Guyana

Ministry of Education

Education
Management
Certificate
Course

Personnel Management

Module Three

Drive
Developing

Teamwork

Influencing LEADERSHIP Vision

Confidence
Accountability

Commonwealth Secretariat
Modified from
Better Schools
Resource Materials for Headteacher
 These materials were prepared co-operatively under the Training and Support
Programme for School Headteachers in Africa in the 1990s. They were adapted and updated
considerably in Guyana in 2000, 2008 and 2019 to meet the needs of the Guyanese
educational context.

Governments in developing Commonwealth countries wishing to reproduce or adapt the

materials in whole or in part in any language should inform the Commonwealth
Secretariat which may be able to offer some assistance in doing so.

For further information, write to the Director of the Education Programme, Commonwealth
Secretariat, London.

COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT

Education Programme
Human Resource Development Group
Marlborough House
Pall Mall
London,
United Kingdom
SW1Y 5HX
or
THE DIRECTOR

National Centre for Educational Resource Development, MOE

3, Battery Road
Kingston
Georgetown
Guyana

Prepared for publication by the Materials Production Unit (MPU), National Centre for
Educational Resource Development (NCERD).
Originally designed and formatted by Geoffrey Wadsley.
Updated design and format by NCERD staff in partnership with

© Copyright Commonwealth Secretariat & Ministry of Education, NCERD Guyana 2019

Notes on Assessment
Please note that each unit contains two kinds of activities as follows: e.g.

1. Reflection – You will see these from time to time throughout the booklet in bold
text. You are not required to submit your thoughts on these issues to your
Master Trainer. You may make notes if you wish but they are your own
personal reflections on the issues raised.

2. Activities – These are formal assessments which you will have to submit to
your Master Trainer as part of your portfolio. You should number them in the
same way as the units and carry out the activity as stated.

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 Personnel Management Module 3
Introduction
Managing the human resources available at a school is probably one of the most important
tasks of a headteacher. In Guyana the major portion of the national budget allocated to
education is spent on paying personnel. The success, therefore, of any school programme
depends on how efficiently the headteacher can deploy this important resource for the best
use of the school.

The recognition of personnel management as an

important element of the headteacher's daily
activities, and the increasing emphasis on in-service
training for teachers, has led to an increased
interest in the field of staff development. The headteacher
is a 'leader of people' or “lead professional” and it is
evident that the skills associated with personnel
management can assist him or her in managing the
school more efficiently.

The purpose of this module is to introduce the

headteacher to a number of skills and techniques that can lead to a more sympathetic
management of staff members. This requires a variety of skills that might include the
keeping of records, identifying training needs, dealing with unions, problem-solving,
motivation, staff appraisal, and a whole host of related activities.
Individual study time: 24 hours

Objectives
After working through this module you should be able to:
• identify staff personnel needs for your school
• identify training needs and plan training programmes to meet these needs
• improve the motivation of your colleagues
• carry out the Guyana system of staff appraisal for your school
• manage a system of staff records
• manage meetings
• manage conflict situations.
Units
This module is divided into eight units.

Unit 1: Identifying staffing needs 3 hours

This unit aims to assist you in identifying the personnel needs for your school so that you
can work as effectively as possible with the Teaching Service Commission or School
Board in appointing staff for your school.

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Unit 2: Staff development 3 hours
Through this unit you will be able to identify the training needs of your staff, and plan training
programmes to meet these needs.

Unit 3: Staff motivation 3 hours

The important subject of motivating staff members to achieve their best, often under difficult
circumstances, is the topic of this unit.

Unit 4: Staff appraisal 3 hours

Appraisal is directed towards helping a teacher become as effective as possible in the
teaching and learning process. In this unit you will learn why and how staff appraisal should
be carried out.

Unit 5: Staff monitoring, evaluation and discipline 3 hours

Because all the activities of the school remain your responsibility, you need to ensure that
delegated tasks are actually carried out on time, and in a proper manner. Therefore, you
need to oversee and monitor the work of others in the school. Here you will learn to apply
specific methods of monitoring and discipline in your work situation.

Unit 6: Keeping staff records 3 hours

Records in a school contain important information about school administration and the staff.
In this unit you will specifically look at one element of record keeping, that of staff records.

Unit 7: Managing meetings 3 hours

Time is an important resource to a headteacher, and not to be wasted. In this unit you will
learn to identify some techniques for conducting meetings more efficiently.

Unit 8: Managing conflict 3 hours

Conflict can become physically and emotionally damaging or it can lead to growth and
productivity for all parties. In this unit you will discuss what conflict is, and how it can be
resolved.

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Identifying staffing needs Unit 1
Introduction
In Guyana, the appointment of staff for schools without a Board of Governors (BOG) is done by the
Teaching Service Commission (TSC). In school with a Board of Governors, it is the responsibility of
the Board. Varoius arrangements exist in private schools but normally staff are appointed by the
trustees in conjunction with the headteacher. You could find yourself as headteacher of any of
these three types of school.

However, as headteacher, it is important that you have a say in the appointment of the staff in your
school. The success of the school depends upon it and even if you personally do not
appoint the staff, it is incumbent on you to be in frequent contact and discussions with those
who do. Successful headteachers who run thriving schools do not leave it to chance. You can sit
back and allow others to do it for you or you can be proactive and work with the TSC, the
Trustees or the Board to achieve the best for your school. The TSC or Board will be only too
willing to discuss your staffing needs and to assist in trying to achieve the best for your school.

In many countries, staff selection has been delegated

to the school and ultimately the headteacher who is
best placed to understand the needs of the school.
Although staff selection in government schools is
carried out by the TSC in Guyana at the moment, it is
important that you understand the process if you are
or become headteacher of a Board School or Private
School. The following pages will explain that process.
However, you should note that, at the time of writing,
this is not the normal practice in Guyana in
government schools.

Currently, the appointment of headteachers in Grade A and B schools follows a process not
too dissimilar to the one below. All other posts, including senior ones, are filled using a
procedure which identifies suitability for the position based on the Annual Appraisal Report
for Teachers and other criteria agreed to by the TSC, MoE and GTU.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit you should be able to:

• be aware of current recruitment practice in Guyana through the TSC

• understand the ideal process of staff selection in Board Schools and Private Schools
• understand the roles of the key figures in selecting staff members.

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Types of vacancy
A vacancy may be either permanent or temporary in nature.

Reflect on the type of vacancy that occurs most frequently at your school? What
difference does the type of vancancy make when you are considering an appointment?

Comments
When any appointment is to be made, it is crucial to ensure that the right person
with the most appropriate skills is appointed.

For a temporary appointment, although this is still important: it will often depend on
the period of time for which the appointment is to be made. Whilst the TSC would try
to appoint someone with the appropriate skills, it may be more important to have a
committed teacher in the classroom rather than leaving the post unfilled simply
because no-one with exactly the right combination of skills can be found.

Assessment of needs
A vacancy on the staff of the school offers an opportunity for a reassessment of needs. In
some cases it will be desirable to find someone who can offer the same combination of skills
as the person who has left the staff; but on many occasions it may be better to rationalise or to
introduce new skills.

Activity 1.1
A teacher has recently resigned from your school.
(1) What steps could you take to assess the needs of your school in replacing that
particular teacher?
(2) What factors will influence your assessment of those needs – subject
choice, gender, extra-curricular abilities? List as many as you can.
If you are able to relate this to a real situation, do so.

Comments
As an example, Mathematics may have been fragmented among several members of
staff because it was a subject in which no-one was qualified and which no-one really
wanted to teach. Irrespective of which subjects were taught by the teacher who left the
school, this may be an opportunity to secure the services of a Mathematics specialist.

In assessing the needs, the headteacher should consult with the rest of the school
management, with the School Board if one exists and with other members of staff who
may be involved in any changes that might be made. It is often not just a case of
replacing the teacher who is leaving but using the departure as an opportunity to
achieve your overall staffing plans.

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Creating a staffing shadow structure
Waiting until a vacancy occurs can often be too late in terms of time and the urgency of the
situation to make decisions about what your school’s human resource needs are. It is
essential, therefore, that you are proactive in making plans about what your ideal staffing
structure will be. You are, of course, limited by the National Curriculum and the staffing
allowance of your school. However, within that structure, you need to have a plan to meet
the individual requirements of your school. This is called a “staffing shadow structure”. It is a
plan in waiting for when the opportunity arises, either through retirement, transfer, sickness
or dismissal, for you to achieve the ideal.

Although to a lesser extent in a nursery school because of the limited numbers of staff, it is
equally important in both primary and secondary schools to ensure that you have achieved
the right balance of staff skills to meet the needs of the curriculum. Although in a primary
school, staff will need to have abilities across the curriculum, to have a Mathematics or English
specialist, for example, will be important to guide the rest of the team. In a secondary
school, staff subject specialist skills are essential. As headteacher, you must eradicate as much as
possible the idea of staff teaching subjects in which they are not qualified.

Advertising the position

In a government school, this will be done by the TSC either as an advert for senior posts or
a pool of teachers who may be transferred to meet the needs. In Board schools, the BOG
will take on the responsibility.

Reflect for a moment on what skills you would like in a science teacher for your school at
this present time. How would you advise the TSC of your requirements?

Comments

Often posts are advertised in circulars and in newspapers. It is not possible to put all of
the relevant requirements in an advertisement. This is why the job description and
person specification is so important. (See Module One, Unit 4)

Whether the advertisement is placed by the School Board Secretriat or whether

information for an advertisement is submitted to the Teaching Service Commission, care
should be taken that the information submitted is clear, correct, and complete, and that
it is submitted as early as possible.

The school should keep a copy of the information submitted. Some types of
appointment will have very short notice periods, while for others a month's notice or
longer is required. But a month does not normally allow sufficient time for the
advertising and filling of the vacancy. The headteacher should develop an atmosphere
among the staff which will encourage them to give notice of their intention to leave at
as early a date as possible, so that the post can be filled with minimum disruption to
the activities of the school.

The requirements for your science teacher will depend on the type of school, the level
of teaching he / she will be expected to do and whether he / she will be required to
advise others. When working with the BOG or the TSC, make it very clear what your
requirements are. It will help them and ensure that your needs are met.

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Selection
Applicants for a particular post will almost certainly have to complete an application form or
write a letter outlining their suitability for the post.

Try to obtain a copy of an application form that would be used to appoint staff in your
school
and study it.

Although you may not have a direct responsibility for selection, it is important that you
understand the process. Ideally, selection should never simply be on the basis of
documents submitted, although these will play an important role. Documents should be
carefully studied to determine:

• whether the applicant appears to meet the advertised requirements.

• whether the applicant meets most of the needs of the job description and person
specification.
• the applicant's previous employment record.
• the qualifications of the applicant.
• the care which the applicant has taken in filling out the application form.
• whether the documents are genuine. Watch out for possible forgeries.

The necessary follow-up should then be undertaken. Applicants who do not meet the
advertised requirements cannot be considered for permanent appointment, while in some
short-term temporary posts exceptions can be made. If copies of certificates are enclosed, it
may be necessary to verify their authenticity, even if they are certified as true copies.

The previous employment record will indicate whether the applicant's experience matches
his or her qualification. It will also reveal whether the applicant has progressed from one
position of responsibility to another or, on the other hand, whether he or she is someone
who apparently cannot stay in any job for long. If at all possible, the applicant's manager in
the most recent post should be consulted about his or her abilities. A written record should
be kept of these inquiries.

The appearance of the application is important. A candidate who has taken little care over
completing the form and attaching necessary documentation, is not likely to take much care
in lesson preparation or in following up learners' difficulties.

During this sifting exercise, those candidates who are clearly unsuitable will be eliminated
and will be advised accordingly. If many apparently suitable candidates remain, further
sifting can be done by making contact with their former managers. Those who remain on a
short list of suitable candidates should be interviewed for the position.

It is essential that, at all times, throughout the process, dealings with the candidates are fair
and that all have an equal opportunity to be considered for the post on grounds of age,
gender, race and ethnic group.

Use of the Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers

In Guyana, however, the Annual Appraisal Form is used which provides evidence of the
performance of a teacher based on the current system of appraisal. This is scrutinised by

8
the TSC along with any other evidence. For further information on his process, see Unit
Four of this Module – Staff Appraisal. It is on the basis of this information that the Teaching
Service Commission recommends the transfer of a teacher from one school to another
including promotions.

Interviewing
In non-government schools, applicants who have been short-listed should be advised in
good time of their interview. If at all possible it should be arranged for a time which is not
going to interfere with their present job. Usually around 40 minutes is allowed for the
interview, after which the members of the panel should have about 20 minutes to discuss
their impressions of the applicant before the next interview starts.

Activity 1.2
If you were a member of the interview panel for the science teacher in your school,
what questions would you want to ask the candidates? Remember that as headteacher
you would be more concerned with learning and teaching than other issues which
might be dealt with by other panel members.

Comments
The questions you would ask as headteacher would relate to the professional
competence of the candidate, his / her ability to teach, their understanding of the
processes of learning and how they would deal with incidences of indiscipline etc.

Interviewing is normally undertaken by a panel of at least

two or three. Too large a panel might intimidate the
candidate, while leaving the interviewing to a single person
places an extremely heavy responsibility on that person.
Remember, two headteachers are better than one. For
headteachers in Grade A and B schools, persons
from various organisations such as the TSC and the GTU
would form an interviewing panel.

If the interviewing is being done at the school, the panel

might consist of members of the School Board, the
headteacher, the Deputy (or a Head of Department in the
subject field for which an appointment is to be made) and a
representative of the parent committee. The members of
the panel should decide among themselves who is going
to head the panel for a particular interview. This person will take the lead in asking questions,
but should also give the other members of the panel an opportunity to ask questions.

All members of the panel should be thoroughly familiar with the documents submitted by the
applicant and with the results of any other inquiries which have been made.

The assumption when interviewing starts is that all those to be interviewed are equally
suitable for the position. If this were not the case, the less suitable ones would have been

9
eliminated without an interview. There are two purposes of the interview – to confirm the
suitability of the candidates; and to distinguish clearly which candidate is best, which one second
best, and so on. This can be done by testing further aspects of the application such as,
presentation and oral skills, abilities of persuasion and argument, technical ability, subject
knowledge and other additional information.

When the applicant is shown in for the interview, he or she should be introduced to the
members of the panel. The headteacher of the panel should engage the interviewee briefly in
casual conversation to establish a relaxed atmosphere.

Questions should focus on the job which the applicant will be expected to perform, and may
take the form of posing problems and asking the applicant how he or she would deal with
them, or of asking how routine tasks would be tackled. For example:

• How would you ensure that all learners in your class were catered for whatever their
level of ability?
• How would you deal with a learner who fails to bring written homework to school, and
says it has been done, but left at home? How would you deal with the same learner the
second time this happens?
• How would you deal with a group of a dozen learners who have performed very poorly
in a test?
• What sort of preparation would you do before conducting a lesson on an English
poem?
• How do you integrate theory and laboratory work in the curriculum?
• How would you respond if your Head of Department were to give you what you
considered to be an unfair assignment?

At the end of the interview the applicant should be given the opportunity to ask questions,
then thanked for coming, and advised that the result of the interview will be communicated
as soon as possible.

During the interview and in the course of the discussion which follows it, brief notes should
be made of the applicant's responses to questions. (It might be necessary at a later stage to
remind the successful candidate of a response made during the interview if he / she fails to
perform adequately).

At an interview, what you see and hear and read is what you get. It is your opportunity to set
the expectations of the post. What candidates communicate to you is what you shall expect
of them.

Appointment
After the interviews, the process of appointing the best candidate should be kept as brief as
possible. The best candidate should be contacted soon after the interview, told that he or
she is being nominated for the position, and asked whether he/she is likely to accept. (It
may be that the applicant has been short-listed for two or three posts, and would actually
prefer one of the others.) The other candidates should be contacted and offered a debrief
as to why they were not considered suitable on this occasion. They should be thanked for
their time and wish them success in future applications.

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Finalising the appointment
The Teaching Service Commission or the Board of Governors has final responsibility for the
selection and appointment of teaching staff. This authority is delegated to an appropriate
official, who will probably not be the same for all levels of posts. For example, authority to fill
a short-term temporary post might rest with one officer and another might be responsible for
the permanent appointment of teachers. A panel is always responsible for the appointment
of a headteacher of a Grade A or B School.

If the power to finalise the appointment does not rest with a member of the interviewing
committee, the necessary documentation and recommendation should be forwarded to the
responsible official as speedily as possible, and if there seems to be undue delay in acting
on the recommendation, the headteacher of the interviewing committee should follow up, as
there is always the danger of a good candidate being lost to another post.

The successful applicant should receive oral confirmation of the appointment as soon as
possible, followed up by a formal letter of appointment (setting out any conditions attached
to the appointment) and a clear job description. The successful applicant should sign the
forms for the acceptance of the post.

Summary
The provision of good human resources in a school, that is the appointment of dedicated,
hard working, motivated and committed staff, will have the greatest impact on the quality of
learning and teaching in the school which in turn will contribute to overall success for the
learners.

It is not a matter which should be left to chance and, although, a headteacher may not, in
all cases, have direct responsibility for appointing staff in Guyana, s(he) must ensure that
those who do are fully appraised of the school’s needs so that they can make the
appropriate decisions. Hence, the completion of a “staffing shadow structure” is essential so that
action can be taken to achieve the best staffing in a short period of time.

Those responsible for appointments must make them with considerable attention to detail,
ensuring that all have an equal opportunity to be considered whatever their age, gender,
race or ethnic group

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 Staff Development Unit 2
Introduction
The concept of staff development recognises that all people may improve their capabilities
and become more efficient at what they are doing. Much of the time we are likely to say
'This is an area in which I think I can do better'. We may be aware that we can improve by
observing the performance of others. Sometimes, however, we need another trusted person
to help us identify those areas in which we need to better our performance. Once we have
done this, there are various ways in which we can get others to assist us in the process of
self-development.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:

• identify the training needs of your staff

• plan training programmes to meet these needs
• implement a training programme
• evaluate the outcome of such training.

Responsibility for initiating training

Responsibility for initiating training is shared by those in need of training, their immediate
managers, and those in management positions from the district or regional offices and the
Ministry of Education and, in particular, the National Centre for Educational Resource
Development (NCERD) which is the organisation responsible for the in-service training of
teachers and school staff..

Those who are in need of development are actually the ones in the best position to initiate
training. Thus teachers are likely to have a fairly strong awareness of their own training
needs. If they wait for others to organise training for them, they may find that their training
needs are not satisfied for a long time, if ever!

Headteachers also have a responsibility in arranging training for themselves and for their
teachers. As the lead professional of the school, he or she has a responsibility for ensuring
that education takes place efficiently. If this is not happening because the teachers are
unskilled or lack confidence, the headteacher should initiate in-service training.

At the Department of Education, there are officials with a controlling or advisory function
such as the Head of the Departments of Education (REDOs) and District Education
Officers (DEOs). Their job entails ensuring that sound education takes place in their schools.
They, too, have a responsibility for ensuring that staff development is possible for their teachers
and headteachers.

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Any one of these parties can sit back and wait for someone else to initiate training, but it is
really a joint responsibility and each of the members of the partnership can be the one who
facilitates staff development.

Identification of needs
We have suggested that the teacher knows in what areas he or she is in need of training.
Similarly, the headteacher and other school leaders will know in what areas of management
they are falling short. Developmental needs are also identified during supervision.

This intuitive knowledge is not sufficient for the development of a fully adequate training
programme. Detailed questionnaires completed by the teachers will point more clearly to
the areas in which training is needed. But in the absence of a scientific approach a great
deal can be achieved by a group of teachers using brainstorming techniques, provided they
are completely open and honest.

Brainstorming
In brainstorming one member of the group is chosen to
write up on a blackboard all the ideas suggested by the
other members of the group. Teachers will call out the
problems they experience, and each will be written down
without discussion or comment. When no-one has any
more suggestions, the members of the group will discuss
the problems briefly and group together those that are
related. Only after this there is a detailed discussion of
each of the problems and the sort of training which would
help to overcome it. During this discussion there should
be no particular reference to the person who first identified the problem. It is discussed in
general terms and as experienced at that particular school.

Activity 2.1
Consider your area of responsibility and as headteacher, Head of Department, Level
Head etc, list the training needs of the staff members you are responsible for.

Comments
You will have considered many different aspects of their work such as subject
knowledge, ability to teach, understanding of learning techniques and methodology
as well as their ability to assess learner’s work, complete the administration
requirements of a teacher and deal with learner discipline.

Management / administration
Issues identified may include:

• the lack of participation by the staff in management decisions

• poor planning, for example, when dates for important staff and subject meetings are
not set sufficiently far in advance
• poor communications, for example, when staff members are unaware of the details
of decisions which affect them.

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Didactic
Teachers may feel that they would achieve greater success with their learners if they had
greater competence in teaching methodology. Specific problems may include:

• depending too much on the textbook and using a lecturing approach

• having academic knowledge of a subject but not knowing how to transmit this
knowledge to the learners
• classes being too large for adequate attention to be given to the learners' individual
needs
• learners achieving poor text results, despite seeming to understand their work in
class and doing their homework.

Teaching content
The content to be taught is set out in the syllabus or curriculum guides. Many teachers depend
so heavily on the textbook that they forget that the syllabus and curriculum guides must be
regularly consulted, as this is the document which should determine what should be covered
and how much attention should be given to each aspect. When there is a change of syllabus or
curriculum guides, the teachers may need guidance on interpreting the new document, and may
find that there are sections of the syllabus or curriculum guide which they simply do not understand
because of advances in the subject since they underwent training.

Whilst some teachers may use a limited range of teaching styles and methodologies, others
may be lacking in their subject knowledge or simply need updating. Also, all teachers need
information on the way learners learn as this is a fast growing topic which unfolds more and
more as further research is done.

Assessment
The syllabus normally has very specific instructions about the way in which assessment is to
take place. Teachers' problems may however be of a very practical nature, such as, how to:

• get a test or question paper neatly typed and copied

• organise security so that learners do not have access to questions before the time
• keep an accurate record of marks awarded during continuous assessment
• set examination questions that adequately cover the syllabus or curriculum guide.

Child development
Teachers who are either unqualified or who have subject qualifications but do not hold the
Trained Teachers Certificate (TTC) such as TQMs and TUMs may need to learn about the
stages in child development and about how to motivate learners to learn and to discipline
them fairly.

Language
Particularly in Guyana, learners have to work through a medium of instruction which is not
their home language, especially in the Hinterland. Although the subject teacher may have a
good grasp of the subject content and be competent in subject methodology, little learning
may take place as a result of communication problems. Whereas standard English is the
requirement for all official business in Guyana, large numbers of Guyanese go about their

14
daily lives speaking only Creole or other native languages. Special in-service training may
be needed to overcome this problem.

Activity 2.2
Utilising your list developed in Activity 2.1 group the problems into the areas
suggested above.
Rank the list in priority of training needs

Seeking assistance
Before looking for outside assistance, the staff of a school should make use of the skills
they have available on the spot. The more experienced teachers on the staff should be able
to help those who are less experienced. Those with higher qualifications should be able to
help those whose training has been less thorough. Even two teachers experiencing similar
problems may, by discussing their problems with each other, be able to work out a solution.

It should be remembered that every member of staff has something to offer his or her
colleagues, and that every member of staff, however competent, can still learn from others.

All schools in Guyana are required to have regular staff development sessions for the whole
staff. Quality resource persons are often not available, very busy or expensive and so, the
suggestions above are particularly important. There is a wealth of knowledge and
experience on the average staff and teachers should be encouraged to share it especially
when they have been trained in a particular area themselves.

Having grouped the training needs of your colleagues in Activities 2.2, reflect on who might
provide the required in-service training, weather it is an individual, an institution or even
yourself or a member of your staff.

Comments
Once everything possible is being done to use the skills available within the school it
may still be necessary to look further afield for assistance. Outside assistance should
in the first instance be sought from neighbouring schools.

For management problems, the DEO could be called upon to assist, and subject
advisers, where available in NCERD, could be used.

Outside assistance could also be sought from the personnel of the CPCE, of the
University of Guyana and of other ministries (for example, an agricultural officer for
Biology or Agricultural Science) or even individuals from the private sector (a
pharmacist for Science, a journalist for some aspect of language work, a banker for
accounting and so on). Regional co-operation could also be utilised. The use of the
community is essential to provide the widest possible range of experience for your
staff. Often such people are very knowledgeable and are flattered to be asked to play
their role in the education of the nation’s learners.

15
Obtaining assistance
Co-operation with teachers at nearby schools can be arranged by the headteachers, or
even by the teachers themselves. Ideally, the possibility should have been raised during a
staff meeting, and the headteacher asked to take the request to the headteacher of the
neighbouring school. But a teacher with a particular need could go directly to his or her
headteacher with such a request; or could even initiate contact with a teacher from the other
school. In this case the arrangements would be
informal and unofficial. There is, however,
probably more to be gained from a co-ordinated
action which involves more of the teachers.

An approach to the Regional Department of

Education, the Ministry of Education or NCERD
for assistance from inspectors or subject specialists
should be conveyed by the headteacher of the
school, and should be followed up by him or her
if there is no response within a reasonable
period of time. It must, however, be accepted
that the education office staff have many
demands made on their time and however
willing, there may be delays in setting up an
advisory visit or a workshop. Approaches to
other educational institutions like CPCE and to
other ministries should also be made by the
headteacher; approaches to individuals in the private sector may be made by the headteacher
or by the teacher.

Training formats
There are many ways in which training can be done. Depending on the type of issue which
is being addressed, some styles may be more appropriate than others. It is also important
to provide variety, and not to use the same format every time. Here a number of
suggestions are made, each of which will have to be adapted to local conditions and to the
issues being addressed.

• A teacher may sit in on the lesson of a competent teacher, observe what takes place,
and afterwards discuss what has been observed.
• A teacher may plan a lesson, discuss it with a more experienced teacher, make
adjustments to the lesson plan in the light of the discussion, and then have the
experienced teacher observe the lesson. Afterwards the strengths and weaknesses
of the lesson can be discussed.
• Two or three teachers of the same subject (from the same school or from different
schools) may together do their lesson planning, exchanging ideas and discussing
difficulties as they go along.
• A workshop session may be planned, during which one or more teachers
demonstrate particular teaching techniques. The less experienced teachers may try
these out over the following weeks and then at a further workshop their successes
and difficulties may be discussed.
• A workshop session may be held during which teachers set test or examination
questions, and then work out the answers to one another's questions. In this way

16
 weaknesses in the wording of the questions or in the allocation of marks will come to
light.
• For practical subjects a workshop may be arranged during which the less confident
teachers actually do the practical work under the supervision of skilled teachers.
• For management and disciplinary problems the staff may meet for a brainstorming
session, during which problem areas are identified. Thereafter the meeting could
break up into smaller groups, each group working on possible solutions to one of the
problems. After a set time the groups all come together again. At this stage the
possible solutions can be discussed and decisions taken on action by all members of
the group,
• One or more members of staff may be asked to read an article or a section of a
training manual, and lead a training session or presentation based on what they have
read.
• Certain members of staff may have been trained in a certain area. They will use
“cascade” training with their peers who in turn will train others.

It is important to note that the most successful training methods are those where the leader
acts as the facilitator and the methods used are very participatory. In others words, teachers
are actually involved in ‘doing” rather than simply “listening”.

Activity 2.3
Drawing on your experience of in-service training methods, list the different
techniques applied and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method
identified.

Evaluation of training
Any training which is done should be evaluated. After a training session, the participants
should be able to say whether they feel any benefit from it and they should be able to
identify the aspects which they found most satisfactory, and those which they found least
satisfactory. These details should be communicated to those who arranged the training, so
that in future training sessions the aspects which caused dissatisfaction can be minimised
or even eliminated, and those aspects which were found to be satisfactory may be further
developed.

If the weaknesses of a workshop or training session are not reported, the same faults are
likely to occur in the future. However carefully the presenters of a course plan it, they can
never be absolutely in tune with the needs of those attending. The larger the group, the
more true this is. It is therefore most important that everyone should be completely honest.

In general, it is important that the objectives of a training exercise should be carefully stated
beforehand. Training fails if it attempts to do too much in too short a space of time.

When a training session is completed, it should be fully reported in the School Log Book
with a list of attendees and, where the training was of particular importance, a report should
be written and circulated to the Regional Department of Education and / or the Ministry of
Education.

17
Summary
Staff development can be seen as an important component in building the capacity of
schools to function efficiently.

This unit has looked at the need to engage in a programme of staff development and to
identify the needs of the staff, and has suggested a number of training techniques that
might be employed to achieve the desired results.

Finally, it has stressed the need to view staff development as a joint responsibility of those
in need of training and those in management positions.

18
 Staff Motivation Unit 3
Introduction
The key to effective leadership is the ability to get results from other people, through other
people and in conjunction with other people. If the underlying psychology is wrong, the most
carefully constructed system and techniques will fail.

An efficient headteacher may not necessarily be an effective headteacher if his or her

relationship with the staff is poor. But if relationships are good and the staff is motivated,
some administrative or environmental flaws will readily be overlooked.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• define the meaning of motivation

• understand the principles of motivation and its application
• identify factors which can enhance or weaken levels of motivation.

What is motivation?
Motivation is concerned with the cause of behaviour: why people act, speak or think in a
particular way. Headteachers need to know how to motivate. They need to 'get results
through people' or 'get the best out of people'.

This is most likely to be achieved if the headteacher helps the staff experience job
satisfaction. This is known as intrinsic motivation, which comes from within, and not extrinsic
motivation which is too often based on fear. Results will then be the best that the teacher
can produce and be more likely to be in line with the overall goals and ethos of the school.

Principles of motivation
Participation
The staff should be involved in decision-making and in matters which affect them directly.
The more the staff becomes involved, the more they will have a sense of ownership in decisions
and be prompted to help in achieving the objectives. Involving the staff in decision-making does
not alter the fact that the headteacher remains accountable for taking the final decisions and for
their results. This is very important. There should be accountability at all levels. Members of staff
are accountable to the headteacher in all they do. However, it is the responsibility of the
headteacher to ensure that the quality of work carried out by all is of the highest standard. Thus,
he / she is accountable for all that goes on in the school.

19
Communication
If the staff is informed about the objectives and the results achieved, they are inclined to
co-operate more and feel that they are part (members) of the staff (group). The opposite is also
true: if the staff do not know what they are supposed to be achieving, they will show little interest
and have little motivation. Staff should not only be informed about results, but also about changes
and progress. The good leader will be an effective communicator.
Recognition
If the staff members receive the necessary
recognition for work done, they will be inclined
to work harder. Recognition should be given to
the staff member as a person and not just as a
human resource. This might be done in a
variety of ways both formal and informal.
Teachers who have achieved good results
who have performed well might be mentioned
in staff meetings or, equally effectively, a quiet
word of thanks and praise could make all the
difference to a way a person feels about what
they do. Written praise and recognition is also
important as it forms a record and is often
seen as having greater emphasis. This could
range from positive entries in the school log book, certificate for attendance at workshops,
articles in the school newsletter or even a merit award for the “teacher of the month” based
on issues such as “the best kept classroom”, “the best learning environment”, “improved
attendance and punctuality” and “the most improved results”. These are all examples tried
and tested in some Guyanese schools.

Delegated authority
A headteacher should be prepared to delegate authority to capable people. In this way a
person's post is enhanced, and this serves as a means of personnel development.
Delegated authority also means that more people will be allowed to make decisions
themselves in connection with their work, within set guidelines. See Unit 5, Module 2
Principles of Educational Leadership, for more details on delegation.

Reflecting on your own school situation, what do you consider to be the needs of your
staff. How are these needs met now? How can they be better met in the future?

Comment
When considering the needs of your staff, you will have thought about their personal
as well as professional needs. Although you will be more concerned with the latter,
the school cannot function without personal needs being met. Motivation is often
more about personal than professional. Issues such as remuneration, the need to
belong and the provision of good staff facilities amongst others might all be factors
which you may have identified.

Whether those needs are currently being met in your school is a matter for your own
personal judgement. Be honest, however and give some thought to what the ideal
situation might be and how close you are able to get in achieving it.

20
Motivating staff
The principles of motivation outlined above indicate that there are a variety of factors which
influence an individual's level of motivation at work. The headteacher, therefore, should not
only have some knowledge of the staff but should bear in mind all the different factors which
can enhance or weaken motivation. These factors can be divided into four groups: the
personal needs of all human beings, factors inherent in the work situation, management
methods and the social system as reflected in the community. Let us consider each of them.

Personal needs
The needs of every person should be taken into account, such as the need for recognition,
the need to achieve, the need to be a valued person in the community, the need for
self-respect and for friendship. If a teacher occupies a temporary post, there is a need for
work security. Merit awards and promotion can give the necessary recognition of teachers'
achievements. Non-recognition of achievements has a demotivating effect on teachers and
can lead to high staff turnover. A sense of responsibility should be cultivated as well as
pride in the quality of work done.

Work situation
Factors related to the work itself may also affect levels of motivation, for instance, the nature
and type of work, the opportunities for group identity, the chances of promotion, the work
environment, the opportunities and challenges of the work such as the opportunities for
creativity and renewal. Monotony and routine can be demotivating. Routine work leads to
frustration and boredom and to a lack of motivation. One solution can be to rotate some
routine activities so that boring chores do not always have to be done by the same person.

Management factors
The quality of leadership affects behaviour, attitudes and effort. Positive interpersonal
relationships are regarded as strengthening motivation. In this respect, communication is of
great importance. Teachers like to know and should know what is expected of them and
how their tasks form part of a total plan. This should be coupled with competent and fair
leadership which sets out acceptable tasks together with clear guidelines.

The headteacher is responsible for planning, guiding and leading the school. Tasks are
delegated to teachers, and if a participatory management style is used, with teachers'
efforts valued, motivation to work hard is likely to be strong.

Community factors
If the community's values (whether religious, moral, economic, cultural, political or social)
differ from those of the teacher, these community factors will have a demotivating effect on
the teacher. The personal lives of teachers, such as their relationships with their families,
will also influence their behaviour. The headteacher has little control over such motivating factors,
but he or she has to deal with the situation if it has a negative effect on a teacher's work.

Therefore it would seem that to motivate staff effectively, a headteacher should have
knowledge of their personal needs, their work circumstances, the requirements of the
community, and use an appropriate management style.

21
 Activity 3.1
Imagine a situation where you have encountered a teacher whose learners'
academic results were poor, who was unable to create a positive classroom
atmosphere, who had problems with class discipline and who had very little interest
in the extra-curricular activities of the school.

How would you seek to improve this teacher's performance?

Motivation and the Headteacher

We should remember to use the 'motivators', that is, people's need for achievement,
recognition, responsibility, job interest, personal growth and advancement potential. We
tend to underestimate the needs of other people in these areas. Involving others in
decisions which affect them is one way of meeting all or most of these needs. Headteachers
should avoid window-dressing.

The relative intensity of psychological needs will vary greatly from person to person and
from time to time. There are people whose motivation is not work related. If a teacher's
spouse loses his or her job, security needs may well be the most important. If there is a
marriage break-up, both security and social needs may surface, though these may be
followed later by a need to find renewed interest and achievement in the job.

These are predictable and often recognisable behavioural phenomena. However, when
symptoms and causes are less obvious, the risk is that we misjudge the needs of
colleagues or friends. Some of us have a tendency to assume that the needs of others are
the same as our own; others tend to assume the opposite.

We should try to suit our management behaviour to both the personalities and the needs of
the situation. Our automatic behavioural reaction may not be the right one. Think about the
alternatives!

Despite every effort, there will remain individuals who have no wish to be 'motivated' and
who view with suspicion any attempt to increase their responsibilities, job interest or
involvement. Such attitudes may typically be found in teachers who are frustrated. However,
the danger is always that we give up too easily. The right approach may prompt a
surprisingly warm response.

Above all, it is necessary for a headteacher to establish by means of honest self-evaluation

what the true nature is of his or her attitude towards staff. It is important that this
introspection is honest and open, because experience has shown that it will determine the
way a headteacher leads and motivates the staff. It is indubitably true that the way in which
headteachers treat their staff will, to a great extent, be determined by their outlook on life, their
attitudes to motivation as the basis of human behaviour, and the judgement they make of
people's behaviour in a specific working situation.

When considering motivation, think firstly of your own needs and try to put yourself “in the
shoes” of the other. If members of staff are behaving badly, are poorly motivated,
underperforming or even showing antagonism towards you, there will be a reason why. It
may be that your attitude towards them or your leadership style creates resentment in them.

22
You should always consider this possibility. This does not mean to say, however, that all
demotivating factors are solvable. Issues such as pay, class sizes, working in schools
where the learners are mainly of lower ability may negatively impact on teacher motivation
and there may be little you can do about it.

Summary
As the recognised leader of the school community the headteacher has the responsibility for
helping staff members get satisfaction from their profession and move towards the fulfilment
of their needs and objectives. It is through improving levels of motivation that these needs
and objectives can be met.

It is the responsibility of the headteacher to assess the situation in the school relating to
staff motivation and, where it is having a negative impact on the quality of learning and
teaching and standards generally, to put into place strategies to overcome them.

23
 Staff Appraisal
Unit 4
Introduction
Staff appraisal is a process of review by teachers, headteachers, Deputy headteachers and other
senior teachers of individual competencies, performance, and professional needs. In a small
school, it is likely to be you, as headteacher, who carries out the appraisal of staff, but in a large
school this may be delegated to the Deputy headteacher, Senior Master / Mistress or Head of
Department. It is a process in which an individual teacher and a senior colleague collaborate in
evaluating that teacher's work as a professional person. This means appraising all aspects of a
teacher's organisation of their classroom, how they manage classroom activities, including the
use of time and materials, how they behave towards learners, other teachers, the headteacher,
parents and the community.

In Guyana, there exists a clear system of the appraisal of staff. In this unit, you will learn why
staff appraisal should be carried out and how to do so. The unit can be used for self study
or with peer group learning with other trainees.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• be aware of the Ministry of Education’s Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers

• understand what staff appraisal is, and why it should be carried out
• know the steps which form the procedures for staff appraisal
• analyse your own leadership style and know which approaches are most effective for
positive staff appraisal
• decide how to follow up a staff appraisal
• understand the need for self-appraisal.

Reasons for appraisal

Appraisal is directed towards helping a teacher to become as effective as possible in the
teaching and learning process, and also towards meeting a teacher's needs for professional
development, for example, in-service training and career prospects. You should not,
therefore, view appraisal as a mechanism for fault-finding and criticising, but as a means of
building the teacher's positive self-image and motivation to be as good a teacher as
possible. In Guyana, education is becoming more learner-centred than previously, on the
basis that learners need to become actively involved in their own learning processes, in order
to learn and develop to the full. Learners and teachers too, need to participate in their own
development, becoming able to analyse and reflect on their own competencies. From this,
they are more likely to become independent thinkers and doers. For the majority of
teachers, this requires a change of attitude, and this can only come from a willingness to
review continually what takes place in the classroom and the school, and the effects
particular actions have on others.

24
Requirements for appraisal
A good appraisal process, in which the teacher is able to be honest about strengths and
weaknesses, and about where help and encouragement are needed, depends on a spirit of
trust between the headteacher, or other senior teacher, and the teacher being appraised. It
follows that you, or the senior teacher carrying out the appraisal, must be a professional
person who is respected for your competence, and who has a good relationship with the
staff.

This means that if you have to give criticism for lateness or lack of preparation in the
classroom, you give it with the understanding that the particular teacher needs guidance.
Thus, your comments will not be made in an unkind manner, but with the intention of being
constructive. This should be the case even where a teacher refuses or is unable to change
unacceptable behaviour, and you need to initiate disciplinary action in the interests of the
learners. If you are seen to be a person who really knows the teacher, the learners and the
classroom reality, and you are known to be a person who has respect for the feelings of
teachers and learners, appraisal is more likely to take place in a spirit of mutual confidence.

Differences from other forms of evaluation

Appraisal in Guyana is undertaken as a means of assessment of a teacher for purposes of
rating or grading and also for recommendation for promotion to a higher position. It is a very
different process from being inspected by the METSTeam or monitored by a person in
higher authority. It is therefore important that appraisal is not carried out in a negative spirit
of sitting in judgement or it will fail in its purpose. Instead, the teacher should be treated as a
stakeholder in the educational process, working in a collaborative way to become as good
as possible, and as a person who has professional needs and interests. Your role as
headteacher in this, is that of educational leader in the school, with the task of creating an effective
learning environment for all learners, of all abilities, and with varying needs that should be
met. The teacher being appraised shares this task.

The process of staff appraisal

There are a number of steps to be taken in carrying out staff appraisal. Before these can
begin, you need to have discussions with the staff as a whole. Teachers need to be
confident that they can be open with you so that if they feel the leadership style is
inappropriate, they can say this in the knowledge that you and other members of the
leadership team will review your own style.

A second important element is to emphasise that what is said during the process of
appraisal will be treated as confidential. A teacher who reveals personal insecurity or details
of an unhappy domestic life during discussion needs to feel sure that this will not become
common knowledge in the staff room or community. Professional ambitions, too, have a
right to be kept private. Appraisal should not be used as a means of making comparisons
between one teacher and another.

Establishing a good atmosphere

In the first stage of discussion with staff concerning appraisal, you will need to make clear
the purpose, and how it is to be done. The actual procedures should be discussed and staff
ideas taken into account. A timetable needs to be drawn up, so that each teacher has time
to prepare his or her own thoughts, knowing when you will carry out observations within

25
specific classrooms, and when interviews will be held. Follow-up procedures should be
discussed, in which actions will be initiated, for example, planning for in-service training.
You, or the senior staff member to whom you have delegated the task or designated senior
staff, should prepare for the whole process by analysing your attitudes to leadership.

Appraisal is a natural part of the professional development of a teacher. It is quite separate

and different from the supervisory role of a headteacher. It should be viewed as a
professional partnership in which the person leading the appraisal will seek out the abilities
of those being appraised rather than searching for incompetence. The whole process must
be one which is based on trust.

Your attitudes in this area are important in determining whether staff appraisal is likely to be
a positive process of staff development or treated with suspicion. If it is the latter you may
need to consider changing your leadership style.

The teacher's own assessment

The process begins with the teacher's own personal review of successes, failures,
professional and personal needs. One method that is often used is to encourage teachers
to go through a process of self evaluation where they will comment on their own successes
and weaknesses on a regular basis. A teacher's everyday life is normally so busy that,
unless time is set aside for this, the important activity of reflection gets set aside. A teacher
might write as follows:

'Today, I began to feel that teaching the whole class together in Mathematics left some
learners bored. The clever ones finished their work very quickly, and got it right, and then
misbehaved, while some of the others were so slow and did not seem to understand. I
would like to organise them in groups but I am not sure how to do it. How will I make sure
that all the class is getting on with their work if I do not have them all facing the
blackboard?'

Lesson observations
A good headteacher will visit classrooms on a regular basis. You will have found that this
helps you to be knowledgeable about what is happening in the school. Lesson observations
in staff appraisal may well be already part of the school's routine. For the purpose of staff
appraisal, you need to arrange a time to observe a specific lesson. You should be present
in the classroom for the whole period to observe the entire sequence of the lesson. Only
then can you form your ideas about the preparation, organisation and management of
teaching and learning in the classroom.

The questions which follow may be helpful in providing a structure for lesson observations.

1) Is the classroom a clean, safe and child friendly environment?

2) Would a learner find the classroom a pleasant place to be in?
3) Does the teacher begin the lesson on time?
4) Has the lesson been well prepared and does it match with the syllabus or scheme of
work?
5) Are all materials shown in the lesson plan available to the learners?
6) What is the quality of the relationship between teacher and learners?

26
 7) Do learners listen when the teacher speaks, and do they appear to respect the teacher
without seeming afraid?
8) Does the organisation and management (whole class work, group work, individual
activity, practical activity, etc.) meet the needs of the learners and the subject area?
9) Are all learners in the class, including those with Special Educational Needs being
catered for?
10) Is learning taking place?

In practical terms, it will be helpful for you to design a proforma which will be used by all staff
when conducting lesson observations in appraisal.

Your responses to these questions will provide you with important information concerning
the teacher's ability to provide learners with good quality teaching. If you observe poor
preparation or interaction with learners, these may indicate that the teacher has other
problems. These may concern discipline or complaints from parents or community, for
example, about lateness or attendance. Such information provides other data that needs to
be discussed in the appraisal interview.

Appraisal interview and target setting

The report back on the lesson observation should
take place as soon as possible after the observation
and, where time allows, immediately after the
lesson has taken place. If this is not possible, it
should be done no later than the next day as this
can be a worrying time for some teachers. In
addition, there will need to be a formal Appraisal
Interview. It is possible for both discussions to take
place at the same meeting. The form and length of
the interview can vary, but there should be
discussion of the classroom observations. Since the
purpose is to assist the teacher's professional
development and enhance the learning experiences for
the learners, the approach should be positive. Praise
should be given for as much as possible, for
example, 'I noticed how busy you were trying to keep the learners with higher ability occupies
whilst those with lower ability were finishing their work'. The aim is to build the teacher's
confidence and self esteem because, through this, the teacher is more likely to discuss
uncertainties about his or her work. In the example of the self evaluation quoted earlier, you
and the teacher may then go on to discuss ways of grouping learners to provide for different
ability levels.

From the discussion in the interview, targets can be set. You can arrange for help to be
offered within the school, or for other in-service training. You can encourage the teacher to
try out other methods of working, with the assurance that there will be full support during a
time of change. Managing change can be stressful for a teacher, because of a fear of
failure and many people prefer not to take risks.

Some avoidance behaviour, for example, lateness, absenteeism or alcohol abuse, can stem
from feelings of inadequacy. The teacher whose lesson is badly prepared, can be asked if

27
he or she thinks that the lesson would have been better if he or she had not been late. This
opens up the subject, but in a positive spirit, which is more likely to lead to full and frank
discussion of the teacher's professional responsibilities. Here, targets can be set which
must be realistic, and any improvement should be commented on, for example, 'You were
only late one day this week. Keep trying, the teaching was much better'. In this way, the
teacher's morale can be raised and, for some, can be sufficient to bring about real
improvement.

The Annual Appraisal Report on Teachers and Senior Leaders

In Guyana, teachers are asked to make a self assessment of their performance and this is
verified by their line manager or headteacher. The teacher must sign in agreement with the
conclusions made. The judgements about how a teacher has performed are grouped into
the following areas:-

• Knowledge
• Methodology
• Human Relationships
• Output
• Professionalism

And the following are used for senior leaders

• Job Knowledge
• Supervision
• Organisations
• Administration Leadership
• Professionalism
• Staff Development
• Curriculum Implementation
• Evaluation
• Human Relationships
• Support Services

Section F of the appraisal gives an overall evaluation of the teacher’s performance ranging
from outstanding to unacceptable. Note is also made of relevant staff development.
Teachers are given a grade at the end of each appraisal and this grade is used in senior
promotion as an Annual Confidential Report (A.C.R.) Grades are recorded for the last three
years prior to an application. Points are awarded for each grade e.g A = 30 points, B = 18
points, C = 12 points. Completion of the Education Management Certificate that you are
currently studying will give an award of 6 points.

Follow-up meetings
An important point about the appraisal process is that it should be an ongoing process.
In-service training arrangements may be initiated, discussion of improvements in teaching
and learning in the classroom may take place, or a teacher may need to be encouraged to
seek promotion. All such activities are part of your professional responsibilities as
educational leader in the school. In the large school, part of this task will be shared by
senior staff.

28
Activity 4.1
The case study below will help you to practise your appraisal knowledge and skills before you
begin work with your school staff.

Case study
1. Obtain a copy of the Annual Appraisal Report for Teachers and study it.
2. In your observation of a lesson in a teacher’s classroom, you have noted as follows:

“The teacher started this lesson punctually. Her explanations to her

Grade 4 class were clear, and she revised the pocedures for
carrying out division by 10. She chose two learners to work out
examples on the board and then gave all the class four examples to
work out on their own in their books. During this time, she walked
round the classroom, looking at learners’ work. After ten minuted, six
learners had finished their work while all the rest were still working.
The six early finishers began to misbehave, tickling other learners.
She spoke sternly to the six, and told them to sit still and be quiet. At
the end of the lesson, most of the class had not finished.”

There are many different ways that you could approach feedback to the teacher on
her lesson. Consider these two possible forms of advice that you might have
given …..

1. Ask the teacher how she felt about her lesson and listen to her description of
her worries. Discuss these with her, and suggest ways of grouping the class
according to mathematical ability, with different work or amount for each
group. Ask her if she would like help in doing this.

2. Tell the teacher that she should become angry with the slow workers and tell
them to hurry up. Tell her that you are not satisfied with her work and that she
must make sure that learners do not misbehave. Inform her that you expect
better performance from her in the next appraisal.

If you were this teacher, which of the two approaches would you find more helpful

Comment
We are confident, of course, that you will have chosen number one. Of the two
approaches, it is non-threatening, supportive and helpful. It is only in this background
of professional cooperation that you will get teachers to open up and disclose the
issues that might be preventing then from achieving the high standards you require.

Professional development activities

Some professional development activities can be carried out within the school, for example,
the Head of Department provides assistance in improving the teacher's skills in classroom

29
management. Others may require that you ask the District Education Officer or a Curriculum
Specialist from NCERD to arrange in-service training in a workshop. The teacher, following
appraisal, may show leadership potential, and this information should be shared, with the
permission of the teacher, with those responsible for making decisions about promotion,
such as the T.S.C.

Frequency of appraisal
In Guyana, an appraisal report is prepared on an annual basis. However, the observation of
lessons should be done much more regularly. We would advise that formal observation
should take place termly by the Head of Department, Level Head or more senior staff.
Informal observation when a manager simply watches what is going on around them, would
take place every week if not every day.

Benefits of appraisal
The benefits of staff appraisal have been referred to throughout in this unit. Module 6,
Monitoring School Effectiveness, demonstrates the use of guidance and counselling from a
headteacher following classroom observations. School effectiveness includes a combination
of the way in which the work of individual teachers and senior management within the
school collaborate for the benefit of the learners. Under the headings of 'Staff needs' and
'The needs of the learners' (Unit 3), Module 1, Self-Development for Educational Leaders’,
outlines the mission of the school, which is also the mission of the headteacher and all teachers.
Module 1 also notes the importance of the headteacher giving positive professional
guidance if staff are to perform their function effectively.

The benefits can be summarised as:

• skills development, through in-service training, experiments with teaching style, often
assisted by organisational change
• career development, through in-service training
• improved relationships: each understands the other better
• increased knowledge of the school and individuals
• productive links between appraisal and school development and planning
• improved learning opportunities for learners
• improved morale and efficiency within the school.

Summary
When carried out in a spirit of willing co-operation, with positive attitudes on both sides, you
should find that staff appraisal contributes to school effectiveness. To be successful and
have the desired benefits, you must examine closely your own style of leadership. Does this
provide for a shared sense of responsibility amongst all school staff? All staff members are
stakeholders in the educational life of the school, and are more likely to be motivated to
improve their performance, if they feel a sense of ownership. You, in turn, will feel supported
in your often difficult and lonely task.

30
 Staff Guidance and
Discipline Unit 5
Introduction
Schools fulfil their educational responsibilities
most effectively when there is a consensus
about common goals and all concerned work
towards reaching these. This is the ideal that
you will be working towards. You will be most
successful if your staff respect you as a
professional who sets an example of
professional behaviour, and who is reasonable
and considerate of others. “Do as you would be
done by” is a very good principle to work by. If
you do not like to be criticised publicly, neither
do others, but most of us are happy to be
praised in front of others. We react positively to
praise, we feel good about ourselves and the person giving the praise, and most human
beings respond by repeating the type of behaviour which earns the reward of praise.
Headteachers occupy a high status in their schools, and there is much research which shows that
high status persons are effective sources of reward.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• know the purposes of staff guidance and discipline

• understand your role in the guidance and discipline of staff
• recognise that guidance and discipline should be positive
• know how to implement effective techniques.

The headteacher's responsibilities as leader

You, as the headteacher, are the person responsible for the efficient management of the
school. You are both the administrative leader and the educational leader – the “lead
professional”. It could be argued that these leadership roles have one function only. This
function is to ensure that successful learning takes place for all the learners in the school.

You cannot teach all the learners yourself, nor can you carry out all the educational or
administrative tasks. These have to be delegated to teaching or non-teaching staff,
depending on the nature of the task. However, the responsibility for everything which takes
place in the school remains with you as headteacher. Therefore, it is necessary for you to
ensure that tasks are carried out efficiently, that staff behave in a professional manner

31
towards each other and the learners, and that there is accountability towards the learners, the
parents, community and wider society.

The need for guidance

Because the learning and all the activities of the school remain your responsibility, you need
to ensure that delegated tasks are actually carried out on time, and in a proper manner.
Therefore, you need to guide, to supervise, to oversee, the work of others in the school.
Through meeting your senior leadership team, individually or in groups, you will get
feedback on the administrative functioning of the school, including curriculum
implementation and development. By being active within the school, by visiting classes, by
observing lessons, talking to teachers, learners and parents, you keep yourself informed
about the school community, its people and events. Problems can often be prevented,
simply because the headteacher keeps, as they say, his or her 'ear to the ground'. At the
same time, you are setting a good example to others of self-discipline.

Discipline

Reflect for a moment on the rules in your school appertaining to stafff that everyone agrees
on.

Comments
Discipline is concerned with the establishment and maintenance of order and the
harmonious functioning of a society. A school is also a society on a small scale, and
discipline within school serves the purpose of ensuring that learning can take place.
Within this, the rights of the individual and of all members of the school society are
protected. In most schools, a set of rules which act as a code of conduct, is drawn up
to which learners must conform. Such rules should be as few as possible, and should be
reasonable. Learners should be involved in drawing up school rules.

In the case of rules for teaching staff, they should be drawn up and agreed by the staff
as far as is possible. In doing this, you may want to involve the Guyana Teachers’
Union (GTU) so that there is full co-operation. Staff meetings can include on the
agenda items designed to help teachers find positive ways to deal with school matters.
In Guyana where corporal punishment is discouraged, such discussions can be
helpful to teachers seeking to establish their authority in positive ways.

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Exercising responsibility
In an ideal world, you would be able to trust all staff to carry out their designated
responsibilities in teaching, administration or in care of the learners without supervision. For
good teachers who are positively motivated, your trust will be justified. Such teachers arrive
in good time before the start of school, they are absent only with good cause, their lessons
are well prepared, they treat learners with respect for them as persons, yet are firm and clear
in giving instructions or information.

However, not all teachers are as good as this. A few are unskilled, some have personal
problems, some are weak teachers and a very small number are dishonest both with their
time and actions. Of these, some will improve with guidance, encouragement and support,
others with sympathy and understanding but you may need to take disciplinary action with
the uncooperative, unskilled or teacher with a poor disposition to work. Your reactions will
depend on your perception of the teacher and the problem.

Activity 5.1
Case study
Mrs Abraham has been teaching in your school for five years. She has been
punctual, has prepared her lessons well, and up until now there have not been any
complaints from the learners or parents. Eight months ago, Mrs Abraham had her
sixth baby. During the last two months, she has been arriving late and has been
absent on several occasions. You have received complaints from parents of learners in
her classes.

You ask Mrs Abraham to come to see you to discuss the problem. You find that she
has domestic problems and that her mother who looks after the baby has not been
well.

1) What should be your attitude?

2) What do you think Mrs Abraham should have done?
3) Suggest a means of solving the problem.

Comments
A sympathetic, supportive attitude towards Mrs Abraham’s problem, together with
practical suggestions for finding an alternative care-giver for the baby, is likely to
solve the problem if Mrs Abraham has not got other hidden problems. Lateness and
absenteeism may well disappear. However, you, as headteacher, have the
responsibility to ensure that the learners are being taught effectively, and that class
time is not wasted by lateness or non-arrival. You will thus need to maintain an
unobtrusive watch to check that the teacher's professional duties are being carried
out properly. If the problem recurs, then you may have to take disciplinary action.

Effective guidance
The most effective form of guidance takes place when the headteacher is perceived by staff,
learners and parents as a person who knows what is happening within the school. Although

33
you need time when you can work quietly in your office, or close the office door for reasons
of confidentiality in an interview, you should try always to be visible when learners or teachers
are arriving at the school and whenever they are moving from one place to another. You
should also try to visit each classroom at the start of the morning or during the day in a large
school to greet teachers and learners.

Visits to classrooms should form part of your everyday activity as educational leader. During
visits, you will inevitably observe such indicators of learning as conduct of teachers and
learners towards each other, whether there is a quiet working atmosphere in the classroom
and whether there appears to be a positive attitude of 'discipline from within'. In the unit in
this module on 'Staff appraisal', suggestions are given for a schedule for observing teaching
and learning.

The concept of guidance so far described in this unit has been a positive one, very closely
linked with staff appraisal and staff development. Within this spirit, you will want to support
weak teachers who find difficulty with discipline or in lesson preparation. You become
conscious of such needs if you really know your school. The unobtrusive but visible headteacher
in and around the school not only helps to establish a sense of professional purpose, but
actually prevents misconduct by teachers and learners. Sometimes, however, stronger action
is necessary where teachers do not respond to your leadership or fail in their duties. Then
disciplinary procedures need to begin.

Disciplinary procedures
Often in a school, a disciplinary problem takes time to become apparent. Once it does,
there are three useful procedures for a headteacher to follow. These procedures should be
known to the staff as part of an agreed procedure.

Step 1 – Informal verbal reprimand

A first step in a disciplinary procedure is to give an informal verbal reprimand, pleasantly but
firmly. This should be stated within the context of the teacher's professional responsibility,
and it should be given in the privacy of the headteacher's office. There would be no written
record other than perhaps a brief entry in the School Log Book.

Step 2 – Formal verbal reprimand

However, there are occasions when the informal approach does not have the desired effect
and it needs to be more formal. In this case, you will need to offer the teacher the
opportunity to bring with them a friend, another teacher or perhaps a representative from
the Guyana Teachers’ Union to witness that the discussion is fair. It would be equally
reasonable for the headteacher to have another senior member of staff present who would not
be a part of the discussion but who would take notes.

Step 3 - Written warning

In cases where the reprimand does not result in improvement, then a written warning can
be given. A copy of this would be kept in the file on this staff member. An entry of this would
also be recorded in the School Log Book. Great care must be taken in the wording of this
letter. It must be factual, not personal and offer support for improvement. In severe cases,
the letter should state clearly the consequences of failure to comply. Ensure that you have

34
your facts right about these consequences, as idle threats can result in a lot of trouble
and actually work in favour of the recalcitrant teacher.

Step 4 - Report to the Department of Education or School Board

If there is still no attempt to improve, a fourth stage of a disciplinary procedure is when
further action is taken, for example, report to the Department of Education or School Board.
A copy of the report should be given to the teacher concerned and also be recorded in the
School Log Book.

Step 5 – Follow up with the Department of Education or School Board

It is your responsibility to ensure that the higher authority takes the appropriate action and
you should not allow the matter to go unchecked or your own authority will be seriously
challenged. Be polite but persistent to ensure that justice is done. It is at this stage that your
failure to follow up a case with the Department of Education or School Board could lead to
little action taking place and the teacher continuing with his / her unsatisfactory behaviour.

More serious breaches of a code of professional conduct may require immediate

suspension of a teacher. Examples might be if he / she behaves in an immoral or seriously
unprofessional way which puts the learners at risk. (S)he has abused his position of trust and
is unfit to be in charge of learners. There should be immediate suspension, with a report made
to the Head of the Department of Education (REDO) and to the School Board where it exists,
even if the case against the teacher has not been fully proven. However, suspension is a
serious step to take and the headteacher should first have strong evidence of the teacher's
misconduct and it would be wise to have discussed it first with another senior professional
such as the REDO.

Activity 5.2
Case study
Alana is aged 14. She shows signs of distress and it is suspected that the Science teacher
has been sexually harassing her after school. When asked about this by the Head of
Department who is responsible for girls’ welfare, Alana agrees that this has happened.
However, the teacher denies responsibility

1) What would you do if you were the headteacher of this school?

2) How would you speak to her parents?
3) Would you consider this to be serious enough for suspension of the teacher even
though it had happened after hours?
4) How would you get to the truth of the matter?

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 Comment
This is a very complex matter and careful consideration must be given to your actions to
ensure that justice is done not only on the part of the child but also the teacher.

If what the child has said is the only evidence against the teacher, then you must
proceed with extreme caution as she may be lying. On the other hand you are required
to tell the child that you believe what she is saying if you have no evidence against it or
she and her parents will lose faith in your judgement. You should, therefore, try to
obtain independent and reliable witnesses before you draw conclusions.

A wrong move could destroy the career of an innocent teacher or damage the trust of a
child in the adults who are responsible for her care. Do not be too hasty in your
judgements but collect the evidence carefully.

Most parents will be quite understandably distressed but you must not allow this to deter
you from getting to the truth. It may be that you would want to involve the police as a
criminal act has been alleged. However, proceed with care as the press interest could
cause unnecessary distress for all parties and media damage to your school.

Base your decisions only on evidence (including that of the girl). Console the parents and
assure them that you will leave no stone unturned until you get to the truth. In such a
case, for the protection of all parties, you would almost certainly suspend the teacher on full
pay until the matter is resolved.

The headteacher's legal and constitutional responsibilities

The headteacher is also subject to the Laws of Guyana and must obey its constitution. In
delegating responsibilities to members of staff, you often need to arrange for the collection
and safe-keeping of money, for example, the school fund. Your administrative
arrangements need to ensure that money is kept in a safe place, is banked as soon as
possible, and that it is not loaned or borrowed. In cases where there is abuse of
responsibility, that is, money cannot be accounted for, you have no choice but to report the
matter to the police for investigation and to inform the appropriate authorities.

The need to take care of money involves a legal responsibility, but headteachers also have
a responsibility to uphold the constitution Guyana. In Guyana, the preservation of human
rights, including equal opportunities in relation to gender, ethnic origin and race is held dear.
Thus the headteacher needs to ensure that the school is a place where the values and
attitudes of society are developed in the learners through the conduct of all staff and the
example which is set.

Summary
This unit has shown how the purpose of guidance of staff and the need to have discipline
arise from the responsibility of the headteacher. The main element of this responsibility is to
ensure that the school develops learners as individuals and as members of Guyanese
society. Everything which takes place in the school is directed towards this aim.

36
 Keeping Staff Records
Unit 6
Introduction
Records kept within a school are part of the history of a school and are used for planning
future actions and policy. School records contain important information about school
administration, for example, the safekeeping of money, how it is collected and used.
However hardworking and intelligent you may be, you cannot retain all the information about
every teacher, nor all the records about the administration of the school, in your memory.
Information about the staff and school administration needs also to be available to others,
for example, the District Education Officer. This unit, however, is not about school financial
records or those concerned with books or property, nor of keeping minute books or log
books. The subject of this unit is the keeping of staff records.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• understand the purpose of keeping staff records

• know the different types of records of staff which should be kept.

The purposes of staff records

Keeping records is the only way to ensure that information is not
lost. This is true of all the different kinds of staff records that you
will learn about in this unit. You, as the headteacher, are the
leader of both staff and learners. It is therefore vital that you
understand, and are well informed, about the staff as well as the
school, the learners, and the administration of the school. Although
you will delegate tasks to others, you remain responsible for all
that takes place and for future planning. In particular, you are
responsible for ensuring that every learner is assigned to a class,
and that learners are taught all the subjects of the school
curriculum.

Reflect for a moment on why it is important to keep staff records and try to find examples
of their uses.

Some of the purposes you have thought of may have included the following:

Administrative and monitoring

Records, if they are kept efficiently, are a help to the headteacher in managing the school, in
identifying needs within the school and in monitoring progress. They help the headteacher to
plan for school and staff development. Workloads need to be shared out between members

37
of staff so that there is a fair distribution of teaching, administration, and non-teaching time.
You, as the headteacher, need to know where all the teachers are throughout the school
day, which rooms they are in, what classes and subjects are being taught. All of this needs
to be recorded for your own benefit, the benefit of others and to pass on if you suddenly are
not available or well enough for work.

Professional
Before staff are allocated to classes, you or, in a large school, a Deputy headteacher, will have
reviewed staff qualifications and experience in particular subject areas. You will not want to
allocate a teacher to a subject in which he or she has neither qualifications nor experience.
Teachers with expertise in senior secondary Mathematics should not, for example, normally
be allocated to teach a first grade class, nor the other way round. Staff need to be matched
to subjects and year groups according to qualifications, experience and interests. Your
records are important in this process.

Your records will include information about the category of qualifications, for example,
CSEC, teaching certificate, diploma, degree. These, together with experience and
competence, will help you decide how best to use the staff member's expertise, and will
have been taken into account for salary purposes.

Staff development
The purposes of keeping staff records which have so far been given have been related to
the administrative, supervisory and professional duties of the headteacher. However, as well
as ensuring that, for example, every learner is provided with teaching in every subject of the
curriculum, you also have a responsibility to provide for staff development. Records of staff
will therefore include details of in-service courses attended by the teacher, private study
undertaken for upgrading purposes or extra-curricular responsibilities undertaken by the
teacher.

The staff development responsibility of the headteacher is part of the continuous process of
staff appraisal. Records kept for the purpose of staff development should contain dates
when the headteacher has observed a teacher's classroom work, notes of observations and
discussions with the teacher. Where there has been a complaint about the teacher's work,
the records should contain details of the reason for the complaint, the dates, the action
taken and whether there has been improvement.

Types of staff records

Staff records can be grouped according to whether they are purely factual and objective, or
whether the information contained within them depends on judgements which are often
subjective. You need to remember, however, that the differences between the two types of
records are not always as clear-cut as one might think. In apparently factual records there
can sometimes be a subjective element, for example, the choice of information to be
recorded. This problem can be largely overcome by using the same factual record form for
all staff and awareness that the risk of being subjective exists. The best way to avoid
subjectivity is to base all judgements on evidence which has been shared with and
discussed with the teacher, for example lesson observation notes, officer’s comments
etc.

38
Confidential records
All records which contain subjective information, for example, the process and outcome of
teacher appraisal procedures, should be regarded as confidential and should be kept locked
in the headteacher's room. Details of salary scale, copies of references should also be
regarded as confidential, as should any note of personal problems or domestic difficulties.
Staff are entitled to privacy.

Examples of confidential records kept on a staff member's file:

• References
• Observations of teaching
• Interview /discussions with headteacher as part of staff appraisal
• Personal ambitions/ personal or professional problems revealed in discussions
• Notes, for example, of verbal warnings, or copies of written warnings as part of a
disciplinary procedure
• Teacher's salary scale and financial status
• Promotion prospects
• Copies of correspondence, for example, curriculum vitae
• Medical and health records
• Other, for example, comments on attendance, punctuality, etc.

Factual and objective records

Factual and objective details such as the ones listed below would be likely to be kept in the
secretary's or administrative office but you may find it convenient to have this information
also available on the staff member's confidential file.

• Full name, address, date of birth, gender, nationality

• Qualifications, where obtained and date of qualification
• Subjects in which the teacher is qualified to teach
• Subjects taught, but without formal qualifications
• Date of appointment to the school
• Details of previous posts, length of service in these
• Length of teaching experience
• Timetable
• Details of any extra-curricular duties undertaken, for example, sports coaching,
homework or dormitory supervision
• Summary of number of teaching periods in each subject taught and number of
non-teaching periods.

Activity 6.1
You have had reason to discuss a teacher’s problems with regard to class discipline.
You have suggested to him that he might have less difficulty with his classes if he
introduced some practical work and encouraged the learners to talk together during their
work and ask him questions.

What notes would you make of this discussion and which type of file would you
use to keep your record of the discussion and your advice to the teacher?

39
 Comment
When writing up records, try to ensure that they are based on reality and sound
evidence. Consider what you would want others to write about you. You would no
doubt be very unhappy if entries were made about you that were untrue or put you in
a bad light.

A teacher has a right to see what you have written about him or her and so you must
protect yourself from challenges to your authority by only writing entries which can be
defended and are of use to you. Remember that others in the future may read them,
possibly will not understand the context and may misconstrue your meaning with disastrous
consequences. Take very special care!

To be really useful, you will need to keep your records up to date.

For example, the notes that you made under Activity 6.1 will need
to be reviewed after a few weeks and added to according to
whether there has been improvement or not. To take another
example, you would want to record the fact that a female teacher
has gained a further qualification through part-time study even
though she is the sole earner and headteacher of her household
with five young learners. This example should be recorded in both
the factual file and in the confidential file since her circumstances
make her extra qualification even more creditable.

Activity 6.2
Starting from scratch, design a factual staff record to be kept in the teacher’s file.
Decide what needs to be included and how you would keep it updated.

Comments
The way in which you choose to keep your records up to date and organise them will
depend on whether there are record forms supplied to a school or whether you need
to design your own. If the design of a record form is left to the individual school and
headteacher, then you will want to make the record form as simple as possible so
that your work is kept to the minimum. A blank form which you create, duplicate and
complete is a useful way of easing your workload.

Making use of records

Your records will be most useful to you if they are kept in an organised way so that the
information you need is immediately visible to you.

If you keep your records up to date, not only will you be behaving in an efficient way, but
you will get to know your school and its staff in a very thorough manner. That alone will
assist your task of managing and developing the school for the benefit of learners and staff
alike. Schools are like living things; they are not static but are constantly developing. Your

40
records need to keep pace with that and be updated whenever there is new information
to add.

Summary
This unit has been concerned with the basic staff records required to assist in the smooth
functioning of a school. Administrative requirements may differ from region to region.
However, in the absence of directives from the Ministry, it is important that headteachers
maintain a record of their staff members. To maintain an understanding of the needs of the
school and the individual staff members, the keeping of efficient staff records is an
important tool in the hands of the headteacher.

41
 Managing Meetings Unit 7
Introduction
Headteachers should see themselves as managers and should use their resources (people,
money, property and time) effectively and efficiently to ensure that the school is and stays
productive and profitable from an educational perspective.

Meetings are an essential practical aspect of managing a school. Used as management tools
they can be very beneficial but all too often they do not achieve the results intended.
Holding effective meetings does not depend on intuition and good fortune but on effective
leadership and management skills.
Individual study time: 3 hours
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• understand the reasons for holding meetings
• understand the roles of the key players at a meeting
• plan meetings for different purposes
• conduct a meeting efficiently and effectively
• ensure participation in a meeting.

Attitudes to meetings
The success of every meeting depends on the co-operation and support the chairperson
receives from the participants. The chairperson should thus be fully aware of people's
attitudes to meetings.

Give some thought to the diverse attitudes different people will have to meetings.
Comment
Persons will have opinions which range from considering all meetings to be
unnecessary to others who thrive on the opportunity to have a captive audience
and force their views on others. The success of meetings, therefore, will depend on
your motivating those who do not want to be there and limiting those who want to
take over.

Let us consider the factors which contribute to successful meetings.

• Clear definition of purpose: It is clearly stated what the committee and its members
are supposed to do and what its goals are.

• Careful time control: Meetings start and end on time, with enough time allowed to
get the work done and no more.

42
 • Opinions respected: Meeting members listen and are sensitive to each other's
needs and opinions.

• Informal atmosphere: Participants are encouraged to contribute to the discussion

when the atmosphere is informal rather than being a formal exchange.
• Good preparation: Both chairperson and meeting members are well prepared, any
materials required being available.
• Commitment: The members are qualified and interested, wanting to be a part of the
meeting.
• No distractions: Interruptions are avoided or kept to a minimum.
• Record keeping: Good minutes or records are kept so that decisions are not lost, so
there is no need to search out what decisions were made at the last meeting.
• Recognition of effort: Meeting members feel that they receive some kind of reward
for their efforts, when their contributions are recognised and appreciated.
• Management response: The work of the meeting is accepted and used, making a
real contribution to the school.
There are, however, many reasons that persons have for not liking meetings, the following
are perhaps amongst the most common:
• Poor leadership: The leader does not keep the discussion on the subject and so fails
to keep things moving in the appropriate direction and to engage in those aspects of
the discussion that are stimulating and motivating to the members.
• Goals are unclear: Members are not really sure what they are trying to accomplish.
• Lack of commitment: Assignments are not taken seriously by committee members.
• No clear focus: For example, 'What are we supposed to be doing today?'
• Recommendations ignored: Management needs to be responsive to the
recommendations of a committee.
• Inconclusive discussion: Problems are discussed but no conclusions are reached
or decisions made.
• Lack of follow-through: Members are not given assignments.
• Domination: Often one person or clique dominates a meeting, talking and pushing
for their positions while others wonder why they are there.
• Bullying by the Chairperson: Sometimes the chairperson “names and shames”
persons in meetings as a form of control.

• Lack of preparation: The agenda is not prepared and materials that really need to
be there are not available. Someone has not done his or her homework.

43
 • Hidden agendas: Some participants may have personal axes to grind, promoting
discussions that only they think are important.

Is a meeting needed?
How can a headteacher avoid holding meetings that frustrate people? Some attention must
be given to designing meetings that are productive. The first decision to be made is whether
a meeting is really necessary.

Activity 7.1
List all the reasons you can think of for a headteacher calling a meeting.

Comment
It seems almost too obvious to mention that there needs to be a legitimate reason for
holding a meeting. The design of the meeting depends on its purpose and its intended
outcomes. Some legitimate reasons for having meetings are listed below.
Legitimate purposes might include:

• to share information
• to plan future programmes, actions
• to co-ordinate actions of individuals or units
• to solve problems
• to make a decision on a plan of action
• to gather information, get feedback, review past actions
• to determine policy
• to motivate, inspire
• to train, instruct
• to provide support, build cohesion.

Consider, from your own experience, examples of meetings that you have attended
and have found to be less than productive and suggest reasons why.

Comments
Headteachers often conduct meetings because it is required of them. Some will say
“We have meetings for meetings’ sake”. These can often be a waste of time, and
serve no purpose to the improved management of a school. Among the reasons you
gave may have been that the purpose of the meeting was not legitimate. The following
list provides some questionable purposes for meetings:
• it is required or expected
• it is scheduled
• to deal with individuals in a group setting
• to punish or reprimand
• to exert control
• to gain visibility - ego satisfaction.

44
Assuming there are legitimate reasons for holding a meeting, the next question to ask is: Is
a meeting the best vehicle for accomplishing the objective? For example, if there is
information that needs to be communicated, should one hold a communication meeting or
would it be more efficient and effective to send out the information to all who need it via a
memo or written document? The basic condition that determines if a meeting is needed
centres on the question.

Do people have to interact face to face to achieve the objectives desired?

If the answer is yes, then a meeting is probably needed.

What type of meeting?

Meetings can take many different forms, from the
more creative brainstorming techniques to formal
school board meetings. Below you will find a brief
summary of the different types of meetings you might
employ as a headteacher.

Statutory: The law demands it, for example,

headteachers’ meetings with the Department of
Education.

Managerial: Necessary to progress school affairs,

for example, to inform of policy, to brief, to delegate
tasks, to discuss problems, to reach group decisions, etc.

Creative: To generate ideas, to open up new possibilities or avenues of action, for

example, to 'brainstorm' around the idea of what the school could design, manufacture; to
produce an advertising slogan, poster, etc.

Planning; groups of teachers working together to plan schemes of work or programmes of

study

Negotiating: To reach a solution to a problem, for example, management and the Guyana
Teachers’ Union to agree pay increases acceptable to two sides with different interests.

General/public: To report back to a group, for example, an Annual General Meeting of staff
members or to air matters of membership meetings, public inquiries into public interest
matters.

Activity 7.2
1) As a headteacher, what type of meeting would you arrange for the following:
• To discuss new assessment procedures with the staff
• to plan a school fund raising activity;
• to discuss the behaviour of a teacher with your student council;
• to meet with the District Education Officer or school board?
2) Discuss the reasons why you have made a particular choice.

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Participants' roles
In any meeting there are a number of defined roles. These are fairly common to most types of
formal meetings. However, less formal meetings will not have all of these roles.

The chairperson
The role of the chairperson is to:
• co-ordinate the work of the committee
• ensure that rules and procedures are adhered to
• run meetings so that all members have a chance to air their views
• act as ‘umpire’ over disagreements, steering the meeting along avenue of
decision-making
• ensure that documents and records are efficiently kept
• foster good will and working relationships among staff members
• act as the meeting's leader and guide.

The secretary or clerk

The secretary's duties are to:

• carry out the administrative work of the meeting

• organise meetings and record the minutes
• liaise with the chairperson regarding the general running of the meeting
• keep meeting members and associated parties informed
• act as the chairperson's 'right hand'.

The treasurer
The role of the treasurer is to:

• monitor the meeting's financial activities

• record all its money transactions, submitting regular reports to the meeting as well as
annual balance sheets
• liaise with an external auditor who scrutinises the books
• advise the committee in matters of financial expenditure.

The committee member

Among the duties of the committee member are to:

• participate at meetings and do the work delegated to him or her in the process of
advising or decision-making
• attend meetings regularly, offering information, views and responses either by
means of voting or making views known to the chairperson
• keep staff or interested parties he or she represents informed of the work the
committee is doing and the decisions it has reached.

Organising and preparing meetings

The organisation of meetings involves a headteacher in a great deal of work. In order to
ensure that no job is missed, it is a good plan to deal with matters systematically. A
checklist is an invaluable aid. It can be conveniently arranged into jobs to do well in
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advance, the day before the meeting, the day of the meeting, during the meeting and after
the meeting.

Activity 7.3
To prepare yourself for your next meeting, list the type of activities you have to
do:
• well in advance of a meeting;
• on the day of a meeting;
• during a meeting;
• after the meeting.

Comments
This list that you have developed might not necessarily be exhaustive. Use it as a
starting point, and add to the list as you find new things that have to be arranged
prior, during and after a meeting.
You will almost certainly have included preparing an agenda, inviting participants,
outlining the purpose of the meeting, sending out any relevant paperwork /
documents to the participants, reminding attendees of the meeting time, date and
place, taking notes or minutes, checking on attendance and circulating notes /
minutes after the meeting.

Special terms for meetings

Often one attends meetings and becomes totally confused by the terms used during the
meeting. At times these terms are used deliberately to confuse the participants. Listed
below you will find a list of common, and in some cases not so common, terms used during
meetings. The list can be built on. Start your collection now!

Ad hoc impromptu meeting

Advisory submitting suggestions or advice to a person or body
entitled to carry out decisions and actions
Agenda a 'timetable' listing items for discussion at a
Meeting
AGM Annual General Meeting
Amendments alterations usually taking one of the following three
forms: addition, deletion or substitution.
Apologies for absence written or orally delivered excuse for not being able to
attend a meeting
Chairperson co-ordinator of a committee, working party, etc.
Collective responsibility all members abide by what the majority decides upon
at a meeting
Constitution (also known as rules drawn up by an organisation for determining the
Standing Orders) conduct of its business
Debate a discussion on a motion (see below), presented by a
proposer and a seconder (if there is one)
Executive having power to act upon and carry out decisions
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Ex officio Member of a committee because a participant holds a
particular office
Honorary performing a duty without payment
Matters arising from the feedback, follow-up on action which has been taken to
minutes implement the decisions of the previous meeting
Minutes written summary of a meeting's business
Motion a topic formally introduced for discussion
Opposer one who speaks against
Any Other Business items discussed outside main business of meeting
Proposer one who speaks in favour of a motion
Quorum the minimum number of people who must be present
in order for the business of the meeting to be
conducted. The number is laid down in the
constitution. If too few are present at the start, the
meeting cannot be declared open and it is post-poned.
Resolution a decision reached after a vote at formal meetings
a motion successfully introduced
Rider an addition to a resolution after it has been passed
Seconder a person who formally supports the proposer
Secretary committee administrator
Sub-committee a long-term committee appointed by the main
committee to carry out a specific section of its work
Standing committee one which has an indefinite term of office
Treasurer financial guardian
Unanimous all of like mind and in agreement
Voting if the motion has been thoroughly /adequately
debated and the meeting responds in favour of
voting, then voting takes place

Summary
In this unit we have introduced you to a number of problems and benefits associated with
meetings. Headteachers spend a considerable amount of time attending or managing
meetings, and therefore it is important that you use your time efficiently and effectively
during these meetings. As a management tool, meetings can become an effective method
of planning activities, informing staff members of activities, enhancing team spirit,
co-ordinating activities, solving problems and building cohesion in the staff room.

However, as we have noted, they can also be counter-productive if not used wisely. They
can be irritating for participants and often do not have the desired effect. Careful
preparation is therefore required so that the meeting will be as useful as possible for all
participants.

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 Managing Conflict Unit 8
Introduction
I was angry with my friend:
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.

I was angry with my foe:

I told it not, my wrath did grow.

'The Poison Tree' William Blake

Conflict and dispute are a part of life. There is no society, community, organisation or
interpersonal relationship which does not experience conflict at some time or another as
part of daily interaction. Conflict arises when people or groups are engaged in competition
to meet goals which are perceived to be, or are in fact, incompatible. Conflict can become
physically and emotionally damaging or it can lead to growth and productivity for all parties.
It all depends on how conflict is managed and resolved.

Individual study time: 3 hours

Learning outcomes
After working through this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the nature of conflict
• recognise stages of conflict
• apply techniques of conflict resolution
• establish measures to avoid conflict.

This is such an important area that there are now many commercial courses in “Conflict
Resolution” which, if you find this area difficult, you might like to attend.

The nature of conflict

This programme does not attempt to give participants final solutions on conflict resolution,
but rather it deals with what headteachers might say and do with colleagues, parents and
learners when they cannot agree on certain matters.

How can one describe conflict? One definition is found below:

'Conflict is an open disagreement between two people or groups of people who have
different goals and values. Conflict involves people's feelings as well as their objectives,
and both feelings as well as outcome of the conflict must be resolved, agreement must
be found or a compromise worked out.'

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Although this definition is rather negative, a number of comments have been made by
writers on the nature of conflict which recognise the definite advantages that can be gained
from conflict, including:

• confronting the individual with him or herself

• forcing reassessment of the position of the other party
• redefining of roles and relationships
• facilitating change
• preventing stagnation
• creating an awareness of alternatives and options.

Conflict as a process
The particular nature of conflict situations is not unknown to headteachers. At the outset a
conflict situation is often perceived as a single event; but this is seldom the case. Conflicts
do not simply erupt; rather they develop through various stages, and in each of these
stages certain factors contribute to the possibility of conflict.

Activity 8.1
1) Identify a particular conflict situation you are familiar with.
2) List the possible stages in the development of this conflict from beginning to
end.

Try to match the stages you identified with those discussed below:
Perceived conflict: Potential conflicts are precipitated by how individuals see each other.
These perceptions determine whether conflict will occur.

Felt conflict: As mentioned in the definition of conflict, people's feelings and attitudes
towards each other, and the particular cause of conflict, will further affect their eventual
behaviour.

Manifest conflict: Based on the two stages above confrontation will occur, being either
conflictive or problem-solving.

Conflict resolution: At some point in the process conflict will either be resolved, or it will be
suppressed.

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Resolution aftermath: Depending on the outcome of the resolution the future situation
might lead to further conflict or to co-operation.

Conflict resolution
Conflict management is one of the activities that a headteacher is exposed to on a daily
basis. The types of conflict a headteacher is exposed to are not restricted to the domain of
the school, and in many cases can involve the community and other stakeholders.

Reflect for a moment on the conflict situations you have had to deal with over the past few
months.

Comments
If one is to analyse the situations you have thought about, one assumption that
holds true for all the cases is that problems must be solved. It is therefore on this
assumption that headteachers have to develop their skills in the area of conflict
resolution.

What is conflict resolution?

'Resolution of conflict occurs when parties involved understand each other's position
accurately They are willing to discuss it, because they want to resolve the conflict,
regardless of their disagreements. Resolution occurs only when the parties try to reach
mutually satisfying solutions.'
In the past, headteachers have depended upon a well established hierarchy in authority.
The person in the leadership role could make rapid decisions and act autocratically when
necessary. This was often used to ‘resolve’ conflict situations but were these solutions
lasting and effective in the long-term?
The definition of conflict resolution posed above assumes a method of problem-solving that
is more democratic in its approach and allows those affected to be involved. The next
section suggests some ways in which you might want to approach conflict resolution in the
future.
Techniques of conflict resolution
When attempting to reach agreement in a conflict situation it may be useful
to take note of the five causes of conflict usually described by writers. These are differences
based on a clash of:

• interests
• understanding
• values
• style
• opinion.
Writers identify three styles of reaction to conflict. These are:

• aggressive ('fight it')

• assertive ('negotiate it')
• passive ('avoid it').

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Five skills for negotiating conflict can also be identified. These are:

• define it
• understand it
• look for 'win-win' (where all parties to the conflict feel that they have gained
something)
• act at the right time
• check out the results.

These approaches to conflict resolution are valuable and instructive. They embody certain
techniques which are very useful in reducing tension between persons or groups, but they
do put great emphasis on the headteacher and her or his skill in being able to negotiate a
satisfactory resolution to a conflict.

In dealing with potential conflicts you might want to consider the following:

Ten hints on conflict resolution

1) Nurture a positive atmosphere.

2) Clarify perceptions of yourself and your position.
3) Clarify perceptions of the other parties.
4) Clarify perceptions of the causes of the conflict.
5) Clarify the underlying factors of the cause.
6) Be in charge of your responses.
7) Encourage parties to express feelings.
8) Focus on shared needs and goals.
9) Generate options.
10) Develop and implement 'do-able' parts.

Negotiation
One way of positive conflict management is negotiation. Negotiation has been defined as:
'A transaction in which both parties have a veto on the final outcome'.

In other words, each party in a negotiation has to consent to the outcome if it is to be

implemented and each has an interest in the other agreeing to it. Thus by negotiating we
make a joint decision.

According to this definition, negotiation is something we do every day in our personal,

professional or business lives. For example, persons negotiate with their spouses on whether
they spend their money on new household furniture, with their learners on which household
chores they have to do. They negotiate a salary increase with their bosses and may be part
of formal high level negotiations on local, regional, national or international policy or
business issues.

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We are constantly encouraged to become participants in the development process.
Participation means shared decision-making which means reaching agreement. Successful
participation is dependent on the skill of negotiation.
Negotiation is not easy. Many persons only know two ways of negotiation, namely gentle and
soft or tough and hard. Whatever position is taken involves a trade-off between getting what
the parties want and keeping a good relationship between the negotiating parties.

There are many methods of negotiating and you will have your own techniques for which
you will have had a measure of success. However the following method is valuable because
it can be used everywhere by anybody to negotiate anything.
It will be helpful to have a quick look at the strategies persons usually follow when
employing this method.
• Each party takes up a position, defends it and makes a series of concessions until
an agreement is reached or when the negotiations break down because the parties
could not make any additional concessions on their positions. One problem with this
kind of bargaining is that the main concern becomes the positions of the parties and
not the issues which brought the group together in the first place. It is usually a very
long process, emotionally draining, but it can produce agreements which will be
acceptable to all in the most efficient and friendly way as possible. The method
consists of four points which deal with the basics of negotiation. They are people,
interests, options and criteria.
• PEOPLE - Separate the people from the problem. This first point is important because
negotiators are people with their own emotions, beliefs, likes and dislikes which
influence the way they perceive the problem and search for a solution. It is thus
imperative that negotiating parties identify the problem and work together to solve the
problem and do not spend the time trying to attack and change the people involved in
the negotiation process.
• INTERESTS - Focus on interests and not on the position. This second critical point
emphasises the importance of identifying and focusing on the negotiating parties' real
interests and not on their positions. Ask the basic question 'why?' to find out your own
and the other party's real interests. Moreover, the most powerful, but often most
overlooked interests are the universal basic human needs, that is, economic well-being,
security, social acceptance, a sense of belonging and control over one's own life. But
above all listen to what is being said.
• OPTIONS - Generate a wide variety of possibilities before reaching a decision. Set aside
a special time for the parties to invent a wide variety of possible solutions to the problem.
It has been found that the major obstacles to inventing options are:

• premature judgement
• the search for the single answer
• assuming that 'solving their problem is their problem'.
To overcome these obstacles it will be necessary to:

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 • Separate the act of judging from the act of inventing options. One strategy to
use is that of brainstorming.
• Look for multiple options which encourages different modes of thinking on the
same subject.
• Try and find mutual gain by identifying shared interests.
• Make the solution of their problem also your problem by actively trying to
understand their position and coming up with shared solutions.

✓ CRITERIA - Insist that the result be based on objective and standard criteria by which
results can be measured. This will ensure a fair solution.
These four points are important and relevant throughout the negotiation process.
This, however, is one proposed way of dealing with conflict. There are so many models. You
would do well to research them and find the one that works for you best in different
situations.
Strategies of conflict resolution
A popular way of describing conflict resolution strategies is in terms of winning and losing.

These strategies can be broadly described as follows:

Win - lose
The outcome of this strategy is that one party loses and one wins. In most cases this
strategy is unsatisfactory, and in all probability the conflict will erupt at a later stage.
Lose - lose
Both parties lose in the deal: usually a third party is involved, and tries to reach a
compromise that is seldom acceptable to either of the parties.

Win-win
Both parties are satisfied with the outcome, and the focus is on solving the problem and not
defeating each other.
Summary
In negotiating a solution to a conflict situation the aim of the resolution process should
always be to strengthen the future relationship of the parties involved.
The conflict situation can have mutual advantages and benefits if approached in the right
manner, and with the right attitude towards a possible resolution.

Striving for a win - win strategy so that both parties can be satisfied with the outcome is the
ideal route for a headteacher to follow. Conflicts should be solved democratically. Make use
of a mediator when necessary.
But remember, a school with a lot of conflict on important issues is not a happy and healthy
one. As headteacher, it is your role to ensure the smooth running of the school and, as leader, you
must motivate your team to such an extent that conflicts are minimal.

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