Bayero University, Kano 1

School of General and

Entrepreneurship Studies
2020/2021 Session
GSP1201/2201-USE OF ENGLISH
Group D2 (Anatomy,
Physiology and Pharmacy)
 Module 1: Vocabulary Development2

Objective: This module focuses on the need for and ways of developing
vocabularies, which are essential ingredients for spoken and written
communication. The following items will be discussed in this module:

 Denotation and Connotation

 Registers and Jargons
 Phrasal verbs
 Idioms
 Introduction 3

There are different ways of understanding word meaning. Consulting the

dictionary should be the last resort when other avenues fail. One may also
consult the dictionary to confirm an already understood word meaning in
order to get more information about the specific word. Different ways of
understanding word meaning include:
 1. Origin of word or Etymology 4

Some English words originate from other languages such as Latin,

French, Portuguese and Greek. This knowledge cancels every
possibility of assigning meaning to the root or stem based on a
familiar English word. Example, Manipulate is a Latin originated word.
The initial letters, man- has nothing to do with gender or sex. The word,
Manipulate, is from the Latin word, Manipulus (handful) from the word
Manus (hand) to mean “skillful handling of objects” in the English
Language.
2. Sound or Onomatopoeic word 5

The meaning of some words can be derived from the sound

produced when pronouncing the words. The sound of the word
actually portrays the meaning of the word. Example, whisper,
rustling, whistling or tick-tok.
 3. Root/Base of a word 6

one can ascertain the meaning of a word by understanding the

meaning of the root or the base of the word. A Root is a basic word
to which affixes can be attached. It is called a root because it forms
the basis of a new word and cannot be broken down. Example, Act is
a word and a root word as well. The suffix, -ive can be attached to it
to form a new word, Active. A Base, on the other hand, is a word
which gives basis for the formation of a new word. It functions as a
root but is distinct because the base can be further broken down.
Example, act is a root for act(ive), while active is a base for
act(iv)(ity). Thus understanding the root or the base of a work
enhances the understanding of the word. Some examples include
Omnious (from omen, which means sign, often negative), Indecisive
(from decision), or Ingenious (from genius).
 4. Loan words 7

These are words borrowed from other languages and are used in the
new language without changing the form of the word. Example,
Coup d’état (borrowed from French), Safari (borrowed from Arabic)
and Anonymous (Greek), Loot (Hindi) and Cartoon (Italian), among
others.
5. Grammatical category of a word8

Knowing the word class of words helps to understand the meaning of

a word. For instance, knowing that a given word is an action word
(verb) and not a noun accelerates the possible understanding of the
word meaning.
 6. Context 9

The environment in which a word is used helps in suggesting the

meaning of the word. This environment includes the surrounding
words, which are words that come before or after a word, the setting
where the word is used, such as in an office, in a bar, in a classroom,
etc. Example, the word, Treatment can meaning differently based on
the context: a. an attitude towards a person (Think of how you treat a
slave, guest, friend or customer); b. The action of a nurse or doctor to
a patient in a hospital; c. Purifying water. The three different meanings
are recognisable when used because of the environment where it is
used, topic in which it is used and the person who used the word.
 7. Intuition 10

A native speaker of a language has the intuitive or innate knowledge

of his language. Similarly, a competent user of a language has an
intuitive knowledge of the language as well. This is achieved through
extensive reading and rich exposure to the second language.
 8. The Dictionary 11

This is the last resort to understanding the meaning of a word. It also

serves as a reference material to affirm, compare or get a further
understanding of a given word. The dictionary goes beyond word
definition in teaching vocabulary meaning. It gives other information
such as pronunciation, word class, style (formal or informal,
derogatory, archaic), its relationship with other words and usage.
 Denotation and Connotation 12

Meaning can be actual or literal, where the item which the word
represents can be identified in the world. This type of word meaning is
called Denotation. Example, the word, dog means a particular type of
domestic animal.
Conversely, meaning can sense or literary, where the meaning of a word
is by associating the actual meaning of a given word and extending it by
sense to relate it to another experience. This type of meaning is known as
Connotation. Example, the actual or denotative meaning of dog could
be extended to some behaviour which is similar to the speaker’s
understanding of a dog’s behaviour. A person who is promiscuous could
be called a dog; a thief could me termed a rat, and a witty person
could be called a tortoise.
In understanding the two concepts of denotation and connotation, we can highlight
the similarities (if any) and differences in their features.
13

1. Both denotative and connotative meanings are types of meaning available to

every language users.

2. Denotative meaning identifies items in the world (DONKEY = an animal with four
legs usually used for carrying loads), while connotative meaning is a sense relation
of the denotative meaning of a given word by extension. Eg, the meaning of a
donkey can be extended to a human behaviour based on the speaker’s
knowledge of donkey. To one experience, a workaholic is a donkey, while another
experience sees a stupid person as a donkey. These experiences are triggered by
the speaker’s culture.

3. Denotative meaning is a stable relationship. Thus, CAR remains that same item in
real life which has four wheels, while connotative meaning is an unstable
relationship. Thus, the meaning of a gorilla depends on a given speaker’s
experience.
 14

4. In denotative Denotative meaning is concrete, while connotative meaning is abstract.

In essence, Denotation, we can see, feel, touch or identify items in the world, whereas in
connotation, meaning of items cannot be seen, touched or identified. Instead, we
extend the denotative meaning to express our ideas, experiences, events or emotions.

5. In denotative meaning, a word may denote on item or entity with different shades of
meaning. Example, the word, teacher has different shades of meaning such as teacher,
tutor, facilitator, lecturer. Whereas in connotation, we associate meaning with other
abstract nature (behaviour, event, idea or feeling) which has similar characteristics.
Example, woman vs. gentle; Pig vs. dirty; Rat vs. thief; Owl vs. witchcraft (African
association) or wisdom (western association).

It is important to note that:

1. Words which has different shades of meaning also bring about the
15
incidence of synonymy in language. Thus, connotative meaning
yields synonyms, examples:

• Sour (orange) and Rancid (butter)

• Blond (hair) and Brown (dress)
• Deep (gutter) and Profound (wound)
• Bright (student) and Colourful (attire)
• Statesman (usually for retired politicians who aren’t termed, corrupt)
and Politician (corrupt and active persons in active politics)
• Lecturer (tertiary institutions) and Teacher (primary/secondary
schools), etc.
 16
2. Literary writings are known for the profuse use of connotative meanings as
seen in the literary devices such as metaphor, irony, satire, imagery, etc.
Example, bat connotes blindness.

3. Connotation carries negative and positive meanings. Some synonyms differ

in either the negative or positive implication of the word. A word may be
positive to A but negative to B. example,

• Childlike (positive to young children but negative to adults) and Youthful

• Statesman (positive) and Politician (negative based on cultural perception)
• Liberty (positive to Americans) and Freedom (positive to South Africans but
negative to Americans)
 Registers and Jargons 17

Jargons have two different meanings:

a) Register
It refers to the technical vocabulary of a profession, trade or activity.
Example, Law, Medicine, Linguistics, Tourism, Football, etc. this professional
use of language is known as REGISTERS. It is necessary and useful for
members of the professional group to use the specialised vocabulary in
their field (Registers) as a sign of expertise in their profession.
Registers work like a professional code, thus excluding non-members from
their conversations. It makes communication specific, precise and
accurate. It also promotes economy in communication. Register is a
professional badge of identification for members who feels an air of
authority, prestige and higher status when using registers in communication.
 Some professions and their registers: 18

 LAW: plaintiff, prosecutor, writ, defendant, appellant, mandamus,

accused, petitioner.
 LINGUISTICS: phoneme, allophone, plosive, rounded vowel, allomorph,
Syllabic, consonant.
 POLITICS: controversy, eloquent, declare, candidate, strategy, bunk,
canvass, veto, adverse, jubilant, gracious, charisma.
 RELIGION: blasphemy, animism, Buddhism, agnosticism, atheism,
ecclesiastic, episcopal, evangelical, ecumenical, Eucharist, heresy.
 MEDICINE: acute, abrasion, abscess, autopsy, biopsy, diagnosis, edema,
fracture, malignant, benign
 Registers and Jargons 19

b) Jargons
This is an obscure and pretentious use of language. It is marked by round-about way of
expression. It entails the use of long and pompous words which are often unnecessary
and inappropriate. The major aim of the speaker is to impress the audience. Here,
communication suffers because words are barriers to understanding.
To test if an expression is a jargon, we ask this question:
Can it be said in simple words without impeding the speaker’s intent?
If the answer is yes. It is a jargon; if the answer is no, it is a register.
Example: 1. Jalopies circumnavigates. This is s jargon because one can simply say Cars
move.
Example: 2. The word contains an allomorph. This is a register because it cannot be
said in a better language without a roundabout use of words.
 Phrasal verb 20

 Phrasal verb is a group of words which consists of a verb and other particles,
where the particles are preposition (P) or adverb (A) or both. Thus, phrasal verb
can have these structure:
• V + P = Call off
• V + A = Add up
• V + A+ P = Catch up with
There is a corresponding lexical verb for every phrasal verb which means the same
as the phrasal verb. For example:
• Look for = Search
• Put off = Extinguish
• Object to = Refuse/Reject
• Bring up = Raise.
 Phrasal verb 21
 Phrasal verbs are subdivided into Separable and non-separable phrasal verbs.
Separable phrasal verbs are those phrasal verbs which can take a word inserted
between the verb and the particle. For example:
• Break down vs. Break the topic down
• Bring up vs. Bring your child up
• Call off vs. Call the strike off
• Put off vs. Put the fire off.
 Non-separable phrasal verbs are those phrasal verbs which cannot take a word
inserted between the verb and the particle. For example:
• Look for
• Hold on
• Stop by
• Hang out
• Sit up.
 Phrasal verb 22
 Furthermore, Phrasal verbs are divided into Literal and non-literal phrasal
verbs. The literal phrasal verbs, just as the name imply denote a literal
meaning which are not taken idiomatically, while non-literal phrasal verbs
take literary or idiomatic meaning. Example, Look up/down can take a literal
meaning which denotes an upward/downward gaze. This phrasal verb, Look
down, can take a non-literal meaning, merciful. Other examples include:
hang on (persevere), sit up (pay attention).
 Idiom 23

Idiom is a group of word whose meaning cannot be predicted by the

sequence of words in the structure. This means that idioms are opaque in
nature. These group of words fossilize (archaic and incapable of change) over
time to form a unit of meaning. Idiom, therefore, involves a kind of collocation
(the company a word keeps), where a word in an idiomatic phrase cannot be
substituted with another word. Example, He kicked the bucket, not *He played
the bucket/He jacked the basket.
 Examples of idioms are: 24

Idioms Meaning
Beat around the bush To avoid talking about what’s important

Get your act together Get organized and do things effectively

Hit the sack Go to sleep

Your guess is as good as mine I do not know

Good things come to those who wait To have patience

Back against the wall Stuck in a difficult circumstance with no escape

Up in arms Being grumpy or angry about something

 Examples of idioms are: 25
Idioms Meaning
Scrape the barrel Making the most of the worst situation or things because you
can’t do anything about it

Burn your boats/bridges Doing something that makes it impossible to go back to the
original state.

Break fresh/ new ground Doing something that has never been done before

Sell like hot cakes Quick sellout

Run around in circles Putting efforts into something that is not worthwhile result

On cloud nine Being very happy

Blow hot and cold Alternate inconsistently between moods and actions
 Examples of idioms are: 26
Idioms Meaning
Cut corners Doing something in an easier and least expensive manner

Boil the ocean Taking up an almost impossible or overly ambitious project

Keep an ear to the ground Staying informed and updated about everything

Eat like a horse Eating too excessively

A snowball effect The aspect of momentum in every event and how they build
upon each other
 Idiom 27
 Idioms are semantically like a single word but do not function like a word. It
does not change or take grammatical features like noun words take plural
forms (car – cars) or a verb take tense forms (cook – cooked). Thus, To kick
the bucket cannot be expressed as *To kick the buckets. *To spill the bean is
a wrong form of To spill the beans. More so, idioms do not take comparisons
or passives. Example, A red herring, not *a redder herring; He kicked the
bucket, not *the bucket was kicked