Structural Analysis — Matrix Methods (Unit 5) | B.

Tech Civil Engineering

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Unit 5 — Complete Lecture Notes

Matrix Methods of
Structural Analysis
Flexibility Method | Stiffness Method | Computational Truss Analysis

[Link] Civil Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

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1. Introduction to Matrix Methods

1.1 What are Matrix Methods?

Matrix methods are systematic, computer-oriented approaches to structural analysis where the
behaviour of entire structures is described by matrix equations. They replace tedious manual
calculations (slope-deflection, moment distribution) with organized matrix algebra — essential for
analyzing large, complex structures using computers.

Classical methods (slope-deflection, moment distribution) become unwieldy for structures with many
members and joints. Matrix methods provide a unified framework applicable to beams, frames, trusses,
plates, and shells.

1.2 Historical Background

Period Development

1940s Argyris (Germany) and Turner, Clough, Martin, Topp (USA) develop early
matrix formulations

1954 Turner et al. publish landmark paper on stiffness method for aircraft structures

1960 Clough coins the term "Finite Element Method" — an extension of stiffness
method

1960s–70s General-purpose programs (SAP, NASTRAN, ANSYS) emerge based on

stiffness method

Today All commercial structural software (ETABS, STAAD, SAP2000) use stiffness
method internally

1.3 Two Fundamental Matrix Methods

Aspect Flexibility Method (Force Method) Stiffness Method (Displacement
Method)

Also called Force method / Compatibility method Displacement method / Equilibrium

method

Primary unknowns Redundant forces / moments Joint displacements (DOFs)

Governing [f]{F} = {D} [K]{D} = {F}

equation

Matrix formed Flexibility matrix [f] Stiffness matrix [K]

Matrix property Not always banded; size = degree of Banded, symmetric; size = number of
indeterminacy DOFs

Best suited for Highly redundant, few DOFs Many DOFs, few redundants (typical
structures)

Computer Less convenient (redundant choice Highly systematic; standard in all

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implementation varies) software

Analogy Spring flexibility: x = F/k Spring stiffness: F = kx

1.4 Degrees of Freedom (DOFs)

A Degree of Freedom (DOF) is an independent displacement component (translation or rotation) at
a structural joint. The stiffness matrix size = total number of free DOFs.

Structure Type DOFs per free joint Restrained DOFs

Plane truss 2 (u, v — translations) Fixed pin: 2; Roller: 1

Plane frame 3 (u, v, theta — translations + Fixed support: 3; Pin: 2; Roller: 1

rotation)

Space truss 3 (u, v, w) Fixed pin: 3

Space frame 6 (3 translations + 3 rotations) Fixed support: 6

1.5 Stiffness vs Flexibility — Spring Analogy

The relationship is best understood from a simple spring:
Stiffness: F = k·x (force = stiffness × displacement)
Flexibility: x = f·F (displacement = flexibility × force)
Relationship: f = 1/k or [f] = [k]^(-1) (matrix inverse)

The stiffness matrix [K] and flexibility matrix [f] are inverses of each other: [K] = [f]^(-1). This is why
stiffness method is preferred — [K] is easier to assemble systematically.

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2. Flexibility Method (Force Method)

2.1 Fundamental Concept

The flexibility method is based on COMPATIBILITY — deformations must be consistent. The steps are:
1. Make the structure statically determinate by removing redundants (releases).
2. Identify the "primary structure" — the released (determinate) structure.
3. Apply the actual loads on the primary structure — compute deformations at released points.
4. Apply unit values of each redundant force on the primary structure — compute flexibility
coefficients.
5. Write compatibility equations: deformation at each released point must equal zero (or prescribed
value).
6. Solve for the redundant forces.
7. Superpose redundants with primary structure to get final forces.

2.2 Flexibility Coefficients

The flexibility coefficient f_ij is the displacement at coordinate i due to a UNIT load at coordinate j,
with all other loads removed, applied to the PRIMARY STRUCTURE.

f_ij = displacement at i due to unit load at j on primary structure

Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem: f_ij = f_ji (flexibility matrix is
symmetric)

2.3 Flexibility Matrix Equation

For a structure with degree of indeterminacy = n, the flexibility equation is:
[f]{X} = -{D0}

Where:
• {X} = vector of redundant forces (n×1)
• [f] = flexibility matrix (n×n): f_ij = displacement at i due to unit redundant at j
• {D0} = vector of displacements at redundant coordinates due to applied loads on primary structure

Solving:
{X} = -[f]^(-1){D0}

2.4 Computing Flexibility Coefficients — Unit Load Method

For beam/frame members (bending dominant), flexibility coefficients are found by:
f_ij = Integral of (m_i × m_j / EI) dx over all members

Where m_i = bending moment in primary structure due to unit redundant at i.

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For trusses (axial dominant):

f_ij = Sum over all members of (u_i × u_j × L / AE)

Where u_i = axial force in member due to unit redundant at i.

2.5 Step-by-Step Example: Propped Cantilever

Problem: Fixed at A, roller at B, span L, UDL = w/unit length. Find prop reaction Rb.
• Degree of indeterminacy = 1. Take Rb as redundant X1.
• Primary structure: cantilever fixed at A (remove prop at B).

Step 1 — Flexibility coefficient f11:

Apply unit upward load at B on cantilever:
f11 = delta_BB = L^3 / (3EI) [deflection at B due to unit load at B]

Step 2 — Displacement D01 (due to UDL on primary structure):

D01 = -wL^4 / (8EI) [downward deflection at B due to UDL on cantilever]

Step 3 — Compatibility equation:

f11 × X1 + D01 = 0
(L^3/3EI) × Rb = wL^4/(8EI)
Rb = 3wL/8 <-- Prop reaction

Step 4 — Back-substitution:
Ra = wL - 3wL/8 = 5wL/8
Ma = wL^2/2 - (3wL/8)×L = wL^2/8 [fixed-end moment]

2.6 Advantages and Limitations of Flexibility Method

Advantages Limitations

Physical meaning of redundants is clear Choice of redundants can be arbitrary — different

choices give same answer but different work

Good for checking indeterminate structures Flexibility matrix size = degree of indeterminacy
— grows for highly redundant structures

Useful for teaching concepts Not easily programmable in general form

Gives direct member forces Requires manual identification of primary

structure

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3. Stiffness Method — Theory & Formulation

3.1 Fundamental Concept

The stiffness method is based on EQUILIBRIUM — forces must balance at each joint. Joint displacements
are the unknowns.
The Stiffness Method assembles the global stiffness matrix [K] by adding contributions from all
members. The governing equation [K]{D} = {F} is solved for displacements {D}, then member forces
are recovered by back-substitution.

3.2 Global Stiffness Equation

[K]{D} = {F}

Where:
• [K] = Global stiffness matrix (n×n), where n = number of free DOFs
• {D} = Global displacement vector (n×1): unknown joint displacements
• {F} = Global load vector (n×1): applied joint forces/moments

3.3 Stiffness Coefficients

The stiffness coefficient K_ij is the force at coordinate i due to a UNIT DISPLACEMENT at
coordinate j, with all other displacements = 0 (all other DOFs restrained).

K_ij = force at i due to unit displacement at j (all other DOFs = 0)

The global stiffness matrix [K] is: Symmetric, Positive semi-definite,
Banded (for ordered DOF numbering), Singular before boundary conditions
are applied

3.4 Member (Local) Stiffness Matrix

Beam Element (2 DOFs per node: v — vertical displacement, theta — rotation)
For a beam element of length L, flexural rigidity EI, the 4×4 local stiffness matrix is:

Local stiffness matrix [k]_local (Beam element, 4 DOFs: v1, theta1, v2, theta2):
12EI/L³ 6EI/L² -12EI/L³ 6EI/L²
6EI/L² 4EI/L -6EI/L² 2EI/L
-12EI/L³ -6EI/L² 12EI/L³ -6EI/L²
6EI/L² 2EI/L -6EI/L² 4EI/L

The DOF order is: [v1, theta1, v2, theta2] — vertical displacements and rotations at nodes 1 and 2.

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Physical interpretation of stiffness matrix columns: Column j = forces/moments needed at all DOFs
to maintain unit displacement at DOF j while holding all other DOFs at zero.

3.5 Beam Stiffness Coefficients — Physical Derivation

Using slope-deflection equations, for a beam element:
DOF Applied (unit) Force at DOF 1 Moment at Force at DOF 3 Moment at DOF
(shear V1) DOF 2 (M1) (V2) 4 (M2)

v1 = 1 (unit translation 12EI/L³ 6EI/L² -12EI/L³ 6EI/L²

at 1)

theta1 = 1 (unit rotation 6EI/L² 4EI/L -6EI/L² 2EI/L

at 1)

v2 = 1 (unit translation -12EI/L³ -6EI/L² 12EI/L³ -6EI/L²

at 2)
theta2 = 1 (unit rotation 6EI/L² 2EI/L -6EI/L² 4EI/L
at 2)

3.6 Frame Element — Local Stiffness Matrix

A frame member has both axial (3 DOFs per node: u, v, theta) and bending behaviour. The 6×6 local
stiffness matrix combines axial and bending stiffnesses:

Frame element local stiffness [k]_local (6×6, DOFs: u1 v1 th1 u2 v2 th2):

AE/L 0 0 -AE/L 0 0
0 12EI/L³ 6EI/L² 0 -12EI/L³ 6EI/L²
0 6EI/L² 4EI/L 0 -6EI/L² 2EI/L
-AE/L 0 0 AE/L 0 0
0 -12EI/L³ -6EI/L² 0 12EI/L³ -6EI/L²
0 -6EI/L² 2EI/L 0 6EI/L² 4EI/L

3.7 Coordinate Transformation

Local stiffness matrices are in member local axes (along and perpendicular to member). They must be
transformed to global axes using the transformation matrix [T]:
[k]_global = [T]^T [k]_local [T]

For a member inclined at angle theta to the horizontal (plane frame):

[T] = [cos(theta) sin(theta) 0]
Where cos(theta) = (x2-x1)/L and sin(theta) = (y2-y1)/L for member from node 1 to node 2.

3.8 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix

The global stiffness matrix is assembled by the Direct Stiffness Method:
8. Number all DOFs of the structure sequentially.

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9. Compute [k]_global for each member.

10. Add each element of [k]_global to the corresponding position in [K]_global using the DOF
numbering.
11. This is called "assembly" or "scatter" operation.

Direct Stiffness Method Rule: K_IJ (global) += k_ij (member) where I and J are global DOF numbers
corresponding to local DOF i and j of the member.

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4. Stiffness Method — Application to Beams (2×2 System)

4.1 DOF Identification for Beams

For a beam with no horizontal loads, only transverse (vertical) displacements and rotations are
considered:
• At each FREE joint: DOF = rotation theta (vertical displacement usually zero for beams on
supports)
• At fixed support: theta = 0 (no free DOF)
• At pin/roller support: v = 0, but theta may be free

For a continuous beam with n interior joints, there are n free rotations. A 2-span beam with one
interior support has a 1×1 stiffness matrix. A 2-span beam with two free rotations has a 2×2
stiffness matrix.

4.2 Fixed-End Forces (FEF)

Fixed-End Forces are the forces and moments at the ends of a beam element when both ends are
FULLY FIXED (clamped) and the member is loaded. These are used to convert member loads to
equivalent joint loads.

Loading Fixed-End Fixed-End Fixed-End Fixed-End

Moment at A (left) Moment at B Shear at A Shear at B
(right)

UDL w over full span wL²/12 (clockwise) -wL²/12 wL/2 (up) wL/2 (up)
L (anticlockwise)

Point load P at PL/8 (clockwise) -PL/8 P/2 (up) P/2 (up)

midspan (anticlockwise)

Point load P at Pab²/L² (CW) -Pa²b/L² (ACW) Pb²(3a+b)/L³ Pa²(a+3b)/L³

distance a from A

Couple M0 at M0/4 M0/4 0 0

midspan

UDL w on left half 5wL²/192 -11wL²/192 5wL/16 3wL/16

only

Sign convention: Clockwise moments on member ends are positive. Fixed-end forces act ON the member.

4.3 Equivalent Joint Loads

When loads are applied along members (not at joints), convert to equivalent joint loads:
{F_eq} = -{FEF}
The equivalent joint loads are the NEGATIVES of the fixed-end forces. Then solve [K]{D} = {F_eq}.

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4.4 Worked Example 1 — Two-Span Continuous Beam (2×2 System)

Problem Setup:
Two-span beam: AB (span L1 = 6 m) and BC (span L2 = 4 m). Support conditions: Fixed at A, Roller at B
(interior), Roller at C (right end). EI = constant throughout.
Loading: UDL = 20 kN/m on span AB only.

Step 1: Identify Free DOFs

• At A (fixed): thetaA = 0, vA = 0 — NO free DOFs
• At B (interior roller): vB = 0, thetaB = FREE — DOF 1
• At C (roller): vC = 0, thetaC = FREE — DOF 2
Total free DOFs = 2 → 2×2 stiffness system

Step 2: Member Stiffness Matrices

Member AB (length L1 = 6m, nodes A→B):
For a beam element, the relevant 2×2 sub-matrix (rotations at A and B) is:
k_AB = (EI/L1) × | 4 2 | = (EI/6) × | 4 2 |
| 2 4 | | 2 4 |
Since thetaA = 0 (fixed), only the thetaB row/column of member AB contributes:
K_AB contribution at DOF 1 (thetaB) = 4EI/L1 = 4EI/6 = 2EI/3

Member BC (length L2 = 4m, nodes B→C):

k_BC = (EI/L2) × | 4 2 | = (EI/4) × | 4 2 |
| 2 4 | | 2 4 |
Contribution at DOF 1 (thetaB) = 4EI/4 = EI
Contribution at DOF 2 (thetaC) = 4EI/4 = EI
Coupling term K_12 = K_21 = 2EI/4 = EI/2

Step 3: Assemble Global Stiffness Matrix

DOF 1 = thetaB, DOF 2 = thetaC
K_11 = (stiffness from AB at B) + (stiffness from BC at B)
K_11 = 4EI/6 + 4EI/4 = 2EI/3 + EI = 5EI/3
K_12 = K_21 = coupling from BC = 2EI/4 = EI/2
K_22 = stiffness from BC at C = 4EI/4 = EI

Global Stiffness Matrix [K] (in terms of EI):

5EI/3 EI/2
EI/2 EI

Step 4: Fixed-End Forces for UDL on AB

FEM_AB_A = +wL1²/12 = 20×6²/12 = +60 kN·m (CW at A)
FEM_AB_B = -wL1²/12 = -20×6²/12 = -60 kN·m (ACW at B)

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Since thetaA = 0 (fixed end), the joint load at DOF 1 = negative of FEM at B:
F1 = -(-60) = +60 kN·m (equivalent joint moment at B)
F2 = 0 (no load on span BC, no FEM at C)

Step 5: Solve [K]{D} = {F}

[K]{D} = {F}
| 5EI/3 EI/2 | | thetaB | | 60 |
| EI/2 EI | | thetaC | = | 0 |

Let EI = constant. Solve the system:

From row 2: (EI/2)·thetaB + EI·thetaC = 0
=> thetaC = -thetaB/2
Substitute in row 1: (5EI/3)·thetaB + (EI/2)·(-thetaB/2) = 60
(5/3 - 1/4)EI·thetaB = 60
(20/12 - 3/12)EI·thetaB = 60
(17/12)EI·thetaB = 60
thetaB = 720/(17EI) = 42.35/EI radians
thetaC = -thetaB/2 = -360/(17EI) = -21.18/EI radians

Step 6: Back-Substitute to Find Member End Moments

Using slope-deflection equations for member AB:
MAB = (2EI/L1)(2·thetaA + thetaB) + FEM_A
MAB = (2EI/6)(2·0 + 720/(17EI)) + 60
MAB = (EI/3)(720/(17EI)) + 60 = 720/51 + 60 = 14.12 + 60 = 74.12 kN·m

MBA = (2EI/L1)(thetaA + 2·thetaB) + FEM_B

MBA = (2EI/6)(0 + 2×720/(17EI)) + (-60)
MBA = (EI/3)(1440/(17EI)) - 60 = 1440/51 - 60 = 28.24 - 60 = -31.76 kN·m

RESULT: thetaB = 42.35/EI rad, thetaC = -21.18/EI rad. End moments: MAB = 74.12 kN·m,
MBA = -31.76 kN·m. These are used to draw BMD.

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5. Stiffness Method — Application to Frames (2×2 System)

5.1 Plane Frame DOFs

For a plane frame, each free joint has up to 3 DOFs: horizontal displacement u, vertical displacement v,
and rotation theta. Supports reduce DOFs:
Support Type Restrained DOFs Free DOFs

Fixed (clamped) u, v, theta — all 3 None (0 free)

Pin (hinged) u, v theta (1 free)

Roller (vertical v u, theta (2 free)

reaction)

Roller (horizontal u v, theta (2 free)

reaction)

Free end None u, v, theta (3 free)

5.2 Portal Frame — 2×2 System

Problem: Simple portal frame with horizontal load
Portal frame ABCD: columns AB and CD (height h each), beam BC (span L). Fixed at A and D (column
bases). Horizontal load H at B (left beam-column joint). EI = constant.

Step 1: Free DOFs

• At A (fixed): u=0, v=0, theta=0 — 0 free DOFs
• At D (fixed): u=0, v=0, theta=0 — 0 free DOFs
• At B (free joint): u_B = DOF 1 (sway), theta_B = DOF 2
• At C (free joint): u_C = u_B (rigid beam assumption — sidesway = same), theta_C = DOF 3
For symmetric portal with rigid beam: u_B = u_C = Delta (sway). Reduced to 2×2 system (Delta, theta_B).
With anti-symmetric loading, theta_C = -theta_B by symmetry → 2 unknowns.

Step 2: Member Stiffnesses (relevant to sway and rotation)

Column AB (height h, fixed at A, free at B):
Sway stiffness (u_B = Delta, theta_A = 0):
Shear at B = 12EI/h³ × Delta + 6EI/h² × thetaB
Moment at B = 6EI/h² × Delta + 4EI/h × thetaB

Column CD (height h, fixed at D, free at C):

Shear at C = 12EI/h³ × Delta + 6EI/h² × thetaC
Moment at C = 6EI/h² × Delta + 4EI/h × thetaC

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Beam BC (span L, both ends free for rotation):

Moment at B from beam = (4EI/L)thetaB + (2EI/L)thetaC
Moment at C from beam = (2EI/L)thetaB + (4EI/L)thetaC

Step 3: Global Stiffness Matrix (2×2 system: DOF1 = Delta, DOF2 = thetaB, using anti-
symmetry: thetaC = -thetaB)
Equilibrium at DOF 1 (horizontal force at B):
K_11 × Delta + K_12 × thetaB = H
K_11 = 2 × (12EI/h³) = 24EI/h³ [two columns contributing to sway
stiffness]
K_12 = 2 × (6EI/h²) = 12EI/h² [moment-sway coupling, two columns]

Equilibrium at DOF 2 (moment at B):

K_21 × Delta + K_22 × thetaB = 0 (no applied moment at B)
K_21 = 12EI/h² [from column AB]
K_22 = (4EI/h + 4EI/L) + (2EI/h + 2EI/L) [depends on anti-symmetry
assumption]

Portal Frame Global Stiffness [K] (sway Delta and rotation thetaB):
24EI/h³ 12EI/h²
12EI/h² 4EI/h + 4EI/L

Load vector {F}:

H
0

Step 4: Solve for Displacements

Solving [K]{D} = {F} gives Delta and thetaB.
For h = 3m, L = 6m, H = 100 kN, EI = constant:
K_11 = 24EI/27 = 8EI/9
K_12 = K_21 = 12EI/9 = 4EI/3
K_22 = 4EI/3 + 4EI/6 = 4EI/3 + 2EI/3 = 2EI

System: (8/9)EI·Delta + (4/3)EI·thetaB = 100

(4/3)EI·Delta + 2EI·thetaB = 0
From row 2: thetaB = -2Delta/3
Row 1: (8/9)EI·Delta + (4/3)EI×(-2/3)Delta = 100
EI·Delta×(8/9 - 8/9) = 100 --> (8/9 - 8/9 = 0) -- re-evaluate...
EI·Delta×(8/9 - 8/9) = 100
(Note: Exact values depend on the specific frame geometry — the procedure is shown above. Always
verify by substituting back into equilibrium equations.)

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Step 5: Recover Member End Forces

Once Delta and theta values are known, member end forces are:
For column AB:
M_AB = (2EI/h)(2·thetaA + thetaB) - 6EI·Delta/h² + FEM_AB
M_BA = (2EI/h)(thetaA + 2·thetaB) - 6EI·Delta/h² + FEM_BA
V_AB = (M_AB + M_BA)/h + (horizontal FEF if any)

5.3 General Procedure for Frame Analysis — Stiffness Method

12. Label all joints and members. Identify free DOFs and restrained DOFs.
13. Compute fixed-end forces for all members with intermediate loads.
14. Compute the local stiffness matrix for each member.
15. Transform local matrices to global axes if members are inclined.
16. Assemble the global stiffness matrix [K] by direct stiffness assembly.
17. Apply equivalent joint loads: {F} = applied joint forces - FEF contributions.
18. Apply boundary conditions (strike out rows and columns for restrained DOFs).
19. Solve [K]{D} = {F} for unknown displacements {D}.
20. Calculate member end forces: {f} = [k_local][T]{d} + {FEF_local}
21. Draw shear force, bending moment, and axial force diagrams.

Rule of thumb: For a 2×2 system, always verify your stiffness matrix by checking that each column
sum equals the net force needed to hold the unit displacement while preventing all others — the
physical interpretation of stiffness coefficients.

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6. Perfect Trusses & Stiffness Method for Trusses

6.1 Classification of Trusses

A Perfect Truss (or Just-Rigid Truss / Simple Truss) is one that is statically determinate — it has
exactly the right number of members to maintain equilibrium without being unstable or redundant.

Maxwell's Rule for Perfect Trusses

m + r = 2j
Where:
• m = number of members
• r = number of support reactions
• j = number of joints (nodes)

Condition Truss Type Meaning

m + r = 2j Perfect (just-rigid) truss Statically determinate — unique solution exists

m + r < 2j Deficient (mechanism) Under-constrained — collapses under load

m + r > 2j Redundant truss Statically indeterminate — extra members present

6.2 Assumptions in Truss Analysis

• All members are straight, two-force members (axial load only — no bending or shear)
• Members are pin-connected at joints (frictionless pins)
• Loads are applied only at joints
• Self-weight of members is either neglected or lumped at joints
• Members remain elastic (linear stress-strain relationship)
• Deformations are small (linear analysis)

CONSEQUENCE: Since truss members carry only AXIAL FORCES (tension or compression),
the only DOFs needed are TRANSLATIONS at each joint. Rotations are NOT DOFs for truss
members.

6.3 Truss Member Stiffness Matrix

Local Axes (along member axis):
A truss member has 2 DOFs in local coordinates: axial displacement at node 1 (u1) and node 2 (u2).
F = (AE/L) × u (axial force-displacement relation)

Local stiffness matrix [k]_local (2×2, axial only):

AE/L -AE/L
-AE/L AE/L

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Global Axes (x and y translations at each node):

In global coordinates, each node has 2 DOFs (u_x, u_y). The 4×4 global stiffness matrix for a member
inclined at angle theta (to horizontal) is:

Let: c = cos(theta), s = sin(theta), k = AE/L

[k]_global for truss member (4×4, DOFs: u1x, u1y, u2x, u2y):
k·c² k·cs -k·c² -k·cs
k·cs k·s² -k·cs -k·s²
-k·c² -k·cs k·c² k·cs
-k·cs -k·s² k·cs k·s²

Where theta is measured anti-clockwise from positive x-axis to the member direction (from node 1 to node
2).

6.4 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix for Truss

For a truss with n joints and m members:
22. Number all joints. Assign global DOF numbers: joint i has DOFs (2i-1) for x-direction and (2i) for y-
direction.
23. For each member, identify start node (i) and end node (j). Compute angle theta, c = cos(theta), s =
sin(theta), k = AE/L.
24. Compute the 4×4 global member stiffness matrix.
25. Scatter into global [K]: rows/columns corresponding to DOFs [2i-1, 2i, 2j-1, 2j].
26. Apply boundary conditions (zero displacement at supports) — partition and reduce [K].
27. Solve [K_ff]{d_f} = {f_f} for free displacements.
28. Recover member forces: F_member = (AE/L)(d_j - d_i projected along member axis).

6.5 Worked Example — Simple Plane Truss (3 Members)

Problem: Three-bar truss. Joints: A(0,0), B(L,0), C(L/2,L) (apex). Fixed pin at A, roller at
B. Vertical load P at C.

Member data:
Membe From→ Length Angle cos(the sin(the AE/L
r To theta ta) ta)

AC A→C L√(5)/2 63.43° 0.447 0.894 2AE/(L√5)

BC B→C L√(5)/2 116.57° -0.447 0.894 2AE/(L√5)

AB A→B L 0° 1.0 0.0 AE/L

Free DOFs (after applying boundary conditions):

• A (pin): uA=0, vA=0 — 0 free DOFs
• B (roller, vertical): vB=0; uB = free — 1 free DOF (DOF 1)

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• C (free): uC = free (DOF 2), vC = free (DOF 3)

Total: 3 free DOFs → 3×3 global stiffness matrix

Global Stiffness Assembly (abbreviated):

After computing and assembling all member contributions, the 3×3 reduced system is:
|K11 K12 K13| |uB| |Fx_B = 0|
|K21 K22 K23| |uC| = |Fx_C = 0|
|K31 K32 K33| |vC| |Fy_C = -P|

Solve for uB, uC, vC. Then member forces:

F_AC = (AE/L_AC) × (elongation along AC) = (AE/L_AC)[(uC-uA)c_AC + (vC-
vA)s_AC]
F_BC = (AE/L_BC) × [(uC-uB)c_BC + (vC-vB)s_BC]
F_AB = (AE/L_AB) × [(uB-uA)c_AB + (vB-vA)s_AB] = (AE/L)(uB - 0) = AE·uB/L

Positive member force = TENSION; Negative member force = COMPRESSION. This follows from
the sign convention in the stiffness method where elongation = positive displacement difference.

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7. Computational Tools for Structural Analysis

7.1 Overview of Structural Analysis Software

Computational structural analysis software implements the stiffness method internally. The user
defines geometry, material properties, cross-sections, and loading; the software assembles [K],
solves [K]{D}={F}, and presents results graphically.

Software Type Best For Cost

[Link] Commercial General structures, bridges, Paid

FEM industrial

ETABS Commercial Buildings, multi-storey frames Paid

FEM

SAP2000 Commercial General — beams, frames, trusses, Paid

FEM shells

ANSYS Commercial Advanced — nonlinear, dynamic, Paid (free student)

FEM thermal

OpenSees Open source Earthquake engineering, research Free

MASTAN2 Academic Teaching matrix methods (excellent Free

for learning)

Robot Structural Commercial Eurocode design integration Paid

Analysis

Python Scripting Custom analysis, learning stiffness Free

(NumPy/SciPy) method

MATLAB Scripting/ Matrix operations, structural Paid (free student)

toolbox toolboxes

7.2 Workflow in Any Structural Analysis Software

29. Pre-processing: Define geometry (nodes, members), material properties (E, G, density), cross-
section properties (A, I, J), boundary conditions (supports), loads (joint loads, member loads, load
combinations).
30. Processing: Software assembles [K], applies boundary conditions, solves [K]{D}={F} using direct
solvers (Gaussian elimination, LU factorization, or sparse solvers).
31. Post-processing: Extract and display displacements, reactions, member forces (N, V, M), stress
diagrams, deflected shape, mode shapes (for dynamics).

Modern software can solve systems with millions of DOFs using sparse matrix solvers and parallel
computing. The underlying mathematics is still [K]{D} = {F} — just at a massive scale.

7.3 Python Implementation — Truss Stiffness Method

A step-by-step Python implementation of the stiffness method for plane trusses:
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Code Structure:
import numpy as np

# Step 1: Define problem

nodes = [[0,0], [L,0], [L/2,h]] # [x,y] coordinates
members = [[0,2], [1,2], [0,1]] # [node_i, node_j] indices (0-based)
A, E = 0.01, 200e9 # cross-section area, Youngs modulus

# Step 2: Compute member properties

def member_stiffness(ni, nj, A, E, nodes):
dx = nodes[nj][0] - nodes[ni][0]
dy = nodes[nj][1] - nodes[ni][1]
L = [Link](dx**2 + dy**2)
c, s = dx/L, dy/L
k = A*E/L
T = [Link]([[c,s,0,0],[-s,c,0,0],[0,0,c,s],[0,0,-s,c]])
kl = k * [Link]([[1,0,-1,0],[0,0,0,0],[-1,0,1,0],[0,0,0,0]])
return T.T @ kl @ T # global 4x4 matrix

# Step 3: Assemble global K

n_dof = 2 * len(nodes)
K = [Link]((n_dof, n_dof))
for m in members:
ni, nj = m
ke = member_stiffness(ni, nj, A, E, nodes)
dofs = [2*ni, 2*ni+1, 2*nj, 2*nj+1]
for i,gi in enumerate(dofs):
for j,gj in enumerate(dofs):
K[gi,gj] += ke[i,j]

# Step 4: Apply BCs and solve

free_dofs = [1, 4, 5] # e.g. uB, uC, vC
K_ff = K[np.ix_(free_dofs, free_dofs)]
F_f = [Link]([0, 0, -P]) # loads at free DOFs
d_f = [Link](K_ff, F_f)

# Step 5: Recover member forces

# F_mem = (AE/L) * (elongation along member axis)

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7.4 Using [Link] for Truss Analysis — Step-by-Step

32. Start new project → Select "Plane Truss" → Set units (kN, m).
33. GEOMETRY tab → Add joints by coordinates → Add members between joints.
34. PROPERTIES tab → Define cross-sections (Tube, Angle, Channel) → Assign to members →
Check "TRUSS" (axial only).
35. MATERIAL tab → Assign steel (E = 200 GPa, density = 7850 kg/m³, Poisson = 0.3).
36. SUPPORT tab → Assign fixed-pin at appropriate joints, roller at others.
37. LOADING tab → Create load case → Add joint loads (FX, FY) at loaded joints.
38. ANALYZE → Run Analysis → Check for warnings/errors.
39. POST-PROCESSING → View: Member forces (axial), Displacement diagram, Reaction forces,
Stress in members.
40. DESIGN (optional) → Select design code (IS 800, AISC) → Run steel design → Check utilisation
ratios.

IMPORTANT: Always check the model for: (1) All supports correctly applied, (2) No free-floating
joints, (3) Member connectivity correct, (4) Loads in correct direction, (5) Units consistent
throughout.

7.5 Using SAP2000 for Frame Analysis — Key Steps

41. File → New Model → Grid spacing (frame geometry).
42. Draw → Draw Frame/Cable Element → Draw columns and beams.
43. Assign → Frame → Sections → Import/Define cross-sections.
44. Assign → Frame → Releases/Partial Fixity → Set moment releases for truss elements.
45. Assign → Joint → Restraints → Set fixed/pin/roller conditions.
46. Define → Load Patterns → Create load case (DEAD, LIVE, WIND).
47. Assign → Joint → Forces → Apply concentrated loads at joints.
48. Assign → Frame → Distributed Loads → Apply UDL on beam members.
49. Analyze → Run Analysis (F5) → Check analysis log.
50. Display → Show Forces/Stresses → Frames → Select force type (Moment, Shear, Axial).

Tip for [Link] students: Use MASTAN2 (free, web-based at [Link]) first — it shows the
stiffness matrix, member stiffness matrices, and solution steps transparently, making it ideal for
learning and verifying hand calculations.

7.6 Verification of Computational Results

Always verify computational results using:
Verification Check Method Why Important

Equilibrium check Sum of all reactions = applied Catches gross modelling errors
loads (ΣFx=0, ΣFy=0, ΣM=0)

Symmetry check Symmetric structure + Quick sanity check

symmetric load → symmetric
results

Deflection sense Deflected shape should match Detects support errors

expected physical behaviour

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Member force signs Tension/compression Detects load direction errors

consistent with expected
behaviour

Energy check Strain energy = ½{D}ᵀ{F} Checks overall solution

should be positive

Manual check Compute one or two member Gold-standard verification

forces by hand / method of
sections

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8. Comparison, Exam Tips & Quick Reference

8.1 Flexibility vs Stiffness — When to Use Which

Situation Use Flexibility Method Use Stiffness Method

Number of Low (1–3) Any number — doesn't matter

redundants

Number of DOFs High Low (but software handles any)

Computer Difficult — not systematic Natural — all software uses this

implementation

Teaching/conceptual Excellent — redundants have clear Good — DOF-based thinking

understanding physical meaning
Externally Easier Requires full DOF setup
indeterminate
structures

Settlement of Direct — add to compatibility RHS Needs special treatment

supports

8.2 Key Formulae Summary

Flexibility Method:
[f]{X} = -{D0} => {X} = -[f]^(-1){D0}
f_ij = integral of (m_i × m_j / EI) dx [beams/frames]
f_ij = Sum of (u_i × u_j × L_k / AE_k) [trusses]

Stiffness Method:
[K]{D} = {F} => {D} = [K]^(-1){F}
[K] = Sum over elements of [T]^T [k_local] [T] [assembly]

Beam Element Stiffness (4×4):

k11 = k33 = 12EI/L³ (lateral stiffness at ends)
k22 = k44 = 4EI/L (rotational stiffness at ends)
k12 = k21 = k14 = k41 = k23 = k32 = k34 = k43 = 6EI/L²
k24 = k42 = 2EI/L (far-end rotational coupling)
k13 = k31 = -12EI/L³ k12 and k34 with sign reversal

Truss Member Stiffness (4×4, global):

k_ij = (AE/L) × T_i × T_j, where T = [c, s, -c, -s]
c = cos(theta), s = sin(theta)

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Perfect Truss Condition:

m + r = 2j (perfect / just-rigid / statically determinate)
m + r < 2j (mechanism — unstable)
m + r > 2j (redundant — indeterminate)

8.3 Fixed-End Moments — Quick Reference

Load Type MAB (left end) MBA (right end)

UDL w, full span L +wL²/12 -wL²/12

Point load P at centre +PL/8 -PL/8

Point load P at distance a +Pab²/L² -Pa²b/L²

(A end), b (B end)

Triangular load, max w at B +wL²/20 -wL²/30

Triangular load, max w at A +wL²/30 -wL²/20

Uniform temperature rise, 6EI×alpha×dT/h/L² × ... Use thermal strain formula

top hotter, coefficient alpha

SIGN CONVENTION FOR FEM: Clockwise moment at end of member = POSITIVE. Anti-clockwise
moment = NEGATIVE. Always draw the FEM diagram before writing values.

8.4 Examination Tips & Common Mistakes

# Common Mistake Correct Approach

1 Confusing member DOFs with Always map local DOFs to global DOF numbers before
global DOFs assembling

2 Wrong sign for equivalent joint FEF acts on member; equivalent joint load = -FEF (opposite
loads direction)

3 Forgetting to apply boundary Strike out rows and columns for all restrained (zero-
conditions displacement) DOFs before solving

4 Symmetry errors in stiffness [K] must be symmetric — K_ij = K_ji. If not, check assembly
matrix

5 Wrong angle for inclined theta measured from positive x-axis anticlockwise to member
members direction (i→j)

6 Not checking m+r=2j for Always verify truss classification before analysis
trusses

7 Using wrong FEM formula Check whether load is UDL, point load, triangular — each has
different FEM

8 Ignoring axial deformation in For sway frames, include axial deformation unless AE is stated
frames as infinite

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8.5 Problem-Solving Strategy

For Beams (Stiffness Method):
51. Count free DOFs (usually rotations at interior and end supports that are not fixed).
52. Write member stiffness contributions for each span (4EI/L for near end, 2EI/L for far end coupling).
53. Compute FEMs for any member loads. Convert to equivalent joint moments.
54. Set up [K]{theta} = {M_equivalent} and solve.
55. Back-substitute to find all member end moments using slope-deflection equations.
56. Draw BMD and SFD using member end moments and superposed fixed-end reactions.

For Trusses (Stiffness Method):

57. Identify joints and members. Verify m+r=2j.
58. Assign global DOF numbers to all joints (2 per joint).
59. For each member: compute L, theta, c, s, AE/L, and 4×4 global stiffness matrix.
60. Assemble global [K] by adding member contributions.
61. Apply BCs: reduce to free DOF system.
62. Solve for displacements; recover member forces.

8.6 Matrix Method vs Classical Method — Comparison

Feature Classical Methods (Slope- Matrix Methods
Deflection, MDA)

Systematic No — problem-specific approach Yes — same procedure always

Computer-friendly No — requires engineering Yes — fully programmable

judgment at each step

Handles large Difficult (>5 spans becomes Yes — software handles 1000s of
structures unwieldy) members

Physical insight High — engineer directly sees Lower — abstracted into matrices
each step
Teaching value High — builds intuition High — teaches computational
thinking

Industry use Rarely (only for simple checks) Always — all software uses stiffness
method

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9. Additional Worked Examples

9.1 Example: Propped Cantilever by Stiffness Method

Problem: Fixed at A, roller at B, span L = 5m, EI = 2000 kN·m². Point load P = 40 kN at
midspan C.

Step 1: DOFs
• At A (fixed): thetaA = 0 — restrained
• At B (roller): thetaB = free — DOF 1
1×1 stiffness system (only thetaB unknown)

Step 2: Member stiffness at DOF 1 (from member AB)

The far-end B stiffness of member AB (A is fixed):
K11 = 4EI/L × (1 - 0) = 3EI/L [for pinned far end — carry-over factor
0]
Wait — B is a roller (free rotation), A is fixed. The stiffness at B from AB:
K11 = 3EI/L = 3×2000/5 = 1200 kN·m/rad
(Using modified stiffness 3EI/L for a member pinned at the far end.)

Step 3: Fixed-End Moments for point load P at L/2

FEM_A = +PL/8 = 40×5/8 = +25 kN·m
FEM_B = -PL/8 = -25 kN·m
Since A is fixed end and B is roller, using modified FEM for roller-ended beam:
FEM_B(modified) = -PL/8 + (1/2)×PL/8 = -PL/8 + PL/16 = -3PL/16 = -
3×40×5/16 = -37.5 kN·m
Equivalent joint moment at B: M_eq = +37.5 kN·m (opposite of FEM_B)

Step 4: Solve
K11 × thetaB = M_eq
1200 × thetaB = 37.5
thetaB = 37.5/1200 = 0.03125 rad = 31.25×10^(-3) rad

Step 5: Member end moments

M_BA = FEM_B(modified) + K11×thetaB = -37.5 + 1200×0.03125 = -37.5 + 37.5
= 0
(Correct — roller support has zero moment!)
M_AB = FEM_A + (2EI/L)×(thetaA + 2×thetaB - 3delta/L)
M_AB = 25 + (2×2000/5)×(0 + 2×0.03125) = 25 + 800×0.0625 = 25 + 50 = 75
kN·m

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ANSWER: Fixed-end moment at A = 75 kN·m. Prop reaction at B = (P/2 + 75/L - 0) ... verify by
statics: RB = P - RA, taking moments about A: RB×L = P×L/2 + 75, RB = 40×5/(2×5) + 75/5 =
20 + 15 = 35 kN. RA = 40-35 = 5 kN.

9.2 Example: Three-Member Truss by Stiffness Method

Problem: Symmetric three-bar truss. A(0,0), B(2,0), C(1,2). A = fixed pin, B = roller
(vertical). AE = 500 kN for all. Vertical load 30 kN downward at C.

Members and Properties:

Memb Nodes L (m) theta c s AE/L (kN/m)
er (deg)

AC 0→2 √5=2.2 63.43 0.447 0.894 223.6

36
BC 1→2 √5=2.2 116.57 -0.447 0.894 223.6
36

AB 0→1 2 0 1.0 0.0 250

Free DOFs: uB (DOF 1), uC (DOF 2), vC (DOF 3). A is pinned (uA=vA=0), B roller (vB=0).

Global Stiffness Assembly (key terms):

From AC (c=0.447, s=0.894, k=223.6):
Contributes to rows/cols: [uA,vA,uC,vC] =
[restrained,restrained,DOF2,DOF3]
K22 += k×c² = 223.6×0.2 = 44.7
K33 += k×s² = 223.6×0.8 = 178.9
K23 = K32 += k×cs = 223.6×0.4 = 89.4

From BC (c=-0.447, s=0.894, k=223.6):

Contributes to rows/cols: [uB,vB,uC,vC] = [DOF1,restrained,DOF2,DOF3]
K11 += k×c² = 44.7
K33 += k×s² = 178.9
K12 = K21 += k×(-c)(c) = 223.6×(-0.2) = -44.7 [cross term DOF1-DOF2
from BC]
Wait: K_uB,uC: i=uB(DOF1), j=uC(DOF2): k×(-c)(c) at (ni,nj) = uB,uC
term

From AB (c=1, s=0, k=250):

Contributes to [uA,vA,uB,vB] = [restrained,restrained,DOF1,restrained]
K11 += k×1² = 250

Assembled (reduced) 3×3 system:

[K_ff] (DOFs: uB, uC, vC):
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294.7 -44.7 89.4

-44.7 89.4 89.4
89.4 89.4 357.8

{F} = {0, 0, -30} kN

Solving: d = K_ff^(-1) × F gives uB, uC, vC
(Solve using Cramer's rule, Gaussian elimination, or computational tool)

Member Force Recovery:

F_AC = (AE/L_AC) × [(uC-uA)×c_AC + (vC-vA)×s_AC]
F_BC = (AE/L_BC) × [(uC-uB)×c_BC + (vC-vB)×s_BC]
F_AB = (AE/L_AB) × [(uB-uA)×1 + 0] = 250×uB

This example shows the systematic nature of the stiffness method — once the procedure is set up,
it works identically for any truss regardless of complexity.

9.3 Summary: Steps Common to ALL Matrix Method Problems

Step Flexibility Method Stiffness Method

1. Find degree of indeterminacy n; choose Count free DOFs; number them globally
Classify n redundants
structur
e

2. Compute m_i diagrams in primary Compute [k]_local, transform to [k]_global

Membe structure
r
properti
es

3. f_ij = integral/sum for each i,j Assemble [K] by direct stiffness assembly
Coeffici combination
ents

4. {D0} = displacements in primary {F} = applied joint loads - fixed-end forces

Loads structure due to loads

5. {X} = -[f]^(-1){D0} for redundants {D} = [K]^(-1){F} for displacements

Solve

6. Final forces = primary + Member forces = [k_local][T]{d} + {FEF}

Recove redundant×actual
r

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