely reflect their learners’ performance priorities, as well as
reflecting the national priorities of literacy and numeracy. For some schools, this will mean
setting targets for particular year groups. For other schools, it will mean setting targets for
particular groups of learners. It is important that school targets focus on the learners
achieving the learning outcomes.

Timed targets Having identified targets and how they will be measured, it is
important to set realistic timescales for when the learner, the
teacher or the school will reach these targets. The
timescales chosen will depend on the nature of the target,
the needs of the learners and what action is necessary for the
school to take. The key to this element of target setting is to
set a timescale that will provide the optimum effect in terms
of learners’ achievements. Targets should be set
against timescales that both maintain impetus and are
sufficient for new teaching strategies to take effect. Many
schools find it helpful to use the same timescale for all
targets.

Activity 6.2
Consider the above description of baseline testing and target setting and give some
examples of three or more appropriate targets you might consider for your own school
for the following:-
• Individual learners
• A year group
• A teacher
• A Department or Level
• The whole school

Comments
Targets for individual learners will focus on development to at least the level of the
average child and hopefully beyond. Year-group targets may be more general and
could be about work ethos, attitudes and behaviour as well as overall performance.
Teachers and departments or levels will be challenged by targets which are linked to
the performance of their learners and will benefit most from understanding how they can
improve their teaching to achieve this. Support for such targets will be essential.
Targets for the whole school may focus on improved overall performance, in
summatiuve terms (see below) for example results in Grades 2, 4, 6, 9 tests, CSEC,
A Levels and CAPE.

62
Formative and Summative Assessment procedures.
Consider some of the reasons we assess learners

• Identifying the next steps for learning

• Checking progress
• Motivating learners
• Diagnostic testing
• Identifying possible future achievement
• Record of overall achievement
• Placing chilldren in rank order
• Evaluating a teaching method
• Evaluating a learner, teacher or school
• Setting targets
• Discussing progress with parents/guardians

There are different categories of assessment. We perform each for different reasons.

Formative Assessment is day-to-day ongoing assessment which is used as part of the

repertoire of teaching strategies, based on how well learners fulfil learning intentions,
providing feedback and involving learners in improving their own learning.

Some uses of formative assessment can be found below:-

• Learners achieve academic success more readily

• Target setting: for individuals over time for ongoing aspects – e.g. reading and
writing
• Ensures learner motivation and involvement in progress
• Keeps teachers informed of individual needs
• Provides a full record of achievement over time. Feedback to the learner: must
reflect the learning intentions of the tasks to be useful and provide an ongoing
record. It can can be oral or written.
• It tracks progress diagnostically and informs learner of successes and weaknesses
and provides clear strategies for improvement.
• Develops learner self-evaluation: they are trained to evaluate their own
achievements against the learning intention (and possibly beyond), in oral and
written form.
• Empowers the learner to realise his or her own learning needs and to have control
over future targets.
• Provides the teacher with more assessment information – the learner’s perspective.
• Sharing the learning intentions wiith learners for every task ensures they are
focused on the purpose of the task, encourages their involvement and ability to
comment on their own learning as well as helping the teacher to be clear about
learning objectives for the class.

Summative Assessment is a snapshot testing which establishes what a learner can do at

a particular point in time.
Some examples of the uses of summative assessment can be found below:-
• Grades 2 – 9 National Tests in Guyana and CSEC, CAPE and A level

63
 • Class tests: created by individual teachers and used in day-to-day lessons (e.g.
mental number tests). Such tests can also be used formatively if the results are used
to assist learners in their learning.
• To improve learners’ mental recall and establish what they have remembered or
learnt so far.
• School Tests: in-house tests written by teachers, usually ‘end of module’ tests, used
at the end of a taught unit to establish general attainment .
• Commercially produced tests purchased independently by schools. These tests are
controlled by publishers to enable schools to monitor progress through summative
means at different points in time
• Baseline tests - produced tests applied to students at entry to school, ranging from
observation of students’ behaviour to specific oral or activity items to establish the
students’ abilities at the beginning of their education, so that subsequent
achievement can be compared and measured against actual improvement. They
can also be used formatively, to identify weaknesses and strengths and provide
appropriate learning experiences for individual students.

In terms of the Education Management Certificate Programme, the reflections, activities and
assignments are formative assessments and will be used by the Master Trainers to develop
the teachers’ understanding of the concepts learnt. The examinations, however, are
summative and provide no specific feedback to the trainee other than an overall grade.

The validity of a test or examination

There are ways in which the effectiveness or reliability of examinations across classes
in the school may be compromised.

• having different lengths of time for the same paper given to different classes
• giving different test taking instructions
• having different tests on the same topic in the same subject (although this may be
appropriate for learners with learning difficulties or S.E.N.)
• different levels of preparations for the test by teachers
• different test conditions e.g. time of day, noise levels, disturbances

Administration of external examinations

The administration of external examinations always has to be under-taken efficiently.
Consider in what chronological order you would implement each of the following
activities.
The administration of external examinations always has to be under-taken efficiently.
• Ensure invigilators thoroughly instruct learners on the correct way of recording answers on
the answer sheets.
• Return corrected school entry lists in accordance with the time scale given by the
examination authorities.
• Send off all answer scripts to the Examination Board.
• Return learners' entry forms to the Examination Board promptly.
• Check that the school adheres to the prescribed examination administration procedures.
• Appoint a Chief Invigilator from your staff.
• Make sure that school invigilators are fully aware of external regulations and comply with
them.
• Follow exactly the security arrangements as stipulated by the examination authority.

64
 Comments
In this case we have not included an answer. You may check your answer against the
guidelines for examiners you should already have in your school. If you don't have any
guidelines, then your answer could provide a basis for a discussion with your senior staff
as to what actions need to be included and in what order.

Influence of external examinations on teaching

Consider some of the ways in which examinations can affect both adversely and
positively the nature and quality of teaching in your school.

Comments
There is no doubt that external examinations have a direct and considerable influence
on curricula and teaching methods because of the importance of such examinations to
the careers and lives of the learners and the competition for places at higher levels.
In Guyana, there are a number of such examinations which are administered, namely:

1. National Grades2, 4, 6 and 9

2. Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate Examination (CSEC)
3. Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination (CAPE)
4. General Certificate of Education A Level (GCE A Level)

Schools cannot risk failure, therefore teaching tends to rehearse learners for these
examinations with strict concentration on syllabi and set books, with teaching methods
based on formal expositions, dictated notes, memorisation, rote learning and reproduction.
Unfortunately, examination pressure intensifies the tendency to concentrate on the interests
of the abler learners and forget the rest. This is, of course, extremely bad practice on the part
of the teacher as all learners deserve an equal opportunity for success at their own level.
On the other hand, examinations do help to concentrate the minds of both learners and
teachers towards meeting the curricular objectives.
Learner assessment records
Keeping up-to-date records of all learner test and examination scores is important but other
related records are equally valuable. The overall objective of the school is to have as
complete a record of the growth and progress of each learner as an individual as possible. For
this purpose, continuous assessment records, non-academic appointments, term class
reports, special incident accounts and the normal data found in the learner's file all contribute
significantly.

The most compact way to present such information, facilitating access and updating, is
usually as a form or chart. Increasingly, in schools throughout the world, computers are
used for this purpose.

65
Consider the form below. It is used to present pre-reading, writing and number activities for
nursery children in their first 4-5 weeks in school.

Criteria of assessment

A Can see similarities and differences in size

B Can pick one name from others
C Can see and remember
D Can pick a different item given five
E Can sort for kind
F Can sort number dots and remember symbols
G Can sort pictures
H Can sort pictures and words

Name of Learner A B C D E F G H
Savatri Balbahadur

John Mackenzie

Marshall Lewis

Reginald Singh

David White

This chart is capable of producing diagnostic information. A tick means success, a

blank means no success.

Reflect for a moment on how you might improve this chart if it were to be used for your
subject in your school.

Activity 6.3
Design a form or charts for one of the following:

• assessment marks for each learner for the duration of a course;

• a termly report for parents showing test marks, non-academic achievements,
general behaviour, and other areas you think appropriate;
• marks, averages or medians for each learner in a class
• character and behaviour assessment for each learner to be updated at regular
intervals during his/her school career;
• record special incidents of good/bad behaviour or non-academic
achievement;
• to present a testimonial/ reference/ school leaving certificate which will be
derived from the above records.

66
Completing, storing and retrieving learner records

Records are likely to achieve the purposes described in the sections above, if they:

• make explicit what learners know, understand and are able to do in relation to
others and what has been taught in the curriculum
• are flexible enough to record the achievement of all learners
• are manageable and can be easily understood by all who use them
• provide teachers with information about achievement, in particular about those
parts of the curriculum which were taught earlier
• provide an accurate and reliable record of learner achievement
• are consistent throughout the school and are passed on from one teacher to the
next
• provide information in a form which allows schools to monitor learner
achievement and progress.

It is also very important to have a clear, well managed system of storing and retrieving learner
records. Firstly, you need to check that you have the right type of record books and
documents on which to insert information about each learner. You may need to design and
produce suitable material yourself. In Guyana, record cards are provided and should be
passed on from school to school. However, you may need to design your own, especially
for formative testing as those provided are mainly summative in nature. Secondly, you need
to assign duties to each member of staff so that they know very clearly what information is
required, by whom and when. Thirdly, you need to have secure places for keeping the
records which should be confidential. Lastly, as headteacher you will need to manage the
system, ensuring everyone is doing the work well and reviewing procedures to find ways for
improvement.

Summary
Although assessment procedures including examinations and tests serve different
purposes, both are important within the school and should therefore be
organised and managed responsibly. The headteacher must appreciate the need for good
arrangements and tight security in internal and external examinations. She or he must,
however, be aware that such examinations form only part of the assessment of the innate
abilities of her/his learners, and must recognise the need for a comprehensive system of
record-keeping which will benefit learner, teacher and parents in giving a full profile of each
child.

66 67
The functions of examinations, tests and records

Learners

Tests

Curricula
activities Examinations

Records

Information for
Parents Information for
Teachers

Information for
Employers

68
 Resource Maintenance
Unit 7
Introduction
A headteacher is charged with the proper utilisation and care of all resources in his or her school.
Some of these resources are intangible, for example, time, manpower and space; others
require accurate recording and accounting, for example, finance; and a third category
needs physical maintenance, for example, school buildings.

School resources
Infrastructure Community

Money Staff

Buildings SCHOOL Time

Equipment Learners

Space

The concern, in this unit, is with learning about the maintenance of tangible resources.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• distinguish between different categories of resources

• explain the importance of maintaining resources
• describe the procedures to keep resources properly maintained in your school
• identify the procedures for obtaining general and replacement items of supply
• train and supervise inventory holders to care for items in their charge
• understand the principles of asset management
• keep stock and other relevant school records

68 69
 Principles and constraints of resource maintenance

Principles
Each headteacher needs to understand the importance of the following basic principles with
regard to the maintenance of resources in a school:

• All school buildings, equipment and property must be well maintained.

• A headteacher must be conversant with government financial regulations as far as it
affects his / her responsibilities.
• All school purchases must be correctly recorded and maintained in good order.
• All school purchases must be used for the purpose for which they were bought.
• Goods and materials must be frequently checked and controlled to ensure their
effective use.
• An up-to-date inventory must be kept in every location where there are school
resources
• There should be an up-to-date full school asset register with copies on and off site.

Constraints
Headteachers are faced with many constraints which affect their ability to manage school
resources effectively. These constraints include:

• insufficient funding
• shortage of or no personnel trained to
handle maintenance and supplies
• lack of effective supervision of staff
responsible for maintenance and
supplies in schools where this
applicable
• lack of storage space
• insecure storage facilities
• delays in the disposal of unserviceable
stock items and equipment
• arrival of replacement orders delayed
or wrongly delivered because of
transport difficulties or inefficiencies
• lack of consultation between supplier and user
• increase in maintenance demand because of overuse of limited facilities and equipment.

Activity 7.1
As a newly appointed headteacher you arrive at the school which has limited financial
resources and find, amongst other deficiencies, many broken windows, blocked toilets, a
sports field overgrown with grass and bush and a broken perimeter fence.

Which problem would you tackle first, and which last, and why?

70
Comments
The first step would be to make a list of the main problems to be tackled, and separate
them out into different levels of urgency, noting those which for reasons of Health and
Safety, would need to be tackled first in order not to put learners and staff at risk. Blocked
toilets would be an example of this.

You would need to do this in conjunction with your staff, including non-teaching staff and
your learners. Then you would need to identify that which the school, the school community
and other organisations could handle and those which should be reported to the
Education Department for action. For those problems that the school and the school
community could handle, you need to accept responsibility and ascertain what resources
are needed, are available and could be easily obtained.

The next step would be to organise your resources, of people, materials and finance, to
tackle the problems. Lastly, you would need 69 ensure that a regular system of
maintenance is put into place, becoming part of the everyday regime of your school.

Asset Register
Each part of the school must have an inventory of capital items which are owned by the
school. This would be updated and kept by the person or persons responsible for that area
of the school. For example, a music teacher would be responsible for steel pans and the
Home Economics teacher for cooking utensils and stoves. In addition, a central record of all
of these items, copies of the original perhaps, would be kept in the possession of the
Headteacher as a duplicate record. All of these records in total for all parts of the school
form the Asset Register which is the log of all school possessions for which the
Headteacher is ultimately responsible. It is good practice to keep one copy on site and
another off site in case of fire, loss or damage for which insurance claims might have to be
made.

Consumable and non-consumable items

A consumable item is usually of a lesser cost and has a shorter life span or might be “used
up” through normal wear and tear or usage. Although from a common sense point of view
the headteacher may decide what is consumable and what is not, it is wise to consult local
regulations. No single factor alone is used to determine the category. Three factors have to
be considered, namely: cost, life span and whether replacements will be required through
wear or usage. For example, a 20 litre container of dishwashing liquid is considered a
consumable item because it will eventually be used up, whereas a 40 kilogram cylinder of
gas would be non-consumable capital item because it could be re-used and has a value of
its own. However, the gas within it would be consumable.

Activity 7.2
For each of the items below indicate whether they are consumable or non-consumable.

Chalk, Chalkboard, textbooks, school generator, school vehicle or boat, pencil, learner chair,
computer, beaker, fuel, dining hall table

Comment
Common sense will usually be enough to distinguish between consumable and
non-consumable goods, but there are borderline cases. For example, a learner's
workbook is consumable if it is being used more as an exercise book, than as a
textbook.

71
 Procedures for headteachers who are spending school funds
Headteachers must be aware of the need to observe some simple practices whenever funds
are being received and expended. They must keep a Cash Book which must include all
financial transactions and be kept fully up to date. This would ensure that all funds received
from any source are recorded, and that all monies expended are accounted for. This is
necessary as all monies received by a school become public funds.

It is also essential that all Headteachers have a ‘Consumable Stock Book’ ledger as well as
the Asset Register already mentioned in the previous section. These ledgers would contain all
particulars of the acquisition and distribution of capital goods and consumable stock.

Non-consumable or capital stock must be entered on the inventory forms and asset register
as requested by the financial regulations. All capital items e.g. computers, stoves,
gymnasium equipment should be clearly and indelibly marked unless they are not owned by
or leased to the school.

See the Ministry of Education Guidelines and, in particular, Module 9 “School Records and
Documents” for further information on the use of the cash book, asset register, inventories
and consumable stock books.

Reflect for a moment on the reasons why it is necessary to have these records and the
consequences for the school of not keeping them.

Comments
Reasons for maintaining these records include:
• Accountability – to satisfy government, Ministry and local Department of
Education regulations
• Avoid financial impropriety or appearance thereof
• Ensure stocks are available when needed

Stock-keeping
Stock-keeping, which is critical to the maintenance of
resources, is the process of maintaining inventory and asset
register data on the quantity and condition of supplies and
equipment in order to know what is available for issue and
distribution, and also to provide a base for making
decisions on procuring / requesting additional supplies.

Stock must be classified as consumable or

non-consumable (capital goods) and then recorded accurately in
the appropriate ledger by the designated teacher and checked
by the headteacher. Consumable items, when issued against the signature of the user, are used
and properly monitored.

Non-consumable items are issued and entered by the officer-in-charge of supplies on the
appropriate inventory form. The items and the form are checked at regular intervals.

72
A ledger for consumable items would include columns for these entries:

• date of arrival of goods;

• date of issue;
• balance;
• quantity received;
• quantity issued.

Please check your local regulations to ensure you include everything which is required.
Ensuring resources are well maintained
It goes without saying that, when you have responsibility for the resources in your school,
they will need to be well maintained and working properly to gain maximum benefit from
them. This, in itself, can be very challenging because there are cost implications for
repairing items which no longer work. Decisions will need to be made whether to repair
existing items or use the money to buy new or different things. This will depend on your
priorities.

It is a good idea, when faced with multiple requests for scarce resources, to decide what
you would do immediately, what you would do in the next few days, in the medium term
and the long term or even never.
The following are some of the resourcing issues and situations which a Headteacher may
find within the school.

• Learners are inexplicably hungry.

• There is a dramatic increase in the consumption of fuel in the kitchen.
• Teachers complain of the lack of chalk.
• Learner chairs are moved from one classroom to another continually.
• Gas cylinders unexpectedly become empty in the science laboratories.
• Wheelbarrows are left on the agricultural garden.
• Football kit disappears from the washing line.
• There is an unexplained broken window in a classroom.
• Part of the school fence goes missing overnight.
• A water pipe bursts, flooding part of the school.

With most problems or crises there are two solutions; one is the immediate action which is
required to bring the problem under control, the other is to find ways of preventing the same
thing recurring. Only by developing formal procedures, which must include the regular,
frequent inspection of physical plant and stock, can problems be kept to a minimum.
Because there is so much to be looked at, much of the work of inspection should be
delegated. However, no matter how thorough your procedures may be, critical incidents
will still occur!

Sources of school maintenance

Activity 7.3
To the best of your ability, complete the diagram below. Fill in the blanks with
persons and agencies who you think are responsible for school maintenance.
Attempt to give two examples of what they should maintain in the school.

73
 Examples Learners
Examples
1
1
2
2

Examples
1
2 S CHO O L
MAI N T E NANC E
Examples
1
2
Parents
Examples Examples
1 1
2 2

Comments
As you completed this exercise, you may have thought of areas where your standards of
maintenance could be improved and of action you could take to effect improvement.

Preventative maintenance

You may have included some of the following on your list:-

• boundary fence • gas oven
• sanitary facilities • generator
• borehole • access pits
• planer • access road
• computer • roofs of buildings
• classroom furniture • fire extinguisher
• First Aid kit • photocopier
• school compound • classroom walls and floors
• stairway • windows and doors

As the development of your school takes place, so the range of resources which require
preventative maintenance will increase, as will the cost. The purchase of any resource,
whether it is a building or a textbook, must take account of its durability and how much it will
cost to maintain each year. An estimate of recurrent costs should be included in your yearly
budget submissions to the Department of Education.

74
Checking stock
The frequency with which stock is checked and the interval of time between checks is
important. You will need to record all of the items that you or your staff have checked, when
you did so and any abnormalities that you may have found.

You might find the form below useful.

Date Item Type of Location Inventory Comment
check holder
13-07-09 Gas Stove No 3 Tested H.E. Room R. Singh Fully working

19-07-09 Computer Tested Library P. Scotland Monitor not

working
23-07-09 Bookcase Visual Room 32 P. Sookdeo Scratched with
graffiti

You should ensure that when you make checks that

• a physical check is made at frequent intervals

• a random check is carried out to ensure the balance of stock is correct
• a check is made to ascertain when items were issued
• a check is made that items issued were received and signed for
• you indicate who the inventory holder is. It is important to note that all inventory
holders should receive full instruction on their responsibilities.

Summary
Time, money and effort expended on resource maintenance and management is money
well spent. A headteacher must manage all school resources efficiently in the interests of
the school, and therefore full, proper and timely maintenance of these resources is
imperative. In order to do this he or she must

• be aware of the resources under his control.

• have a maintenance schedule for these resources.
• ensure that schedule is implemented.
• be aware of the procedures involved in having maintenance carried out.
• keep proper inventory and asset management records.
• keep an up to date consumable stock book.

74 75
 Finding Financial Resources
Unit 8
Introduction
Without financial resources a school cannot survive; indeed unless a certain minimum level
of financial provision is reached, the effective operation of a school in terms of the quality of
education offered is threatened. Note therefore, that the title of this unit is 'Finding Financial
Resources', since it is quite likely that no school can exist just on what the funding authority
provides, but will have to find and create additional funds.

Funds are needed to:

• help facilitate the implementation of school policies and programmes

• enable activities such as educational tours and excursions to take place
• assist in the involvement of learners in extra-curricular activities such as music and
sports
• assist in the development of schools as educational establishments.

In this unit, we consider ways in which additional financial resources may be obtained. You
should also study Unit 3 'Mobilising financial resources' in Module 5 Financial Management.
Note: Before working through this unit, you should be aware of regulations and principles
which should be observed in the raising and management of additional financial resources.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• describe the limitations of the

Government of Guyana in providing
financial resources
• explain the need for careful
management and control of the school
budget
• understand the need to make a budget
for the school and the necessity for the
careful management and control of this
budget.
• identify ways in which government provision can be supplemented
• encourage parents, learners and teachers to actively participate in fundraising activities
• use financial resources to promote learning and teaching in schools clarify the
purpose of fund raising so as to stimulate support for fundraising efforts.

76
Principles and constraints of financing schools
Consider for a moment the main principles which you think govern the financing of
schools. Identify some of the main constraints you face as a headteacher in finding
and managing additional financial resources for your school.

Comments
The main principles governing the financing of schools include:

• All finances, both from government and other sources, must be properly
recorded and controlled.
• In the school, only the headteacher is responsible and finally accountable
for all financial management.
• All financial provision should be marshaled for the benefit of the learners.

Constraints
There are many constraints which headteachers have to face in finding and managing
additional financial resources. They include the following:

• The need to observe correct procedures in some fundraising ventures may

operate as a restriction.
• Inadequate government provision of funds can undermine educational
initiatives.
• The low economic level of the local community may result in an
overdependence on outside funding.
• In urban areas, a lack of sense of community may make it more difficult to
develop a sense of commitment to the local school.
• Boarding schools often have no local community.
• The initiative, confidence and financial knowledge of the school head may be
inadequate.
• Audits of the accounts of a school may be based on financial rather than
educational expertise.
• The academic year is not the same as the financial year.
• The headteacher and the staff may lack the skills necessary to marshal others
such as the PTA to raise funds.

Government financial provisions

In Guyana, government, through the Ministry of Education, is the main source of funding for
schools. There are two main categories of such funding, namely, capital (development)
funding and recurrent funding.

Capital funding is not the direct concern of the headteacher of school. Decisions in this regard are
made at higher levels, but the headteacher should lobby for favourable decisions to be made
when necessary. Recurrent funding is the provision of money to run the school for a particular
financial year, and is managed by the Ministry and Departments of Education on behalf of
all schools.

76 77
The headteacher has to be aware of the limitations of government to cover all expenditures
particularly in innovative activities which often help to distinguish one school from the rest.
In such areas, additional funding from non-governmental sources will be needed. It is,
however, unfortunately true that the ability of the government to pay for even basic capital
and recurrent expenditures is limited, so that additional funds from alternative sources are
required by many schools, both for capital projects and for supplementing recurrent funds.

Activity 8.1
Indicate whether the items below are likely to be funded through capital or recurrent
provision, or through neither.

• The construction of additional classrooms

• Teachers' salaries
• Teaching resources
• Computers
• Software for computers
• The construction of a computer room
• Food for learners
• Travelling costs
• Building the school kitchen
• The purchase of sports equipment
• 20th Anniversary celebrations
• Student textbooks
• Purchase of a school vehicle
• Prizes for Prize-giving

Comments
The nature of your answers will depend very much on how much money the Ministry of
Education makes available to you to spend on education. Where funds are fairly freely
available, most of the funds, whether capital or recurrent, will come from the Ministry. But
sometimes, where the opposite is true, funding is severely limited. Then, maybe many of
the items on this list will be funded from alternative sources, except, perhaps, teachers'
salaries.

Planning for recurrent funding

Your school is dependent on the regular funding provided by Government and that this is
the only expected source of finance available. Recurrent funds are based on the headteacher's
estimate of the money needed for the school to operate properly during the next financial
year. In the initial stage, the money requested in the different areas of school management
is entirely dependent on the headteacher's awareness and knowledge of what is needed and what
may be obtained. The headteacher's submission to the Ministry and the Department of Education
is the main source of information used to allocate funds.

Activity 8.2
Consider the list below and decide which of the items should the Headteacher use when
preparing recurrent estimates for the school? Can you add any more items to the list?

78
 Items for preparing recurrent estimates
1. Last year's recurrent estimates
2. Last year's electricity / telephone / water bills
3. Estimated costs for a new classroom
4. Present school staffing establishment
5. Cost of maintaining school grounds and playing fields
6. Ministry menu for learner meals
7. Financial records for the previous year
8. List of medical supplies
9. Learners' files
10. Present stock of sports equipment
11. Previous year's commitment ledger
12. Consumable stock register
13. The state of the school playing field
14. The distance of the school from the Ministry
15. The current rate of inflation

Comments
The range of items on this list demonstrates the diversity of information which has to be
gathered in order to prepare the annual school estimates. Basically, the Headteacher
must gather together all of the costs which the school incurs on a regular basis in order
to carry out its function as a school. This will include all costs for services such as water,
electricity, telephone etc, repair and maintenance of the school and its property,
maintenance of grounds, purchase of instructional materials (consumable and non-
consumable). In addition, supporting paperwork will be required to substantiate
the claim.
The information required and the means of funding schools are reveiwed by the Ministry
on a regualr basis and, therfore, trainees should consult current legislation. See also
Module 5 Financial Management.

Finding financial resources

As was suggested at the start of this unit, the emphasis here is on the word 'finding'.
All headteachers must look for ways of augmenting their school's financial resources.
Community involvement in this venture may increase community interest in the school; so
the first source of extra finances should be your local community.

Consider for a moment the type of money raising activities that are likely to succeed in
your community

79
Comment
Every school and every area is different. Often the ability to raise funds will be
dependent on the socio-economic area from which the school draws its learners. This is
not necessarily to say that learners from poorer backgrounds will not have parents who
will wish to support the school fully. However, the type and scope of the events may be
different.

The following are often used to raise funds for schools:-

Sponsored events, (for example, walk, swim, spell, run), dances, discos, raffles, film
shows, jumble sales, fetes, cake sales, fancy dress competitions, concerts, the sale of
produce and the operation of a school canteen.

Remember that in Guyana, the headteacher should encourage others such as the PTA,
Past Alumni and the local community to raise funds for the school rather than doing it
himself / herself.

Activity 8.3
A regular source of income comes from the
contingency fund operated by many schools.
In this way a regular amount of funding can be
anticipated each year.
1. Choose the action you would take if a
parent of a child refused to pay the levy
from the following list. Would you:

• make a home visit in the case of a

non-paying parent?
• suspend the child from school until the
levy is paid?
• allow the child to attend school but
instruct teachers not to issue the child
with any materials or equipment?
• meet with the parents to persuade them?
• inform the PTA so that social pressures can be
exerted?
• publish names of learners whose parents
default?
• report the child to the local school welfare
officer?
• make allowance for a proportion of poorer
parents not to pay?

2. Can you think of any other appropriate action

which might be effective?

80
 Comments
It is important to involve both community and school in all stages of fundraising,
planning, implementation and assessment of results. Some activities are ongoing with
money being raised on a regular basis, for example, through the school canteen; others
are single occasions aimed at raising fairly large sums. A school should organise a 'mix'
of these activities.

The ability of a school to raise funds through contingency funds will depend on such
factors as the amounts already being required, the income levels of parents, and the
demand for places in the school. If too many parents refuse to pay then the scheme will be
discredited and collapse. A distinction should be drawn, if possible, between parents who
are reluctant to pay and those genuine difficulties.

The need for supplementary fundraising

When a fundraising activity is promoted, the first task is to decide which educational need of
the school will be satisfied by the money raised. The amount of money to be raised and the
way in which the money will be spent must then be communicated to the community so that
there is full support for the activity.

In most cases, it will be obvious to the Headteacher where there is an educational need.
However, there may be so many that fundraising alone will not be able to meet them and,
therefore, it is necessary to prioritise so that the money will be put to the best use. In
addition, it is important to gain the enthusiasm of those who will do the work of fundraising.
The scheme must be one which is “close to their hearts” and particularly, in the case of the
PTA, which will directly benefit their learners. Below you will find some suggestions of who
you might consult and the process you might go through to help you decide upon your
priorities.

• Consultation with PTA

• Consultation with teachers
• Consultation with learner representatives
• Visiting other schools
• Personally noting deficiencies in physical plant
• Reports from social workers on needy learners
• Subject enrichment plans - e.g. educational visits
• By listening to appeals from parents
• Through reading educational literature
• Professional conversation with colleagues
• By observing the school in operation

Note, however, that fundraising should not be done in areas for which the Ministry of
Education or other bodies have responsibility. (e.g. payment of teachers) Instead, you should
lobby their support where possible and ensure that they carry out their function. You may wish
to consider some of the following activities for fund raising support.
• School magazine
• School newsletter
• Educational visits
• Learner prize giving
• Graduation and party for learners

81
• Additional sports equipment
• Attendance at a music competition
• Transport for Sports Teams
• Purchase of reference books for teachers
• Purchase of First Aid Kit for the sports teams
• Finance of a school based workshop relating to welfare of learners
• Video camera for the Geography department
• Laser printer for computer studies
• Teaching aids to supplement those supplied by the education authority
• Sport Day competitions

Comments
Despite some limitations that exist on the raising of additional funds by schools, there
is no school that doesn't need to raise funds somehow for maintaining and developing
the quality of all aspects of school facilities and life.

As headteacher you must take a pro-active approach to this by regularly consulting

with the learners, staff, parents and the community, as well as line managers, to find
ways of raising funds and identifying areas where the greatest benefit would be
derived through some additional expenditure.

Summary
Each school experiences two levels of funding - recurrent and capital (or developmental). In
order to secure adequate recurrent funding, the headteacher must know how to prepare an
annual budget to submit to the Ministry of Education and Department of Education, and another
to caterfor funds expected from fundraising activities. He or she must also be able to
motivate the PTA, other school bodies and the community, in fundraising activities to supplement
the educational offerings of the school. All monies received by the school must be accounted
for according to financial legislation and managed effectively by the headteacher and staff to
ensure that learners are given the best possible education.

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 Special Educational Needs Unit 9
Introduction
Unit nine of this module deals specifically with the
roles of the headteacher in the management of
Special Education Needs School/Facility. This unit
recognizes and outlines the importance of
including all individuals in the educational provision
in Guyana.
While this unit will address some important areas,
participants are advised to refer to citations provided
for further reading.

The then Minister of Education, the Hon. Shaik Baksh outlined the ministry’s position as it relates
to the education of citizens, “the ministry is dedicated to ensuring that all citizens of Guyana,
regardless of age, race, gender, creed, physical or mental disability or socio-economic status are
given the best possible opportunity to achieve their full potential” (ESP, 08-13, p.11). It is with this
in mind that this unit was developed to provide information and support to the participants as we
(collectively) strive to positively improve the quality of life of persons with Special Education
Needs/Disability (SEND).

Activity 9.1
At this point you will write (in your own words) what you understand the term disability
to mean and say what you think about persons with disabilities as it relates to
education. It is important that you be as honest as possible as your thoughts will be
used as your baseline. By the end of this unit you will be encouraged to revisit your
initial stance to ascertain how much it has evolved.

Individual Study time: 4 hours.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should:
• Be aware of the history and development of Special Education Needs/Disability (SEND)
in Guyana
• Be aware of the meaning SEND locally and internationally
• Be aware of the categories of disabilities in Guyana
• Become an advocate for persons with SEND

83

• Be aware of SEND etiquette

 • Supporting students with SEND in school/facility
• Become familiar with the role of the headteacher and other senior teachers in the
management of SEND school/facility.

History and Development of SEN in Guyana

Guyana-Community-Based Rehabiliation (GCBR) programme started in 1986. This programme
targeted children with disabilities and was initiated as a pilot initiative in two coastal locations by a
group of concerned individuals. Overall, the GCBR programme played a “key advocacy role in
putting disability and rehabilitation issues in the national agenda in shaping national policies and
influencing the organiszation of services aimed at persons with disabilities” (Deepak, 2006, p 10).
The GCBR program has been one of the prime “movers advocating for greater awareness in
national policy on disability issues and contributed to the setting up of the National Commission on
Disability (NCD) in 1997” (Deepak, 2006, p 10).

The GCBR project had a special focus on “promoting education for children with disabilities”
(Deepak, 2006, p 12). The project was structured for the community level on the premise that the
community would sustain and foster the education of persons with disabilities. The project
collaborated with the University of Guyana via IDCE offering certificate courses. It was also
instrumental in guiding and supporting organizations that catered for persons with disabilities. The
work of the GCBR span some twenty years of service in Guyana, while it started with a focus on
children in communities; it later allowed for adults and supported them in skills building, all to the
‘end’ of improving the quality of life of persons with disabilities in Guyana.

While the work of the GCBR commenced in 1986, education of persons with disabilities, specifically
those with hearing and vision would have started as early as 1960’s and that venture was managed
by the Red Cross. As a result of the involvement of the Red Cross, the Ptolemy Reid and David
Rose Schools came into being (Meeting Special Education Needs, 2004)

Special Education Needs Defined

There are many different definitions of SEN with each country having its own ‘spin’ on the definition.
The definition that Guyana currently embraces is that of the United Kingdom.

The UK SEN Code of practices states:-

“Children have a special need if they have a learning difficulty which calls for special educational
provision to be made for them. Children have a learning difficulty if they

(a) have a significantly greater difficulty than the majority of children of the same age

(b) have a disability which prevents or hinders them from making use of the educational facilities
of a kind generally provided for children of the same age in schools within the local authority.

(c) are under compulsory school age and fall within the definition at (a) or (b) above or would do
so if special education provision was not made for them, special education provision means:
educational provision which is additional to, or otherwise different from the educational
provision made generally for children of their age in school” (UK, 2001 Lockwood, 201, p7).

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Disability is a physical or mental impairment which has a long-term and substantial adverse effect
on their ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities’. This definition provides a relatively low
threshold and includes more children than many realize: ‘long-term’ is defined as ‘a year or more’
and ‘substantial’ is defined as ‘more than minor or trivial’. This definition includes sensory
impairments such as those affecting sight or hearing, and long-term health conditions such as
asthma, diabetes, epilepsy and cancer. Children and young people with such conditions do not
necessarily have SEN, but there is a significant overlap between children with disabilities and young
people and those with SEN. Where a child with a disability or young person requires special
educational provision they will also be covered by the SEN definition.

Point to note:

• There is not a definition on SEND that is exclusively contextual to Guyana

• A slow learner is not necessarily a student with SEND. For a student to be
considered to have SEND that student must be evaluated by professionals.

Activity 9.2
Based on the definition of SEND, how do you think including these learners can impact you
as a headteacher in managing your school/facility?

SEN Etiquette
Participants are encouraged to as much as possible join the cause for persons with SEND and
respect them. In doing so participants are encouraged to:

• use ‘person first language’ when sepaking or referring to persons with SEND e.g you should
say the boy with autism and NOT the autistic boy or the boy with down syndrome and NOT
the down syndrome boy, reason being is that the disability does not define the individual.

• practice being patient e.g. allow the student time to respond, participate and be included
where possible in matters that concern him/her

• refrain from using the words such as: retarded, stupid, idiot, fool, dumb etc. because of the
negativity associated with these words and the social construction of disability can perpetuate
a culture of dangerous language habits.

• respect that individual with the SEND have rights and needs e.g. communicate with adults as
adults (NCD, 2010).

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 Categories of Disabilities in Guyana (Guyana Census, 2012)

The following diagram is an illustration on the categories of disabilities in Guyana (Guyana Census
2012) participants are asked to bear in mind that the list is not exhausted. The Ministry of
Education, Guyana also recognizes: autism, intellectual disability, emotional and behavioral,
multiple and developmental delay.

The following is a further breakdown of some of the disabilities, particularly highlighting that
learning disability and intellectual disability are not one and the same –

• Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disability with “persistent deficits in social

communication and social interaction and repetitive behaviours:-
(a) Social Interaction - the inability to engage in turn taking activities, not interested in
back and forth conversations, reduce sharing of interest and or emotions. Also
included here would be the non-verbal group i.e. the persons with autism that do
not have language. It is good to note that though a student may not have
language and display behavior challenges does not mean that the student is
autistic.
(b) Restricted, repetitive behavior patterns - looking for sameness (routines work
well), highly restricted and or fixated (DSM-V, 2014, p. 88).

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 • Intellectual Disability (ID) “is a disorder with the onset during the developmental period that
includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning deficits in conceptual, social and
practical domains”. Previously this disability would have been diagnosed by the IQ Score,
however, the ability to reason has been added to the criteria for diagnosis (DSM-V, p. 71).

• Specific Learning Disorder (LD)- “difficulties learning and using academic skills, as
indicated by the presence of at least one of the following symptoms that have persisted for
at least six months, despite the provision of interventions that target those difficulties:
(a) Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading
(b) Difficulties in understanding the meaning of what is read
(c) Difficulties with spelling
(d) Difficulties with written expression
(e) Difficulties mastering number sense, number facts, or calculation
(f) Difficulties with mathematical reasoning (DSM-V, p. 67).

Activity 9.3
Based on the categories and definitions of disabilities provided, say what you have
understand from the different categories.

Supporting Students with SEN

Schools are made up of year groups, classes and individual pupils. It is convenient and practical
to teach them in these groupings. However, each class of children is made up of twenty-five or
more (based on location and circumstances) unique individuals with their own distinctive
backgrounds, abilities, needs and aspirations. Added to this complication is the fact that many
children, through no fault of their own, have difficulty accessing education content during
instructional sessions. In addition, there may be a child with a physical disability in the very class
as ‘afforded’ by the Lockwood 2010 Inclusion Policy Document. It is with this in mind that teachers
are encouraged to be very cautious as they interact with those students who they believe to have
SEND. Cheong, Kellems, Anderson and Steed 2018 contended in their paper that while the
Ministry of Education has made significant improvement in the education towards persons with
SEND there is still much more to do.

Lashley 2017 in his article wrote about the attitudes and perceptions of teachers in mainstream
classes towards students with SEND. The author contended that teachers play a vital role in the
education system and as such they need as much support as possible as they manage their
classrooms.
It is the teacher’s responsibility to find ways to break this cycle, through:
• giving the learner opportunities to experience success through a range of learning activities
• reframing failures or mistakes as part of the learning process

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 • Showing that difficulties in one area do not mean that a child cannot succeed in other ways
(Hunnisett, p.15).

In being cautious the teacher can either prevent or break the Cycle of Failure. In very many cases
of students that have been reported as having SEND, it was and continues to be noted that the
children did not have SEND but the children were merely caught up in the cycle of failure i.e. the
child was at some point made to feel bad, perhaps because he/she had a difficulty with a
particular concept, the teacher did not cover all the steps necessary in achieving the objective or
the weakness of the teacher became the weakness of the child (teacher her/himself didn’t
understand fractions and as such is weak in that area), or because he/she was made to feel bad
the child ‘shut down’ and his/her approach to academics is minimal. Hence that child is referred to
as having SEND.

Activity 9.4
Based on the article by Lashley 2017, how would you address at least two of the
issues mentioned by the author?

Advocacy for Persons with SEND

For this part of the module you can reference the
Guyana Disability Act 2010. You are asked to
engage in introspection; think for a moment if you
had a child with a significant disability who is above
average in intellectual functioning and he was denied
entry into schools based on his disability.
• How would you feel?
• What would you do?
• How would you help your child to
understand the situation?
• How can you help other parents in similar situations?

The Role of Headteacher in the Management of SEND

In Module 8, you will read that the headteacher is not merely an administrator or a manager
but first and foremost a Leader.

Some of the characteristics of a leader are:

• creates a vision for the school for its short – and long-term development.
• empowers staff to work toward achieving the vision.
• provides and enabling environment in which they can work.
• encourages team work
• is the lead professional of the school.

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 Activity 9.5
As the Lead Professional and in relation to the provision for SEND, consider what your
vision for the school would be and how you would work with, encourage, empower and
enable your staff to achieve it. In answering the above, let us consider the reality of the
situation in Guyana. It is probably true to say that almost all learners will have a special
need at some time during their time in school. This may be permanent, semi-
permanent or temporary and it may be caused by external factors or personal
circumstances. The permanent will remain with the child throughout his or her life (e.g.
some physical disabilities for which there is no cure). The semi-permanent may
improve as the child gets older and learns to cope with the disability, a cure may be
found or he/she respond to treatment. The temporary will be short term and may very
well be as a result of factors relating to home circumstances or the quality of education.

Many Guyanese learners have a temporary Special Education Need which is related to external
factors. They are of a normal ability range and are able to learn. This need may not be permanent
although it often is because it is not recognised and appropriate strategies put into place to deal with
it. Unfortunately, it is often a result of the following circumstances:-

• knowledge, skill and ability of teachers

• availability of resources
• large class sizes
• poor motivation of teachers
• lack of adequate supervision of staff
• low levels of teacher/learner contact time
• inappropriate teaching methods.

The skill is to be able to differentiate between learners who have SEND and those whose
performance is a result of these external factors. This is where the leadership of the headteacher
comes into play. You must take the initiative in relation to SEND and must make suitable provision
available. As Headteacher, in doing so, you will have a total commitment to “equality of
opportunity”, a commitment to “Inclusive Education” in the mainstream (where it is in the interests
of the child) and will be dedicated to meeting the needs of all learners in every classroom.

The Statement and Framework for Action (UNESCO, 1994) re-affirms the right to education
of every individual, as enshrined in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and renews
the pledge made by the world community at the 1990 World Conference on “Education for All” to
ensure that right for all, regardless of individual differences. The Statement also mentions the
1993 UN Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities which states that the education of
disabled learners should be an integral part of the education system.

It states:-

• every child has a fundamental right to education, and must be given the opportunity to
achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning;
• every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs,

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 • education systems should designed educational programmes to take into account the wide
diversity of these characteristics and needs;
• those who have Special Educational Needs must have access to regular schools which
should accommodate them within a Child-Centred Pedagogy capable of meeting these
needs;
• regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating
discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and
achieving education for all; moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of
learners and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire
education system.
• special Needs Education assumes that human differences are normal and that learning
must accordingly be adapted to the needs of the child rather than the child fitted to pre-
ordained assumptions regarding the pace and nature of the learning process.

Identifying learners with SEND

While teachers in their individual classes may have their views on students, it is important that
they document their observations and interventions of the student(s) displaying challenges in one
way or another. This information should then be shared with the headteacher who will in turn
engage the Regional Special Education Need Officer (RSENO) for the enactment of the Regional
Policy that guides the process of diagnosing students.

Strategies for Meeting Special Educational Needs

Needless to say, these are numerous and to outline more than just a few would be impossible in
this programme. However, you and your staff should consider the following, once the need has
been recognised:-

• setting learners in classes where the type and pace of the lessons meet their needs
• arranging learners into groups of similar abilities and needs
• matching the work to the needs of the learners. This is commonly known as “Differentiated
Instructions.” With practice it is possible to provide several levels of work in the same class
on the same subject.
• adapting the curriculum–not a new curriculum–to meet learners’ needs
• holding remediation classes
• finding ways of using classroom assistants, perhaps parents who volunteer, to assist and
guide the learners
• involvement of health professionals
• the use of reward systems to encourage and motivate learners for the small steps they
make
• focusing on classroom inclusion (keeping learners involved).

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 Activity 9.6
From the list above, identify the points that could be readily be implemented in your
school and state fo other what would be required to make it then a reality.

As headteachers you are encouraged to relook the ‘culture’ of your school and plan a ‘Top Down
Approach’ that will seek to ensure that each staff member and child in your school leaves your
charge having learned something. Develop a culture that would facilitate teachers engaging in
peer teaching, sharing constructive criticisms, supporting weak teachers, staff development
sessions that seek to empower junior teachers and have that approach filter down to the
classrooms.

Failure at event
(work or Feel bad
. behaviour)

Loss of self
Attempt less confidence and
self esteem

Achieve less

Activity 9.7
Make a list of at least six other ways you can think of in breaking the cycle of failure

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 References

Cheong, K. A., Kellems, R. O., Andersen, M. M., & Steed, K. (2019). The Education of Individuals

With Disabilities in Guyana: An Overview. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(4),

246 – 250. [Link]

Lashley, L. (2017). School culture and teachers’ perspectives on Special Education Needs (SEN)

and disabilities within Guyana’s mainstream elementary school system. Social Science Learning

Education Journal,2(8). doi:10.15520/sslej.v2i08.35

Otoole, B., & Maison-Halls, G. (1994). Community-based rehabilitation and development: Disabled

children in Guyana. Development in Practice,4(1), 23-34. doi:10.1080/096145249100077471

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