Current Electricity: Complete Formula Sheet (MHCET)

1 Drift Velocity & Microscopic Ohm’s Law

1.1 Drift Velocity (vd )
The average velocity with which free electrons drift towards the positive end of a conductor.

eE
I = neAvd and vd = τ (1)
m

Where n is electron density, e is elementary charge, A is area, E is electric field, m is electron

mass, and τ is relaxation time.

1.2 Current Density (J) & Vector Ohm’s Law

Current density is current per unit area (J = I/A).

1 ne2 τ
J~ = σ E
~ where σ = = (Conductivity) (2)
ρ m

2 Resistance, Temperature & Stretching

2.1 Basic Resistance Formula
L L
R=ρ =ρ 2 (3)
A πr

2.2 Temperature Dependence

Resistance of metallic conductors increases linearly with temperature (for small ranges).

RT − R0
RT = R0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] =⇒ α= (4)
R0 (T − T0 )

Where α is the temperature coefficient of resistance (positive for metals, negative for semicon-
ductors/insulators).

2.3 Stretching a Wire (Volume remains constant)

When a wire is stretched or compressed, its volume V = A · L is constant.

L L2 V
R=ρ =ρ =ρ 2 (5)
A V A
Shortcut Proportionalities:

1
 - Resistance vs Length: R ∝ L2 (If length is doubled by stretching, R becomes 4 times).

1
- Resistance vs Area: R ∝
A2

1
- Resistance vs Radius: R ∝ (If radius is halved by stretching, R becomes 16 times).
r4

3 Cells, EMF, and Power

3.1 Combination of Cells
Series Combination: (n identical cells, each EMF E, internal resistance r)
nE
I= (6)
R + nr
Parallel Combination: (Two distinct cells in parallel)
E1 r2 + E2 r1 r1 r2
Eeq = and req = (7)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2

E1
r1

Equivalent to Eeq , req

E2
r2

3.2 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Power delivered by a cell to an external load R is maximum when the external resistance equals
the internal resistance (R = r).
E2
Pmax = (8)
4r

4 Kirchhoff’s Laws
4.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL / Junction Law)
Based on the conservation of charge. The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is
zero.
X
I=0 =⇒ Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents (9)

I1 (In) I3 (Out)

Junction

I2 (In) I4 (Out)

2
4.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL / Loop Law)
Based on the conservation of energy. The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any
closed loop is zero.
X X
∆V + E=0 (10)

Sign Convention (Crucial for MHCET):

- Resistor: If you trace in the direction of current, ∆V = −IR (Potential Drop). If you trace
against current, ∆V = +IR (Potential Gain).
- Battery/Cell: If you trace from Negative to Positive terminal, ∆V = +E. If from Positive
to Negative, ∆V = −E.

R1
I

E1 E2
KVL
R2

KVL Equation for clockwise trace: +E1 − IR1 − E2 − IR2 = 0

5 Wheatstone Bridge, Meter Bridge & Kelvin’s Method

5.1 Wheatstone Bridge
Four resistances P, Q, R, S forming a quadrilateral. It is balanced when the current through the
central galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0).
P R
= (11)
Q S

5.2 Meter Bridge

A practical application of the Wheatstone bridge used to find an unknown resistance X, using
a standard resistance R and a 1m (100 cm) wire. If the null point is found at length l from the X
side:  
X l l
= =⇒ X=R (12)
R 100 − l 100 − l

X R

G
J
A B
l 100 − l

3
5.3 Kelvin’s Method
A modification of the Meter Bridge used to find the resistance of a galvanometer (G). The gal-
vanometer is placed in the left gap (X → G), and a regular wire connects the central terminal
directly to the jockey. We search for an ”equal deflection point” rather than a null point.
 
lg
G=R (13)
100 − lg

6 Potentiometer
Used to measure EMF accurately because it draws zero current from the cell at the null point
(it acts as an ideal voltmeter with infinite resistance).

6.1 Potential Gradient (k)

The potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
 
VAB Ep RAB
k= = (14)
L RAB + Rh + r L

Where Ep is driving cell EMF, RAB is wire resistance, L is wire length, Rh is rheostat resistance.

6.2 Comparing EMFs

- Individual Method: Two cells E1 and E2 are balanced separately at lengths l1 and l2 .

E1 l1
= (15)
E2 l2

- Sum and Difference Method: Cells are connected to assist each other (E1 + E2 ) balancing
at l1 , and oppose each other (E1 − E2 ) balancing at l2 .

E1 l1 + l2
= (16)
E2 l1 − l2

6.3 Internal Resistance (r) of a Cell

First, balance the open-circuit cell (EMF E) at length l1 . Then, connect a shunt resistance R across
the cell (terminal voltage V ) and balance at a new, shorter length l2 .
   
l1 − l2 l1
r=R =R −1 (17)
l2 l2

7 Moving Coil Galvanometer

7.1 Principle & Sensitivities
A galvanometer detects small currents. The deflection θ is directly proportional to the current
I. If N is turns, A is area, B is magnetic field, and C is the restoring torque per unit twist:
   
C N AB
I= θ =⇒ Deflection: θ = I (18)
N AB C

4
 - Current Sensitivity (Is ): Deflection produced per unit current.

θ N AB
Is = = (19)
I C

- Voltage Sensitivity (Vs ): Deflection produced per unit voltage (V = IRg , where Rg is gal-
vanometer resistance).
θ N AB Is
Vs = = = (20)
V CRg Rg

7.2 Conversion to Ammeter

To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter reading up to current I, a very small resistance
called a shunt (S) is connected in parallel.
 
Ig Rg I
S= Rg OR S= where n = (21)
I − Ig n−1 Ig

Rg S
Note: The effective resistance of the ammeter is very small: Ref f = Rg +S ≈ S.

Equivalent Ammeter
Rg
Ig
G
I I
S

I − Ig

7.3 Conversion to Voltmeter

To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter reading up to voltage V , a very high resistance (R)
is connected in series.

V V
R= − Rg OR R = Rg (n − 1) where n = (22)
Ig Vg

Note: The effective resistance of the voltmeter is very high: Ref f = Rg + R ≈ R.

Equivalent Voltmeter
Rg
Ig R (Multiplier)
G

V = Ig (Rg + R)

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8 Advanced Problem-Solving Tricks & Observations (MHCET)
8.1 The ”Percentage Stretching” Trap
A very common MHT-CET trap involves stretching a wire by a certain percentage.
- For Small Changes (≤ 5%): Use binomial approximation.
∆R ∆L
R ∝ L2 =⇒ =2 (23)
R L
Example: If length increases by 2%, Resistance increases by 2 × 2% = 4%.
- For Large Changes (> 5%): You MUST calculate exactly using Rnew = n2 Rold .
 x 2
Rnew = Rold 1 + (24)
100
Example (from PDF): Wire stretched by 10%. New length is 1.1L. New resistance is (1.1)2 R =
1.21R. This is a 21% increase, not 20%!

8.2 Potentiometer Backward-Algebra

Standard questions ask for r. Hard questions give you r, R, and l2 (the shunted length) and ask
you to find l1 (the open-circuit length). The Trap: The formula is r = R( l1 l−l
2
2
). Do not accidentally
put the difference in the denominator!
 r
Rearranged: l1 = l2 1 + (25)
R
Why it matters: If R is shunted across the cell, it draws current. The potential drops from E to V
(where V < E because V = E − ir). Since V < E, the balancing length MUST decrease (l2 < l1 ).

8.3 Meter Bridge Shift Logic

If a Meter Bridge is balanced with X in the left gap and R in the right gap at length l:
- If you connect a resistor in series with X: The left gap resistance increases. To maintain
balance, the null point l must shift to the right (increase).
- If you connect a resistor in parallel (shunt) with X: The left gap resistance decreases. To
maintain balance, the null point l must shift to the left (decrease).

8.4 Potentiometer Sensitivity

To make a potentiometer more ”sensitive” (meaning it can measure very small potential differ-
ences with high accuracy), you need a smaller potential gradient (k). To decrease k = VL :
1. Increase the length (L) of the potentiometer wire (most common method).
2. Decrease the voltage (V ) across the wire by increasing the series resistance (rheostat) in
the primary circuit.

8.5 Symmetry in Circuits (Wheatstone Check)

If you are given a complex grid or cube of resistors, before doing heavy Kirchhoff calculations,
always check for Wheatstone symmetry. If the ratio of branches is equal, the central branch
carries no current and can be deleted from the circuit entirely!