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QUANTUM PHYSICS AND APPLICATIONS
A S HORT N OTES - F IRST E DITION
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D EPARTMENT OF P HYSICS
ATME C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING,
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Affiliated to Visveswaraya Technological Univesrsity - Belagavi

13𝑡ℎ km Stone, Mysuru-Bannur Road, Mysuru, PIN - 570 028.
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Contents

I MODULE 1 : Quantum Mechanics 1

1 Quantum Mechanics 3
1.1 Wave-Particle dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 de Broglie hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Properties of matter waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

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1.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Application of uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Principle of Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Time Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
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1.7 Physical significance of Wave Function : Physical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Expectation Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
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1.9 Eigen values and eigen functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 Applications of schrödinger wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential well of infinite height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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1.10.2 Particle in higher dimension potential well of infinite height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.11 Particle in finite potential well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12 Quantum Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.13 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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1.14 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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II MODULE 2 : Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors 11

2 Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors 13
2.1 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Mobility of conduction electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Concept of Phonon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Mechanisms of Electron Scattering in Solids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Mechanisms of Electron Scattering in Solids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Mathiesen’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Failures of classical free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.1 Electronic specific heat of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.2 Dependence of 𝜎 on temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6.3 Dependence of 𝜎 on 𝑛, the number density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Quantum free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7.2 Fermi energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.3 Density of States (DoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy and temperature(Variation of Fermi Factor With Tempera-
ture and Energy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Expression for Fermi energy at 0K (𝐸 𝑓 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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4 CONTENTS

3 Semiconductors 19
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Significance of Fermi level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Intrinsic semiconductor: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Carrier Concentration in intrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.1 Expression for Electron concentration (𝑁𝑒 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.2 Expression for Hole concentration (𝑁 ℎ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4.3 Expression relating Fermi energy and Energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Fermi Level extrinsic semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.7 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

III MODULE 3 : Superconductivity 25

4 Superconductivity 27

.IN
4.1 Introduction to Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Persistent current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Meissner’s Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Critical Field and its Temperature Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4.5 Critical Current: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.6 Silsbee effect: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.7 Derivation for a cylindrical wire using ampere’s law: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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4.8 Two-Fluid Model of Superconductivity: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.9 Types of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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4.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.10 Formation of Cooper Pairs – Mediation of Phonons: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.11 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.11.1 Phase coherence: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.11.2 Limitations of BCS Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
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4.12 Examples of Systems with Low and High Electron-Phonon Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.13 High Temperature Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.14 Quantum Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
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4.15 AC and DC Josephson Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.15.1 Josephson Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.15.2 DC Josephson Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.15.3 AC Josephson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.16 DC and RF Squids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.16.1 SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.16.2 DC Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.16.3 RF (AC) Squid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.17 Applications of Superconductivity in Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.17.1 Charge Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.17.2 Flux Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.17.3 Phase Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.18 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.19 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

IV MODULE 4 : PHOTONICS 35
5 LASER 37
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2 Characteristics of a LASER beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Interaction of radiation with matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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CONTENTS 5

5.3.1 Induced Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.3.2 Spontaneous Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3.3 Stimulated Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients and expression for energy density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5 Requisites of a LASER system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5.2 Active medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.5.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.6 Types of LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.8 Single Photon Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8.1 single Photon source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8.2 Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.9 Use of Attenuators for single photon sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.9.1 Optical Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.10 Pockel’s effect (Linear electro-optic effect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.11 Kerr effect (linear electro-optic effect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.12 Photodetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

.IN
5.12.1 Photo-detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.12.4 Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPD’s):
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.13 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.14 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
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6 Optical Fibers 45
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.2 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3 Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.3.1 Condition for propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.2 Fractional RI Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3.3 Relation between NA and Δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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6.4 Modes of propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.5 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.5.1 Absorption loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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6.5.2 Scattering loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.5.3 Geometric effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.6 Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.6.1 Mach-Zehnder interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.7 Model Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.8 Numerical Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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 .IN
Part I

MODULE 1 : Quantum Mechanics

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Chapter 1

Quantum Mechanics

1.1 Wave-Particle dualism Expressing the de Broglie wave length in different forms

The phenomena like Interference, Diffraction and Po- ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ 12.27

𝜆= = =√ =√ = √ Å (1.7)
larization are attributed to the wave properties of radia- 𝑚𝑣 𝑝 2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑉
tion. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments

.IN
like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the Therefore some sort of waves can be even associated
particle nature of radiation. Thus radiation behaves like with moving material particles called Matter waves or de-
waves and like particles under different suitable circum- Broglie waves and the wavelength associated with matter
stances. Hence radiation exhibits dual nature. C waves is called de Broglie wavelength.

1.2 de Broglie hypothesis Note

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In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie ex- • For a particle, charged or uncharged, moving with ki-
tended wave-particle dualism through a hypothesis stating netic energy 𝐸 the de Broglie wavelength is given by
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If radiant energy could behave like waves in some exper- 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = √ ℎ .

2𝑚𝐸
iments and particles or photons in others and since na-
ture loves symmetry, then one can expect the particles like • For a charged particle accelerated with a potential
protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suit- 𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by 𝜆 =
√ ℎ .
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able circumstances. This is well known as de Broglie’s 2𝑚𝑞𝑉

hypothesis.
• For an electron accelerated through a potential differ-
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According to Einstein’s energy mass relation ence of 𝑉 volt, the de Broglie wavelength is given by
𝜆 = √ ℎ . Further substituting the values of ℎ, 𝑚
2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐2 (1.1) and 𝑒, the de Broglie wavelegth is given by the ex-
According to Planck’s quantum theory of radiation pression 𝜆 = 12.27
√ Å.
𝑉

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = (1.2) 1.2.1 Properties of matter waves
𝜆
equating equation (1.1) and (1.2) we get The following are the properties associated with the matter
ℎ𝑐 waves
𝑚𝑐2 = (1.3)
𝜆 1. Matter waves are associated only with particles in mo-
ℎ tion
𝑚𝑐 = (1.4)
𝜆
ℎ 2. They are not electromagnetic in nature
𝜆= (1.5)
𝑚𝑐 3. Group velocity is associated with matter waves
For a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v by anal-
ogy the de Broglie wavelength of matter waves is given 4. As a result of superposition of large number of com-
by ponent waves which slightly differ in frequency, mat-
ℎ ter waves are localized.
𝜆= (1.6)
𝑚𝑣
Here 𝑚 is the mass of the moving particle and 𝑣 is its ve- 5. The phase velocity has no physical meaning for mat-
locity. ter waves

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QUANTUM PHYSICS AND APPLICATIONS 1BPHYS102/202

6. The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is stay for a definite time in the excited state, called the life-
associated with the probability density of finding the time. Lifetimes of excited levels are typically of the order
particle at that point. of 10-8s. As the atom completes its lifetime in the excited
ℎ
state, on its own, it comes to the ground state by emitting
7. The wave length of matter waves is given by 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 a photon of energy exactly equal to the energy difference
between the two levels. The energy of the emitted photon
is given by
1.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Princi- ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = (1.11)
ple 𝜆
 
Statement: The simultaneous determination of the exact 1
Δ𝐸 = ℎ𝑐Δ (1.12)
position and momentum of a moving particle is impossible. 𝜆
 
Δ𝜆
Explanation : According to this principle if Δ𝑥 is the er- Δ𝐸 = ℎ𝑐 2 (1.13)
𝜆
ror involved in the measurement of position and Δ𝑝 𝑥 is the
error involved in the measurement of momentum during ("On ignoring the negative sign")
their simultaneous measurement, then the product of the
corresponding uncertainties is given by

.IN
From Uncertainty principle, we have
ℎ
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 𝑥 ≥ (1.8) ℎ
4𝜋 Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥ (1.14)
4𝜋
ℎ
Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥ (1.9)
4𝜋
C Δ𝑡 =
ℎ
4𝜋Δ𝐸
(1.15)
ℎ
N
Δ𝜃Δ𝐿 ≥ (1.10) ℎ
4𝜋 Δ𝑡 = (1.16)
4𝜋ℎ𝑐 (Δ𝜆)
𝜆2
The product of the errors is of the order of Planck’s con-
SY

stant. If one quantity is measured with high accuracy then 𝜆2

Δ𝑡 = (1.17)
the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity be- 4𝜋𝑐(Δ𝜆)
comes less accurate.
Spectral lines are never perfectly sharp; they always ap-
U

Physical significance : According to Newtonian pear broadened due to natural quantum effects and external
physics the simultaneous measurement of position and mo- factors like temperature, motion, and collisions.
mentum are exact. But the existence of matter waves in-
VT

duces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy asso-

ciated with the simultaneous measurement. Hence the ex- 1.4 Principle of Complementarity
actness in Newtonian physics is replaced by probability in
quantum mechanics. Statement Bohr stated as “In a situation where the wave
aspect of a system is revealed, its particle aspect is con-
cealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is re-
1.3.1 Application of uncertainty principle vealed, its wave aspect is concealed. Revealing both si-
Broadening of Spectral lines : Broadening of spectral multaneously is impossible; the wave and particle aspects
lines refers to the increase in width of absorption or emis- are complementary.”
sion spectral lines beyond their natural, sharp frequency
or wavelength. Ideally, a spectral line should appear as a Explanation We know that the consequence of the un-
very narrow line corresponding to a well-defined energy certainty principle is both the Wave and particle nature of
transition between two atomic or molecular states. How- the matter can not be measured simultaneously. In other
ever, in reality, various physical effects cause these lines words, we can not precisely describe the dual nature of
to spread out over a finite range of frequencies or wave- Light.
lengths instead of being infinitely sharp. This phenomenon
is called broadening of spectral lines. According to Uncer- • If an experiment is designed to measure the particle
tainty principle, When an excited atom has a finite lifetime nature of the matter,during this experiment, errors of
(Δ𝑡, the energy of the emitted photon cannot be sharply de- measurement of both position and the time coordi-
fined. This causes a spread in energy values (𝛿𝐸), which nates must be zero and hence the momentum, energy
translates to a broadening of the spectral line When an and the wave nature of the matter are completely un-
atom absorbs a photon it rises to the excited state and it can known.

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• Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of
the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in the waves is given by
measurement of the energy and the momentum will
𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓
be zero, whereas the position and the time coordinates = 2 2 (1.20)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
of the matter will be completely unknown. unknown.
The wave function is given by

From the above explanation, we can conclude that, when 𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.21)

the particle nature of the matter is measured or displayed, here 𝜓0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration, 𝜔 is
the wave nature of the matter is necessarily suppressed and angular frequency and 𝑘 is the wave number. Differentiat-
vice versa. ing 𝜓 twice with respect to 𝑡, we get
𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.22)
1.5 Wave Function 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝜓
According to the de Broglie’s hypothesis the relation be- = −𝜔2 𝜓 (1.23)
tween momentum and wavelength is found to be experi- 𝜕𝑡 2
substituting equation 1.23 in equation 1.20

.IN
mentally valid for both photons and particles. The quanta
of matter or radiation can be represented in agreement with 𝜕2𝜓 1
uncertainty principle by wave packets. Thus it suggests = 2 (−𝜔2 𝜓) (1.24)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣
that concentrated bunches of waves might be used to de-
scribe localized particles and quanta of radiation. The vari-
C substituting for 𝜔 and 𝑣 we get
ations of which make up the matter wave is called wave 𝜕2𝜓 1
function. Hence we shall consider a wave function that 2
= (−(2𝜋 𝑓 ) 2 𝜓) (1.25)
𝜕𝑥 ( 𝑓 𝜆) 2
depends on space (x, y and z) and time(t) and is denoted
N
by 𝜓(𝑟, 𝑡). The wave function for a wave packet moving 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
= − 𝜓 (1.26)
along +ve x axis is given by 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2
SY

substituting for 𝜆 from equation 1.19

𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 𝑖 (𝑘 𝑥− 𝜔𝑡 ) (1.18) 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
= − 𝜓 (1.27)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ 2
( 𝑚𝑣 )
The quantity 𝜓 is assumed to have the following three 𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 (𝑚𝑣) 2
U

basic properties 2
=− 𝜓 (1.28)
𝜕𝑥 ℎ2
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚( 12 𝑚𝑣 2 )
VT

1. It can interfere with itself so that it can account for = − 𝜓 (1.29)

diffraction experiments. 𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
2. It is large in magnitude where is particle or photon is = − 𝜓 (1.30)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
likely to be found and small else where. here
1 2
𝑚𝑣 = 𝐸 − 𝑈 (1.31)
3. It will be regarded as describing the behavior of single 2
particle or photon and not statistical distribution of here 𝐸 is the total and 𝑈 is potential energy of the particle.
number of quanta.
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
+ 𝜓=0 (1.32)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
1.6 Time Independent Schrödinger This can be extended to three dimension
𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
Wave Equation + + 2 + 𝜓=0 (1.33)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 ℎ2
The wave equation which has variations only with respect 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
to position and describes the steady state is called Time In- ∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0 (1.34)
ℎ2
dependent Schrodinger wave equation. Consider a particle
here the operator ∇2 is given by
of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 along +ve x–axis. The
de Broglie wave length 𝜆 is given by 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
∇2 = 2
+ 2+ 2 (1.35)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
ℎ
𝜆= (1.19) Hence the Time Independent Schrodinger equation.
𝑚𝑣

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1.7 Physical significance of Wave Let "r" be the position vector in a co-ordinate system,
expectation value of the components along the x,y and z
Function : Physical Interpreta- co-ordinate is as shown below
tion ∫ +∞
⟨𝑥⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑥ˆ 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥 (1.40)
The wave function 𝜓 just as itself has no direct physical −∞
meaning. It is more difficult to give a physical interpreta-
tion to the amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of the
∫ +∞
wave function 𝜓 is certainly not like displacement in wa- ⟨𝑦⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑦ˆ 𝜓(𝑦, 𝑡)𝑑𝑦 (1.41)
−∞
ter wave or the pressure wave nor the waves in stretched
string. It is a very different kind of wave. The quantity ∫ +∞
squared absolute value of the amplitude gives the proba- ⟨𝑧⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑧ˆ 𝜓(𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑧 (1.42)
−∞
bility of finding the particle per unit volume at the given
location in space and is referred to as probability density.
This is also referred to as Born interpretation. It is given Expectation Value of momentum The momentum p
by has dependence on both position and time. Let the 3 com-
ponents of p are 𝑝 𝑥 , 𝑝 𝑦 and 𝑝 𝑧 . The expectation values for
𝑃(𝑥) = |𝜓| 2 (1.36) momentum could be written as

.IN
∫ +∞
Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle
in the width 𝑑𝑥 of length 𝑥 ⟨𝑝 𝑥 ⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑝ˆ𝑥 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥 (1.43)
−∞
2
𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝜓| 𝑑𝑥 (1.37) ∫ +∞

Similarly, in three dimension, the probability of finding

C ⟨𝑝 𝑦 ⟩ =
−∞
𝜓 ∗ (𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑝ˆ𝑦 𝜓(𝑦, 𝑡)𝑑𝑦 (1.44)

a particle in a given small volume 𝑑𝑉 of volume 𝑉 is given

N
∫ +∞
by ⟨𝑝 𝑧 ⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑝ˆ𝑧 𝜓(𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑧 (1.45)
𝑃 𝑑𝑣 = |𝜓| 2 𝑑𝑣 (1.38) −∞
SY

here 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 and 𝑃 is the probability of finding

the particle at given location per unit volume and is called Expectation Value of Energy The momentum p has de-
Probability [Link] 𝜓 is a complex quantity |𝜓| 2 = pendence on both position and momentum. It means in
𝜓𝜓 ∗ and the product is a real number. 𝜓 ∗ is the complex time dependent cases the particle may have different ener-
conjugate of 𝜓. gies at different time. That is V = 𝑉(𝑟 ,𝑡 ) The expectation
U

values for energy could be written as

1.8 Expectation Value

VT

∫ +∞

In quantum mechanics The expectation value is the ⟨𝑉( 𝑥,𝑡 ) ⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑉ˆ ( 𝑥,𝑡 ) 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥 (1.46)
−∞
probabilistic expected value of the result (measurement)
of an experiment. It can be thought of as an average of ∫ +∞
all the possible outcomes of a measurement as weighted ⟨𝑉( 𝑥,𝑡 ) ⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑦, 𝑡) 𝑉ˆ ( 𝑥,𝑡 ) 𝜓(𝑦, 𝑡)𝑑𝑦 (1.47)
−∞
by their likelihood. Expectation value as such it is not the
most probable value of a measurement. In the real sense ∫ +∞
the expectation value may have zero probability of occur- ⟨𝑉( 𝑥,𝑡 ) ⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑉ˆ ( 𝑥,𝑡 ) 𝜓(𝑧, 𝑡)𝑑𝑧 (1.48)
−∞
ring. Let us consider a particle moving along the x axis.

The result of a measurement of the position x is a con- The result of a measurement of the position x is a con-
tinuous random variable. Consider a wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡). tinuous random variable. Consider a wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡).
The |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 value is a probability density for the position The |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 value is a probability density for the position
observable and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the observable and |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 is the probability of finding the
particle between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 at time t. Thus, if a measure- particle between 𝑥 and 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 at time t. Thus, if a measure-
ment of position is repeated many times in an identical way ment of position is repeated many times in an identical way
on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many on an identical particle in identical circumstances, many
possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value possible outcomes are possible and the expectation value
of these outcomes is, according to the following equation of these outcomes is, according to the following equation
∫ +∞ ∫ +∞
⟨𝑥⟩ = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑥ˆ 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑑𝑥 (1.39) ⟨𝑥⟩ = 𝑥 |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)| 2 𝑑𝑥 (1.49)
−∞ −∞

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1.9 Eigen values and eigen functions The description of the potential well is as follows. In
between walls i.e. 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = 0. Beyond
The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differ- the walls i.e. 𝑥 ≤ 0and 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, the potential 𝑉 = ∞.
ential equation. Thus solving the Schrodinger wave equa-
tion to a particular system we get many expressions for Beyond the walls or outside the potential well
wave function (𝜓). However,all wave functions are not ac-
ceptable. Only those wave functions which satisfy certain Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls
conditions are acceptable. Such wave functions are called it exists only inside the potential well. Hence 𝜓 = 0 and
Eigen functions for the system. The energy values corre- the probability of finding the particle outside the potential
sponding to the Eigen functions are called Eigen values. well is also zero.
The wave functions are acceptable if they satisfy the fol-
lowing conditions. In between the walls or inside the potential well

1. 𝜓 must be finite everywhere (Cannot be infinite) The Schrodinger wave equation is given by
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
2. 𝜓 must be single valued which implies that solution + 𝜓=0 (1.50)
is unique for a given position in space. 𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
Since the potential inside the well 𝑉 = 0, hence potential

.IN
3. 𝜓 and its first derivatives with respect to its variables energy 𝑈 = 0, the Schrodinger wave equation becomes
must be continuous everywhere.
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 0)
+ 𝜓=0 (1.51)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2
1.10 Applications of schrödinger
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
wave equation
C 𝜕𝑥 2
+
ℎ2
𝜓=0 (1.52)

𝜕2𝜓
N
1.10.1 Particle in one-dimensional potential + 𝑘 2𝜓 = 0 (1.53)
𝜕𝑥 2
well of infinite height
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
SY

Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 bouncing back and forth be- 𝑘2 = (1.54)

ℎ2
tween the walls of one dimensional potential well as shown here 𝑘 is a constant for a given value of energy 𝐸. The
in figure 1.1. The particle is said to be under bound state. general solution for equation 1.53 is given by
Let the motion of the particle be confined along the 𝑥-axis
in between two infinitely hard walls at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝑎. 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (1.55)
U

Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the

Here in the above equation A and B are arbitrary constants
particle during the collision with walls and the total energy
which can be evaluated by applying boundary conditions.
VT

remains constant.

Applying Boundary Conditions

1. The first boundary condition is, at 𝑥 = 0, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.
Applying this to equation 1.55, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 0 +
𝐵 cos 0 =⇒ 𝐵 = 0 hence equation 1.55 reduces to
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 (1.56)

2. The second boundary condition is,at 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝜓(𝑥) = 0.

Applying this to equation 1.56, we get 0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎.
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0 then sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0. This results in 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋
which further could be written as 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑎𝜋 . 𝑛 can take
integer values. Hence equation 1.56 could be written
as  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin . (1.57)
𝑎
also from equation 1.54

Figure 1.1: One dimensional potential well of infinite 𝑛2 𝜋 2 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸 𝑛

𝑘2 = = (1.58)
height 𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸𝑛 = (1.59)
8𝑚𝑎 2

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Quantization of Energy States

Substituting for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, .. in the above equa-

tion Energy Eigen Values are obtained. The lowest
energy state corresponds to lowest integral value of
𝑛 = 1 which is also called as Zero Point Energy is
ℎ2
given by 𝐸 1 = 8𝑚𝑎 2 . The energy values of a bound
particle in one dimensional potential well are quan-
tized (discrete) and are represented by the equation
𝐸 𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝐸 1 .

Normalization of wave function

The wave function for a particle in one dimensional po-
tential well of infinite

height is given by the equation 1.57
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑛 𝑎𝜋 𝑥 . In this equation 𝐴 is an arbitrary con-
stant and it can take any value. The process of determi- Figure 1.2: Wave function and Probability density for n =

.IN
nation of value of the arbitrary constant is called Normal- 1,2,3
ization of wave function. The particle has to exist some
where inside the potential the probability of the finding the
particle inside the potential well is given by
C 1.10.2 Particle in higher dimension potential
∫ 𝑎 ∫ 𝑎 well of infinite height
|𝜓(𝑥)| 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.60)
0 0 The solution of Particle in infinite potential well can be
N
Substituting for the wave function in the integral extended to 2D and 3D as follows. Consider the equation
of energy eigen values in 3 independent variables x, y and
z are
∫ 𝑎  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
SY

𝐴2 sin2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.61) 𝑛2 ℎ 2
0 𝑎 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 2 (1.66)
8𝑚𝑎 𝑥
from trigonometry sin2 𝜃 = 21 (1 − cos 2𝜃). There fore
𝑛2𝑦 ℎ2
the above equation could be written as 𝐸𝑦 = (1.67)
8𝑚𝑎 2𝑦
U

𝐴2
∫ 𝑎   
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 − cos 𝑑𝑥 = 1 (1.62) 𝑛2𝑧 ℎ2
0 2 𝑎 𝐸𝑧 = (1.68)
8𝑚𝑎 2𝑧
VT

integrating the above equation we get

Where 𝑛 𝑥 ,𝑛 𝑦 and 𝑛 𝑧 are any set of positive integers
𝐴2
  𝑎
𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑥− sin =1 (1.63)
2 2𝑛𝜋 𝑎 0 Particle in 2D potential well: In a two dimensional po-
√︂ tential box, the particle (electron) can move in ’x’ and ’y’
2 directions. The dimension of the well are 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 and
=⇒ 𝐴 = (1.64)
𝑎 0 < 𝑦 < 𝑎. Within this square the potential energy 𝑉( 𝑥,𝑦)
Substituting this in equation 1.57 the normalized wave = 0. Therefore, instead of one quantum number ’n’, two
function or eigen function for a particle in one dimensional quantum numbers 𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑛 𝑦 will be taken, corresponding
potential well of infinite height is given by the two co-ordinate axis x and y respectively. The eigen
value equation could be written as
√︂
2  𝑛𝜋𝑥 
ℎ2
𝜓(𝑥) = sin . (1.65) 𝐸 𝑥,𝑦 = (𝑛2 + 𝑛2𝑦 ) (1.69)
𝑎 𝑎 8𝑚𝑎 2 𝑥
The wave functions and the probability densities for the Here 𝑛 𝑥 and 𝑛 𝑦 takes the value 1,2,3,....
first three values of 𝑛 are as shown in fig 1.2
Similarly the eigen function for 2D could be written as
Thus for ground state (𝑛 = 1). The probability of find- √︂ !
 𝑛 𝜋𝑥  √︂ 2
!
ing the particle at the walls is zero and at the center 𝑎2 is 2 𝑥
 𝑛 𝑦 𝜋𝑦 
𝜓 𝑛𝑥 ,𝑛𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = sin sin
maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
second excited state has four nodes. (1.70)

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Particle in 3D potential well: In a three dimensional po- The solution of the above equation is
tential box, the particle (electron) can move in ’x’ ’y’ and
’z’ directions. The dimension of the well are 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (1.76)
0 < 𝑦 < 𝑎 and 0 < 𝑧 < 𝑎. Within this square the potential
energy 𝑉( 𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) = 0. Therefore, instead of one or two quan- For the region 1 where x < 0
tum number ’n’, three quantum numbers 𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑛 𝑦 and 𝑛 𝑧 will
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (1.77)
be taken, corresponding the two co-ordinate axis x and y
respectively. The eigen value equation could be written For the region 2 where 0 < x < a
as
ℎ2 𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 − 𝛼𝑥 (1.78)
𝐸 𝑥,𝑦,𝑧 = (𝑛2 + 𝑛2𝑦 + 𝑛2𝑧 ) (1.71)
8𝑚𝑎 2 𝑥
Here 𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑛 𝑦 and 𝑛 𝑧 takes the value 1,2,3,.... For the region 3 where x > a

Similarly the eigen function for 3D could be written 1.12 Quantum Tunneling
In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
1.11 Particle in finite potential well energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-

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rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave
In case of finite potential well we consider the height of like waves. On encountering a barrier, a quantum wave
the potential well to be finite. The potential of the particle will not end abruptly. Rather its amplitude decrease ex-
will be zero ( V = 0) in the region 2 and the potential of ponentially. This drop in amplitude corresponds to a drop
particle will be V = U in the region 1 and 3.
C in the probability of finding a particle further into the bar-
rier. If the barrier is thin enough, then the amplitude may
be non-zero on the other side. This would imply that there
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is a finite probability that some of the particles will tunnel
through the barrier.
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In regions where the potential energy is higher than the

wave’s energy, the amplitude of the wave decays exponen-
Now, consider the region 2, the range is x = 0 to x = a. tially. If the region is narrow enough, the wave can have a
The Schrödinger wave equation is non-zero amplitude on the other side.

𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑈)
𝜕𝑥 2
+
ℎ2
𝜓=0 (1.72) Summary
Since the potential is zero in the rerion 2 we can have Black Body radiation spectrum posed challenges during
the early 19th century. Many experiments were con-
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 0) ducted and theories were put forward to understand the
+ 𝜓=0 (1.73)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2 phenomenon. Wein and Rayleigh-Jeans were able to ex-
plain the black-body radiation spectrum in the lower and
The solution of the above equation is higher wavelength region respectively. Planck’s radiation
law, based on discrete energy packet ’Quanta’ or ’Photon’,
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 (1.74)
is able to explain the energy distribution in the black body
The potential is V in the rerion 1 and region 3, that is x < radiation spectrum completely. Several experiments and
0 and x > a [Link] Schrodinger wave equation is theories were put forward to understand the particle and
wave nature of radiations. This proved dual nature of ra-
𝜕 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) diation. Further, based on analogy, Louis de Broglie ex-
+ 𝜓=0 (1.75) tended the same concept to moving particles and proposed
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

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a hypothesis which indicates the wave nature of moving 4. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time
particles. Diffraction experiments prove the wave nature spent by Iridium 191 nuclei in the excited state is
of moving particles. Attempts were successful in knowing found to be 1.4 × 10−10 𝑠. Estimate the uncertainty
the different quantities related to the wave associated with that results in its energy in eV in the excited state.
particles called matter waves. Irwin Schrodinger set up
a differential equation for the moving particle implement- 5. An electron is bound in one dimensional potential
ing de Broglie hypothesis. The Schrodinger wave equation well of width 0.18𝑛𝑚. Find the energy value in 𝑒𝑉
is set up for a bound particle and free particles. Subse- of the second excited state.
quent solutions prove that the energies of bound particles 6. The first excited state energy of an electron in an in-
are quantized and that of free particles is continuous. finite well is 240𝑒𝑉. What will be its ground state
energy when the width of the potential well is dou-
bled?
1.13 Model Questions
7. A quantum particle confined to one–dimensional box
1. State and Explain de Broglie hypothesis. of width 𝑎 is in its first excited state. What is the
2. What are matter waves and mention the properties. probability of finding the particle over an interval of
𝑎
2 marked symmetrically at the center of the box.
3. State and Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

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Mention its physical significance.
4. Explain broadening of spectral lines using uncertainty
principle. C
5. State and Explain the Principle of Complementarity.
6. Define wave function? Mention its basic properties.
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7. Derive Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
for a particle moving in three dimension.
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8. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function?

9. Elucidate expectation value.
10. Describe Eigen functions and Eigen values.
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11. Discuss the motion of a particle in one dimensional

potential well of infinite height.
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12. Discuss the energies of a free particle using time in-

dependent schrodinger equation.
13. Role of higher dimensions in Potential well.
14. Discuss the Particle inside a finite potential well

1.14 Numerical Problems

1. The speed of electron is measured to with in an un-
certainty of 2.2 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 in one dimension. What
is the minimum width required by the electron to be
confined in an atom?
2. Estimate the time spent by an atom in the excited state
during the excitation and de-excitation processes,
when a spectral line of wavelength 546𝑛𝑚 and width
10−14 𝑚 is emitted.
3. A spectral line of wavelength 4000 Å has a width of
8 × 10−5 Å. Evaluate the minimum time spent by the
electrons in the upper energy state between the exci-
tation and de-excitation processes.

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Part II

MODULE 2 : Electrical Properties of Metals

C
and Semiconductors
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Chapter 2

Electrical Properties of Metals and

Semiconductors

2.1 Electrical Conductivity and Re- part of solid state physics. The phonon plays an important
role in many of the physical properties of solids such as the
sistivity

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thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity. The
Consider a conductor carrying electric current 𝐼 with the conduction electrons in a metal collide against lattice
area of cross section 𝐴 perpendicular to the current. The ions during the motion. The interaction is considered to be
current density 𝐽 is defined as the ration of current 𝐼 to the of type phonon [Link] results in non-radioactive
transitions.
area of cross section 𝐴. Hence
C
𝐼
𝐽= (2.1)
2.4 Mechanisms of Electron Scatter-
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𝐴
It is observed that the current density is proportional to ing in Solids:
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the applied electric field in a conductor. And hence

In solids, electrons do not move freely as in a vacuum.
𝐽∝𝐸 (2.2) They interact with lattice atoms/ions, impurities, structural
defects, other electrons, and boundaries of the material.
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 (2.3) These interactions cause electron scattering, which deter-
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mines the electrical resistivity, mobility, and conductivity

The constant of proportionality 𝜎 is called Electrical Con-
of the solid. The scattering mechanisms define the mean
ductivity of the conductor. The Electrical Resistivity 𝜌 =
1 free path and the relaxation time 𝜏 of the electrons.
𝜎 of the material is the reciprocal of the Electrical Con-
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ductivity of the material and is the property of the mate-

rial by the virtue of which it opposes the flow of current 2.4.1 Major Scattering Mechanisms
through it.
1. Electron–Phonon (Lattice) Scattering:
Caused by thermal vibrations of the lattice atoms
2.2 Mobility of conduction electrons (phonons). Resistivity increases approximately lin-
early with T at high temperatures.
It is found that the drift velocity depends on the applied
field strength and is mathematically given by 𝑣 𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸. 2. Electron–Impurity Scattering
Here 𝜇 is called the mobility of the free electrons. It is de- Caused by foreign atoms or dopants, which disturb
fined as the drift velocity acquired by the conduction elec- the periodic lattice potential. Scattering is elastic. Re-
trons per unit field strength. sistivity contribution is nearly temperature indepen-
dent (residual resistivity).
𝑣 𝑑 𝑒𝜏 𝜎 1
𝜇= = = = 𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 (2.4) 3. Electron–Defect / Dislocation Scattering
𝐸 𝑚 𝑛𝑒 𝜌𝑛𝑒
Caused by vacancies, interstitials, grain boundaries,
and dislocations. Defects break lattice periodicity, re-
2.3 Concept of Phonon ducing mobility.

A Phonon is a quantum of lattice vibration, the collective 4. Electron–Electron Scattering

motion of atoms constituting a crystal. The Energies and Due to Coulomb interactions between conduction
Momenta of Phonons are quantized. It is often character- electrons. In pure metals at low temperature, it con-
ized as Heat Energy. The study of phonon is an important tributes significantly.

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5. Surface or Boundary Scattering electronic conduction in solids and thermal conductivity.

Caused by electron reflections at material surfaces. This theory fails to explain certain other experimental ob-
Significant in thin films, nanowires, and 2D materials, servations. The following are the failures of classical free
where dimensions are com parable to electron mean electron theory of metals.
free path.
2.6.1 Electronic specific heat of solids
2.5 Mathiesen’s Rule According to the Classical Free Electron Theory Metals
the electronic specific heat is given by
A Metal consists of lattice ions and impurity atoms that
are held together by free electrons. Free electrons wander 3
inside the crystal. During the motion electrons undergo 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 = 12.5𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 𝐾 −1 (2.8)
2
scattering by lattice ions and impurity atoms. The resistiv-
ity 𝜌 of a conductor is mainly attributed to two reasons The experimental value of electronic specific heat is
1. Scattering of electrons with the vibrating lattice ions. 𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇. It is very small and also temperature depen-
The resistivity of the metal due to electron lattice ion dent Hence Classical theory fails to explain the electronic
scattering is given by specific heat of solids.

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𝑚
𝜌 𝑝ℎ = (2.5) 2.6.2 Dependence of 𝜎 on temperature
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑝ℎ
According to classical free electron theory of metals
2. Scattering of electrons by the presence of impurities the electrical conductivity 𝜎√is inversely proportional to
present in the metal. The scattering also occurs from
the lattice dislocations and grain boundaries. The re-
C square root of temperature ( 𝑇). But experiments reveal
that electrical conductivity (𝜎) is inversely proportional to
sistivity of the metal due to such scattering is given temperature (𝑇). Hence classical free electron theory fails
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by to explain dependence of electrical conductivity (𝜎) on the
𝑚
𝜌𝑖 = 2 (2.6) temperature (𝑇).
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑖
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Thus net resistivity of the conductor is given by

2.6.3 Dependence of 𝜎 on 𝑛, the number
𝑚 𝑚
𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑝ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 = + (2.7) density
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑝ℎ 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏𝑖
The theory predicts the direct dependence of electrical
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The above equation is called Matthiessen’s Rule, Which conductivity (𝜎) on number of free electrons per unit vol-
states that the net resistivity of conductor is equal to the ume (𝑛) called number density. But experiments have re-
vealed different with 𝜎𝐶𝑢 > 𝜎𝐴𝑙 even though the the num-
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sum of the resistivity due to the phonon scattering which is

temperature dependent and resistivity due to the presence ber densities 𝑛𝐶𝑢 < 𝑛 𝐴𝑙 . . Hence it fails to explain the de-
of impurity which is temperature independent. Graphically pendence of electrical conductivity 𝜎 on the number free
the variation of resistance with temperature and impurity is electrons per unit volume 𝑛. The experimental observa-
as follows. tions are as in the table below.

Metal 𝜎(Ω−1 𝑚 −1 ) 𝑛(𝑚 −3 )

Copper 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028
Aluminium 3.65 × 107 18.06 × 1028

2.7 Quantum free electron theory of

metals
The failures of classical free electron theory led to the
rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was proposed by
Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum free electron
theory is based on the following assumptions.
2.6 Failures of classical free electron
theory of metals 2.7.1 Assumptions
Classical free electron theory of metal is successful in 1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum free
explaining the certain experimentally observed facts of electron theory, energy values of free electrons are

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quantized. The energy values of free electrons are dis- the unit energy range in the valence band of the mate-
crete since their motion is confined within the bound- rial. It is mathematically a continuous function denoted
aries of the metal. by 𝑔(𝐸). The number of energy levels in the energy range
𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 per unit volume of the material is given by
2. Thus in a metal there exists large number of closely 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸.
spaced energy levels for free electrons which form a
√ !
band. 8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 1
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 3
𝐸 − 2 𝑑𝐸 (2.9)
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy levels ℎ
is as per the Pauli’s exclusion principle. Only a max-
imum of two electrons can occupy a given an energy The variation of 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 as a function of 𝐸 is given by
level. This also suggests the availability of two energy
states for free electrons in an energy level correspond-
ing to spin up and spin down states.

4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed to

be constant throughout the metal.

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5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the at-
traction between electrons and lattice ions are ne-
glected.
Figure 2.2: Density of states function vs Energy

2.7.2 Fermi energy

C
For a metal consisting of 𝑁 atom there exists 𝑁 num-
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ber of energy levels in each band. These energy levels are 2.7.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi
very closely spaced. The energy levels in bands fillup as factor
per Pauli’s exclusion principle. Thus free electrons in a
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metal start filling up the available energy levels from the The occupation of energy levels by free electrons in the
lower most level of the valence band. The highest filled valence band of a metal is according to Pauli’s exclusion
energy level in a metal at absolute zero by free electrons principle. This distribution of electrons is not random.
is called Fermi Level and the corresponding energy is It follows a certain universal rule of distribution called
called Fermi Energy (𝐸 𝐹 ). Thus, at absolute zero and Fermi-Dirac Statistics. Ametal contains large number free
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with no electric field applied, all levels below Fermi level of electrons.
are completely filled and above Fermi level are empty.
1. A metal contains large number free of electrons. The
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occupation of energy levels in the valence band is ac-

cording to Pauli’s exclusion principle.

2. This distribution of electrons follows a certain univer-

sal rule called Fermi-Dirac Distribution.

3. This statistics is applicable for the distribution of par-

ticles of spin half.

4. A distribution statistics provides the probability of oc-

Figure 2.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy cupation of an energy level with energy (E) at a given
temperature under thermal equilibrium.

5. Thus the probability of occupation of an energy level

of energy (E) at temperature (T) under thermal equi-
2.7.3 Density of States (DoS) librium is given by Fermi Factor f(E).
According to band theory Energy bands are formed in The probability of occupation of an energy level of en-
solids and in a band the spacing between two successive ergy (𝐸) at temperature (𝑇) under thermal equilibrium
energy levels decreases with increase in energy. is evaluated using an expression called Fermi Factor.

The Density of States is defined as the number of en- 1

𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(2.10)
ergy states available per unit volume of the material in 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1

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The number density of electrons defined as the number

of free electrons per unit volume the material in the energy
range E and E + dE in the valence band of the material is
given by n(E)dE. Mathematically
𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.11)
Here f(E) is the Fermi factor. The number density of elec-
trons is the product of the number of available energy states
and their occupation probability. This is called Fermi-
Dirac distribution.

2.7.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy

Figure 2.3: Variation of 𝑓 (𝐸) as a function of Temperature
and temperature(Variation of Fermi and Energy
Factor With Temperature and Energy)
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy and
temperature. This dependence could be explained for en- 2.8 Expression for Fermi energy at

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ergy levels below and above Fermi level at absolute zero
and higher temperatures. 0K (𝐸 𝑓 )
The number of allowed energy levels per unit volume is
Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 < 𝐸 𝐹 known as density of energy states. The number of electrons
and at T = 0K
The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by
C in these levels per unit volume at any temperature is given
by
𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.14)
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1
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓
(2.12) The number of electrons per unit volume up to fermi level
𝑒 +1 𝑘𝑇
is given by
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∫ 𝐸𝑓
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 is negative. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0 𝑛= 𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (2.15)
0
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = = = =1 ∫ 𝐸𝑓
𝑒 −∞ + 1
 𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓 0+1 𝑛= 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.16)
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1 0
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There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 1. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels √ !

8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2
∫ 𝐸𝑓
1
below the Fermi level are completely filled. 𝑛= 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (2.17)
ℎ 3
0
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Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 > 𝐸 𝐹 Put f(E) = 1 at 0K

and at T = 0K √ !
8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2
∫ 𝐸𝑓
1
The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 𝑛= 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 (2.18)
0 ℎ3
is positive. Substituting the value for 𝑇 = 0
√ !∫
8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 𝐸𝑓
1
1 1 1 𝑛= 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 (2.19)
𝑓 (𝐸) = = = =0 ℎ3 0
𝑒∞
 𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓 +1 ∞+1
𝑒 𝑘∗0
+1 √ ! 𝐸
8 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 𝐸 3/2 𝑓
There fore 𝑓 (𝐸) = 0. Hence, at 𝑇 = 0𝐾, all energy levels 𝑛= (2.20)
ℎ3 3/2 0
above the Fermi level are empty.
√ !
16 2𝜋𝑚 3/2 h 3/2 i
Probability of occupation of levels with energy 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐹 𝑛= 𝐸𝐹 (2.21)
3ℎ3
and at T > 0K
This is the expression for free electron density. The above
Here 𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑓 = 0. Substituting the values equation can be written as
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝐸) = = = = 0.5 (2.13) 3𝑛ℎ3
0
𝑒( ) + 1 1 + 1 2
𝑘𝑇 𝐸 𝐹3/2 =√ (2.22)
16 2𝜋𝑚 3/2
Thus for all temperatures above 0 𝐾 the probability of  2/3
3𝑛ℎ3

occupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation of Fermi
factor with temperature is as shown in the graph 2.3 𝐸𝐹 = √ (2.23)
16 2𝜋𝑚 3/2

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After simplifying this we get

 2/3
ℎ2
 
3𝑛
𝐸𝐹 = (2.24)
8𝑚 𝜋

According to this equation

𝐸 𝐹 ∝ 𝑛2/3 (2.25)

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Chapter 3

Semiconductors

3.1 Introduction ergy and move to conduction band. But electrons cannot
spend more time there and hence they return to a lower en-
Semiconductors are the materials which posses nega- ergy level in valence band. Thus electrons will be under
tive temperature co-efficient of resistance. Their electrical constant excitation and de-excitation process. Thus the av-
properties are different from that conductors and insula- erage energy of the electron lies at the center of the energy

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tors. The pure form of semiconductors are known as in- gap and called Fermi energy.
trinsic semiconductors. The conductivity in intrinsic semi-
conductors is due to both the motion of electrons in the
conduction band and the motion of holes in the valence C
band. The electrons in the valence band of intrinsic semi-
conductors need more energy to move to conduction band.
This energy could be reduced by doping a pure semicon-
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ductor with certain impurities. The process of adding im-
purity is called doping. Such semiconductors are called
extrinsic semiconductors. Based on the type of dopant ex-
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trinsic semiconductors are classified into n-type semicon-

ductors and p-type semiconductors. The conductivity of
extrinsic semiconductors is due to the motion of majority Figure 3.1: Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors
charge carries electrons in n-type and holes in p-type.
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Doping of pentavalent impurity atoms to pure semicon-

ductor results in the fifth electron which does not partici-
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pate in bonding and loosely bound to the impurity atoms.

The energy of these electrons lie in the energy gap of semi-
[Link] donor level is created near the lower edge
of the conduction band. Given a small amount of energy
electrons move from donor level to conduction band. Thus
there will be large number of free electrons in the conduc-
tion band. Thus electrons are the majority charge carri-
ers in n-type semiconductors. Similarly doping of trivalent
impurity atoms to pure semiconductor results in the forma- Figure 3.2: Fermi Level in Extrinsic semiconductors
tion of the acceptor level near the upper edge of the valence
band. Holes are the majority carriers in p-type semicon-
ductors.
In case of extrinsic semiconductors the Fermi energy lies
towards conduction band in n-type and towards valence
3.2 Significance of Fermi level band in p-type semiconductors. Fermi level depends on
temperature and changes with temperature.
Fermi level acts as a distinguishing energy position be-
tween filled and unfilled energy states in metals and semi-
conductors. In case of pure semiconductors, at normal 3.3 Intrinsic semiconductor:
temperatures, electrons are most probably found either in
conduction band or in valence band. This is because of An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure, undoped semicon-
electrons in the top most levels of valence band absorb en- ductor material with an equal number of free electrons and

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holes. Electrical current is carried by both free electrons

𝑓 −𝐸
𝐸 
(in the conduction band) and holes (vacancies in the va- 𝑓 (𝐸) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(3.9)
lence band). At absolute zero (0 K), an intrinsic semicon-
Now using equation (3.4) and (3.9) in equation (3.3) we
ductor behaves as a perfect insulator because all electrons
get,
are bound in covalent bonds. As temperature increases,
∫ ∞ √ !
thermal energy excites some electrons into the conduction 8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2
 𝐸 −𝐸 
1 𝑓

band, and increasing conductivity. The electrical conduc- 𝑁𝑒 = 3

(𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑐 ) 2𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝐸 (3.10)
𝐸𝑐 ℎ
tivity is relatively low compared to doped (extrinsic) semi-
∫ ∞ √ !
conductors and metals. 8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2
 𝐸 −𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑐 −𝐸 
1 𝑓
𝑁𝑒 = 3
(𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑐 ) 2𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝑐 ℎ
3.3.1 Expression for Concentration of elec- √ !  (3.11)
tron in an intrinsic semiconductor: 8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐  ∫ ∞  
1 𝐸𝑐 −𝐸
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑐 ) 2𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝐸
The number of electrons in the conduction band per unit ℎ3 𝐸𝑐

volume of the material is called electron concentration 𝑁𝑒 . √ !  (3.12)

∗ 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐  ∫ ∞
 
The number of holes in the valance band per unit volume 8 2𝜋𝑚 𝑒 1 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸−𝐸 ) 2 𝑒− 𝑑𝐸
𝑐
of the material is called hole concentration 𝑁 ℎ . ℎ3 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇
The number of electrons whose energy lies in the energy

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(3.13)
interval E and E + dE in the conduction band. Then Let,
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (3.1) 𝑥= (3.14)
𝑘𝑇
(𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑐 ) = 𝑥𝑘𝑇 (3.15)
where g(E)dE is the density of states in the energy inter-
val E and E +dE and f(E) is the probability that a state of
C 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑐 + 𝑥𝑘𝑇 (3.16)
energy is occupied by an electron. The electron density Differentiate with respect to ’x’
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in the conduction band is given by integrating eq. (1) be- 𝑑𝐸
tween the limits Ec and ∞. 𝐸 𝑐 is the energy corresponding = 𝑘𝑇 (3.17)
𝑑𝑥
to the bottom edge of the conduction band and ∞ is the en-
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𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 (3.18)
ergy corresponding to the top edge of the conduction band.
As the probability of electrons occupying upper levels of Now, the limit of integral changes. When 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝑐 , x = 0
conduction band f(E) readily approaches zero for higher and E = ∞ ,x = ∞. Thus, limit of integral varies from 0 to
energies, the upper limit namely the top of the conduction ∞. Therefore, use equation (3.14), (3.15) and (3.18) in eq
band is taken as ∞ . Thus (3.13), we get
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√ ! 
∫ ∞ 8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐  ∫ ∞
1
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁 (𝐸)𝑑𝐸 (3.2) 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (𝑥𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 − 𝑥 (𝑘𝑇)𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
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𝐸𝑐 0
∫ ∞ √ !  (3.19)
8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐  ∫ ∞
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 𝑓 (𝐸) (3.3) 3 1
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (𝑘𝑇) 2 (𝑥) 2 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝑐
ℎ3 0
But, for electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconduc- (3.20)
tor We know that,
√ ! ∫ ∞ √
8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2 1 𝜋
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 =
1
(𝐸 − 𝐸 𝑐 ) 2 𝑑𝐸 (3.4) (𝑥) 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (3.21)
ℎ 3 0 2 2
Therefore,
We know that √ !  √
1 8 2𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 
3 𝜋
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  (3.5) 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(𝑘𝑇) 2 (3.22)
𝑓
ℎ 3 2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+1
√ ! 
Under practical condition, 4 2(𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 𝑘𝑡) 3/2 𝐸 𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 

𝑁𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(3.23)
 𝐸 −𝐸 
𝑓 ℎ3
𝑒 𝑘𝑇
+ 1 >> 1 (3.6)
This is the expression for concentration of electrons in an
Therefore, intrinsic semiconductor.
1 Similarly, expression for hole concentration in an intrinsic
𝑓 (𝐸) =  𝐸 −𝐸  (3.7)
𝑘𝑇
𝑓 semiconductor is given by,
𝑒 √ ! 

𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
 4 2(𝜋𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑘𝑡) 3/2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸 𝑓 

𝑓 (𝐸) = 𝑒 − (3.8) 𝑁ℎ = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(3.24)
𝑘𝑇 ℎ3

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3.4 Carrier Concentration in intrin- √  𝐸 −𝐸 

4 2 ∗ 3 𝐹 𝑔
sic semiconductors 𝑁𝑒 =
ℎ 3
(𝜋𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 2𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(3.27)

Intrinsic semiconductor is the pure form of semiconduc- √  

−𝐸𝐹
4 2 3
tor. When sufficient energy is supplied to electrons in the 𝑁 ℎ = 3 (𝜋𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (3.28)
ℎ
valence band they absorb energy and move to conduction
band leaving behind a hole. Thus the number of electrons
Both electron concentration and hole concentration de-
in the conduction band is equal to number of holes in the
pend on fermi energy 𝐸 𝐹 . In case of intrinsic semiconduc-
valence band. The total number of electrons in the conduc-
tor 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁 ℎ and hence equating the equations 3.25 and
tion band per unit volume of the semiconductor is known
3.26 we get
as electron concentration. Similarly number of holes in
the valance band per unit volume of the semiconductor is
𝐸   
3 𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 3 −𝐸𝐹

known as hole concentration. The total number of charge (𝑚 ∗𝑒 ) 2 𝑒 = (𝑚 ∗ℎ ) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

𝑘𝑇
(3.29)
carriers per unit volume in the semiconductor is called car-  2𝐸 −𝐸   ∗  32
𝐹 𝑔 𝑚ℎ
rier concentration. In case of pure semiconductors electron 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = (3.30)
concentration and hole concentration are same. 𝑚 ∗𝑒
 ∗
2𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸 𝑔 3 𝑚
= 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗ (3.31)

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3.4.1 Expression for Electron concentration 𝑘𝑇 2 𝑚𝑒
(𝑁 𝑒 ) 3
 ∗
𝑚
2𝐸 𝐹 − 𝐸 𝑔 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗ (3.32)
The following equation 3.25 determines the electron 2 𝑚𝑒
 ∗
concentration in intrinsic semiconductors.
√  𝐸 −𝐸 
C 𝐸𝐹 =
𝐸𝑔 3
2
+ 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗
4
𝑚
𝑚𝑒
(3.33)
4 2 3 𝐹 𝑔
𝑁𝑒 = 3 (𝜋𝑚 ∗𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (3.25) Thus the expression for Fermi energy in intrinsic semicon-
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ℎ
ductors. If we consider that 𝑚 ∗ℎ = 𝑚 ∗𝑒 then equation 3.35
Here becomes
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ℎ is Planck’s constant 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 = (3.34)
𝑚 ∗𝑒 is the effective mass of the electron 2
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant At a finite temperature 𝑇 > 0𝐾 the Fermi level differs from
𝑇 is absolute temperature its 0K value by a correction term,
𝐸 𝐹 is Fermi energy
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 ∗
𝐸 𝑔 is the energy gap of the semiconductor. 3 𝑚
𝐸 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ℎ∗ (3.35)
4 𝑚𝑒
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3.4.2 Expression for Hole concentration This term is proportional to the temperature T. This Proves
(𝑁 ℎ ) that the Fermi energy in an intrinsic semiconductor at finite
The following equation 3.26 determines the electron temperature differs from its value at T = 0K by a value
concentration in intrinsic semiconductors. proportional to the temperature.
√  
−𝐸𝐹
4 2 3
𝑁 ℎ = 3 (𝜋𝑚 ∗ℎ 𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (3.26) 3.5 Fermi Level extrinsic semicon-
ℎ
Here
ductor
ℎ is Planck’s constant In an extrinsic semiconductor, the position of the Fermi
𝑚 ∗ℎ is the effective mass of the electron level depends on the type and concentration of impurities
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant introduced. In an n-type semiconductor, donor atoms add
𝑇 is absolute temperature extra electrons, raising the electron concentration in the
𝐸 𝐹 is Fermi energy conduction band. As a result, the Fermi level shifts up-
𝐸 𝑔 is the energy gap of the semiconductor. ward, lying closer to the conduction band edge 𝐸 𝑐 . Con-
versely, in a p-type semiconductor, acceptor atoms create
3.4.3 Expression relating Fermi energy and holes in the valence band, and the Fermi level moves down-
Energy gap for an intrinsic semicon- ward, lying closer to the valence band edge Ev . The higher
ductor the doping concentration, the nearer the Fermi level ap-
proaches the respective band edge. At very high tempera-
The expressions for electron and hole concentrations in tures, however, intrinsic behavior dominates and the Fermi
a pure semiconductor are given by equations 3.25 and 3.26 level tends back toward the mid-gap position. 𝐸 𝑑 and 𝐸 𝑎

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are donor and acceptor level The Fermi Level for n-type Here 𝑒 is electronic charge, 𝐸 𝐻 is Hall Field, 𝐵 is Magnetic
semiconductor at T=0K field, 𝑣 is the velocity of electrons. The current density 𝐽
is given by
𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑓 = (3.36) 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 (3.39)
2
Here 𝑛 is the numbmer density of charges. Dividing equa-
The Fermi Level for p-type semiconductor at T=0K tion 3.38 by 3.39 we get
𝐸𝑎 + 𝐸𝑣 𝑒𝐸 𝐻 𝐵𝑒𝑣
𝐸𝑓 = (3.37) = (3.40)
2 𝐽 𝑛𝑒𝑣
𝑒𝐸 𝐻 𝐵
3.6 Hall Effect 𝐽
=
𝑛
(3.41)

Introduction This was observed first by E. H. Hall in 𝐵𝐽

𝐸𝐻 = (3.42)
the year 1879. When electric current is passed through a 𝑛𝑒
conductor or semiconductor placed in a magnetic field, a 𝐸 𝐻 = 𝑅 𝐻 𝐵𝐽 (3.43)
potential difference proportional to the current and to the
Here 𝑅 𝐻 is called Hall coefficient and is given by
magnetic field is developed across the material in a direc-
tion perpendicular to both the current and to the magnetic 1

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field. This effect is known as the Hall effect. The potential 𝑅𝐻 = (3.44)
𝑛𝑒
difference developed in a direction perpendicular to both
current and magnetic field is called Hall voltage and the The Hall voltage is given by the equation
corresponding electric field is called Hall field. 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸 𝐻 𝑑 = 𝑅 𝐻 𝐵𝐽𝑑 (3.45)
C
Explanation Consider a conductor carrying current Here 𝑑 is the thickness of the material along y-axis.
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along +ve X axis. Magnetic field is applied along +ve Z Note: In case of n-type semiconductors 𝑅 𝐻 is negative
axis. Thus electrons experience Lorentz force along the - and for p-type semiconductors 𝑅 𝐻 is positive.
ve Y axis. Thus electrons accumulate on the lower surface
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which results in the accumulation of +ve charges on the Applications

upper surface. This results in an electric field developed
between the two surfaces. The force on the electrons due 1. This effect is the basis of many practical applications
to electric field further opposes the force due to magnetic and devices such as magnetic field measurements, and
field. A stage is reached where in both the forces are equal position and motion detectors.
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and an equilibrium state is reached. The electric field de- 2. Hall effect is also used in the determination of type of
veloped across the material at equilibrium is called Hall extrinsic semiconductor (P-Type and N-Type).
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Field.
3. Hall effect is also used to find semiconductor proper-
ties like carrier concentration and mobility of carriers.

3.7 Model Questions

1. Explain the failures of Classical free electron theory.
2. Give the assumptions on which quantum free electron
theory is based.
3. Describe Fermi level and Fermi energy.
4. Explain the density of states and mention density of
states function.
Figure 3.3: Hall effect in conductors
5. Write a note of Fermi function and Fermi-Dirac dis-
tribution statistics.
6. Explain the variation of Fermi factor with energy and
Expression for Hall Co-efficient Under equilibrium the temperature.
Lorentz force on electrons is equal to force due to hall field
7. Derive an expression for fermi energy at absolute
𝑒𝐸 𝐻 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣 (3.38) temperature.

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8. Derive an expression for electron density at absolute 11. A rectangular plane sheet of semiconductor mate-
temperature. rial has dimensions 2cm along Y-direction and 1mm
along Z-direction. Hall probes are attached on
9. Derive an expression for concentration of electron in its surfaces parallel to X-Y plane and a magnetic
an intrinsic semiconductor. field of flux density 1𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟/𝑚 2 is applied along Z-
direction. A current of 3 mA is flowing in it in the
10. Derive an expression relating fermi energy and the en- X-direction. Calculate the hall voltage measured by
ergy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor. the probe, if the hall co-efficient of the material is
3.66 × 10−4 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏. Also calculate the charge car-
11. Describe hall effect. Derive an expression for hall co-
rier concentration. Ans. 𝐸 𝐻 = 0.0549𝑉 𝑚 −1 , 𝑉𝐻 =
efficient and hall voltage.
1.1𝑚𝑉, 𝑛 = 1.71 × 1022 /𝑚 3 .

3.8 Numerical Problems

1. The Fermi level in silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉 at 0 𝐾. Calculate
the number of free electrons per unit volume and the
probability of occupation for electrons with energy

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5.6𝑒𝑉 in silver at the same temperature.

2. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an

energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 above the Fermi level at 200𝐾
and 400𝐾.

3. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an

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energy level 0.02𝑒𝑉 below the Fermi level at 400𝐾.
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4. The Fermi level for silver is 5.5𝑒𝑉. What is the en-
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ergy for which probability of occupancy at 300𝐾 is

0.01

5. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability

that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi energy
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is occupied.

6. Find the probability that an energy level at 0.2𝑒𝑉 be-

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low Fermi level being occupied at temperature 300𝐾

and 1000𝐾

7. Calculate the probability that an electron occupies an

energy level 0.02 eV above Fermi level at 300 K.

8. The conductivity and Hall co-efficient of an n-

type silicon specimen are 112/ohm-m and 1.25 ×
10−3 𝑚 3 /𝐶, respectively. Calculate the charge car-
rier concentration and electron [Link]. 𝑁𝑒 =
5 × 1021 𝑚 −3 , 𝜇𝑒 = 0.14.

9. The hall co-efficient of a material is −3.68 ×

10−5 𝑚 3 /𝐶. What is the type of charge carriers? Also
calculate the carrier [Link]. 𝑅 𝐻 is - Ve,
electrons, 1.7 × 1023 /𝑚 3

10. The hall co-efficient of a specimen of a doped silicon

is found to be 3.66 × 10−4 /𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏. The resistiv-
ity of the specimen is 9.93 × 10−3 𝑜ℎ𝑚 − 𝑚. Find the
mobility and density of charge carrier, Assuming sin-
gle carrier concentration. Ans. 1.7055 × 1022 /𝑚 3 and
0.041𝑚 2𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1

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C
N
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 .IN
Part III

MODULE 3 : Superconductivity
C
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Chapter 4

Superconductivity

4.1 Introduction to Superconductiv- exhibit superconducting property, are called superconduc-

tors.
ity
Discovery : Lord Kamerlingh Onnes discovered the Above critical temperature material is said to be in nor-

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phenomenon of superconductivity in the year 1911. When mal state and offers resistance for the flow of electric cur-
he was studying the temperature dependence of resistance rent. Below critical temperature material is said to be in
of Mercury at very low temperature he found that resis- superconducting state. Thus 𝑇𝑐 is also called as transition
tance of Mercury decreases with temperature with the de- temperature.
crease in temperature up to a particular temperature 𝑇𝑐 =
4.15K . Below this temperature the resistance of mercury
C
abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15𝐾 and 0𝐾 Mercury 4.2 Persistent current
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offered no resistance for the flow of electric current. This
phenomenon is reversible and material becomes normal In a superconducting material, current will continue to flow
once again when temperature was increased above 4.15K.
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in a closed loop as long as the loop is held below the crit-

This phenomenon is called superconductivity and material ical temperature Tc. Such a steady current which flows
which exhibits the property is named superconductor. with undiminished strength is called a persistent current.
The concept of persistent current is a direct consequence
Definition : Thus the Superconductivity is defined as of both zero electrical resistance and the ability of super-
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“The phenomenon in which resistance of certain metals, conductors to sustain screening currents. Consider a ring
alloys and compounds drops to zero abruptly, below cer- of superconducting material placed in the magnetic field.
tain temperature is called superconductivity For temperature greater than the critical temperature, T>T
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c, the magnetic flux will pass through the body of the loop
Variation of Resistivity with Temperature The varia- as depicted in Fig. When the temperature of the loop is
tion of the resistivity of a superconductor,pure and impure decreased below the critical temperature, T<T c, magnetic
metals with temperature is as shown below. flux is expelled from the body of the loop. Because re-
sistance vanishes, an electric current once established in a
superconducting loop continues indefinitely. If a magnetic
flux is trapped in a superconducting ring, the induced cur-
rent Ip satisfies the flux quantization condition:

4.3 Meissner’s Effect

In 1933, Meissner and Ochsenfeld showed that when a su-
perconducting material is placed in a magnetic field it al-
lows magnetic lines of force to pass through, if it’s tem-
perature is above 𝑇𝑐 . If the temperature is reduced below
the critical temperature Tc then it expels all the flux lines
completely out of the specimen and exhibits perfect dia-
Critical Temperature : The temperature, below which magnetism. This is known as Meissner’s effect. Since
materials exhibit superconducting property is called crit- superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism below the
ical temperature, denoted by 𝑇𝑐 . Critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 critical temperature Tc, magnetic flux density inside the
is different for different substances. The materials, which material is zero.

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The expression for magnetic flux density is given by 4.5 Critical Current:

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𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) (4.1) The critical current, Ic of a superconductor represents the
maximum electrical current that a superconducting mate-
Here 𝐵 is Magnetic Flux Density, 𝑀 is Magnetization and rial can carry without losing its superconducting state and
𝐻 is the applied magnetic field strength. For a supercon- reverting to a normal, resistive state. In the absence of an
ductor, 𝐵 = 0 at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 . Thus we get
C external magnetic field, we can write the critical current,
lc, that can be passed through a superconducting wire of
𝑀 = −𝐻 (4.2) radius r as
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Thus Meissner’s Effect signifies the negative magnetic mo- 𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝐻𝑐 (4.4)
ment associated with superconductors.
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where 𝐻𝑐 is the critical magnetic field of the supercon-

ductor. The bulk current that can flow through a supercon-
4.4 Critical Field and its Tempera- ducting wire per unit area of cross-section without destroy-
ture Dependence ing its superconducting properties is called critical current
density, 𝐽𝑐 given as
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Critical field We know that when superconductor is placed

in a magnetic field it expels magnetic flux lines completely 𝐼𝑐 2𝜋𝑟 𝐻𝑐 2𝐻𝑐
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𝐽𝑐 = = = (4.5)
out of the body and exhibits a perfect diamagnetism. But 𝐴 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
if the strength of the magnetic field is further increased, it
is found that for a particular value of the magnetic field, where A is the area of cross-section of the wire.
material looses its superconducting property and becomes
a normal conductor. The value of the magnetic field at
which the transition occurs from the Superconducting state
to Normal Conducting state is called Critical Field or 4.6 Silsbee effect:
Critical Magnetic Field and is denoted by 𝐻𝑐 . It is found
that by reducing the temperature of the material further su- Superconductivity is also destroyed if the current exceeds
perconducting property of the material could be restored. a maximum value, called the critical current Ic. According
Thus, critical field does not destroy the superconducting to the Silsbee effect, this occurs when the magnetic field
property of the material completely but only reduces the at the surface reaches the critical field Hc. If the strength
critical temperature of the material. of the applied magnetic field is increased, the screening
(shielding) current must also increase to maintain perfect
The variation of Critical field with temperature below diamagnetism. However, there is a limit to the density of
the critical temperature is given by current which can be carried by the superconducting spec-
imen. Thus, if the gradually increasing current in the su-
𝑇2
 
perconductor due to increasing applied magnetic field at-
𝐻 𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 2 (4.3) tains this limiting value of the current density, the super-
𝑇𝑐
conductor makes a transition from the superconducting to
Here 𝐻𝑐 is the Critical field at any temperature 𝑇 less than normal state. And, this value of the applied magnetic field
𝑇𝑐 , 𝐻0 is the Critical field at 𝑇 = 0𝐾. is known as critical magnetic field.

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4.7 Derivation for a cylindrical wire

using ampere’s law:
Consider a circular Ampèrian path of radius r centered on
the wire axis. By symmetry the magnetic induction B is az-
imuthal (circumferential) and its magnitude depends only
on Ampère’s law (magnetostatic form) is
∮
𝐵.𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (4.6)

outside the wire (𝑟 ≥ 0) the enclosed current is the total

current I, so
∮
𝐵𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (4.7)
∮ ∮
𝜃 = 0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1 =⇒ 𝐵𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠(0) = 𝐵𝑑𝑙 here, dl is This model explains many important superconducting
the small elemental length, R is the radius of the amperian

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properties. The zero resistivity arises because the current
loop ∮ is carried by the superfluid component, which does not ex-
𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (4.8) perience scattering. The finite thermal conductivity at low
temperatures is explained by the normal fluid, which car-
But ries entropy and heat. Furthermore, the electrodynamic
∮
𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅 (4.9)
C behavior (such as the London penetration depth of mag-
netic fields) can be described by associating magnetic field
By substituting in eq (3.7) we get, screening currents with the superfluid component.
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Thus, the two-fluid model provides a qualitative and semi-
𝐵(2𝜋𝑅) = 𝜇0 𝐼 (4.10) quantitative understanding of superconductivity by postu-
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lating a coexistence of two distinct electron populations

This is the Magnetic field. If the current is critical current
within the material, one responsible for dissipation and the
then
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑐 other for perfect conductivity.
𝐵= (4.11)
2𝜋𝑅
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But
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 (4.12)
4.9 Types of Superconductors
=⇒ Superconductors are classified into two types
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𝜇0 𝐻 (2𝜋𝑅) = 𝜇0 𝐼 (4.13)
1. Type I Superconductor or Soft Superconductor

This is the Magnetic field. If the current density is criti- 2. Type II Superconductor or Hard Superconductor
cal current then
𝐼𝑐 Type I Superconductors
𝐻= (4.14)
2𝜋𝑅
paragraph Type I superconductors exhibit complete Meis-
sener’s Effect and posses a single value of critical field .
4.8 Two-Fluid Model of Supercon- The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as
ductivity: shown in the Fig.4.1. As the field strength increases the
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until 𝐻 be-
The two-fluid model, proposed by Gorter and Casimir comes equal to 𝐻𝑐 . Above 𝐻𝑐 the material allows the flux
(1934), is one of the earliest phenomenological approaches lines to pass through and exhibits normal conductivity. The
to explain the behavior of superconductors. According to value of 𝐻𝑐 is very small for soft superconductors. There-
this model, below the critical temperature Tc, the conduc- fore soft superconductors cannot withstand high magnetic
tion electrons in a superconductor are divided into two in- fields. Therefore they cannot be used for making super-
terpenetrating components: the normal fluid and the su- conducting magnets. Ex. Hg, Pb and Zn.
perfluid. The normal fluid consists of electrons that be-
have like ordinary conduction electrons and are responsi-
Type II Superconductors
ble for resistive processes, while the superfluid consists of
Cooper-paired electrons that move without scattering and paragraph Superconducting materials, which can with-
hence carry current without dissipation. stand high value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard

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The value of 𝐻𝑐2 is hundreds of times greater than Hc

of soft superconductors. Therefore they are used for mak-
ing powerful superconducting magnets. Examples:𝑁 𝑏𝑇𝑖,
𝑁 𝑏 3 𝑆𝑛

4.9.1 Explanation for upper critical field

The upper critical field (𝐻𝑐2 ) in superconductors is the
maximum magnetic field that destroys superconductivity,
occurring when external fields overcome the binding en-
ergy of Cooper pairs, driven by two main effects: orbital
pair-breaking (Lorentz force on moving pairs) and Pauli
paramagnetism (Zeeman splitting of electron spins). It’s a
Figure 4.1: Type1 Superconductor key material property, especially for Type-II superconduc-
tors, defining the field limit for high-field applications, and
is strongly dependent on temperature, decreasing to zero at
Superconductors. the critical temperature (𝑇𝑐 ).

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4.10 Formation of Cooper Pairs –
C Mediation of Phonons:
In conventional superconductors, the key microscopic
mechanism is the formation of Cooper pairs, bound states
of two electrons with opposite momenta and spins. De-
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spite their mutual Coulomb repulsion, electrons effectively
attract each other via lattice vibrations called phonons. As
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one electron passes through the lattice, it distorts the pos-

itively charged ion lattice, creating a local region of in-
creased positive charge that attracts a second electron. This
Figure 4.2: Type2 Superconductor
effective electron–electron attraction leads to pairing. The
binding energy of a Cooper pair is related to the energy gap
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Δ of the superconductor:

The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field is as 𝐸 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 2Δ (4.15)

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shown in the Fig.4.2. Hard superconductors are character-

ized by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐1 and 𝐻𝑐2 . When applied At zero temperature, the gap Δ(0) is approximately related
magnetic field is less than 𝐻𝑐1 material exhibits perfect to the critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 as:
diamagnetism. Beyond 𝐻𝑐1 partial flux penetrates and the
material is said to be Vortex State. Thus flux penetra- Δ(0) ≈ 1.76𝑘 𝐵𝑇𝑐 (4.16)
tion occurs through small-channelized regions called fila-
where 𝑘 𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant. Cooper pairs con-
ments. As the strength of the field increases further, more
dense into a coherent quantum state, enabling supercon-
and more flux fills the body and thereby decreasing the
ductivity.
diamagnetic property of the material. At 𝐻𝑐2 flux fills the
body completely and material losses its diamagnetic prop-
erty as well as superconducting property completely. 4.11 BCS Theory of Superconduc-
tivity
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe-
nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The
essence of the BCS theory is as follows.

Consider an electron approaching a positive ion core and

suffers attractive coulomb interaction. Due to this attrac-
tion ion core is set in motion and thus distorts that lattice.
Let a second electron come in the way of distorted lattice

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and interaction between the two occurs which lowers the 4.12 Examples of Systems with Low
energy of the second electron. The two electrons there-
fore interact indirectly through the lattice distortion or the
and High Electron-Phonon
phonon field which lowers the energy of the electrons. The Coupling
above interaction is interpreted as electron - Lattice - elec-
tron interaction through phonon field. 1. Low electron-phonon coupling (weak-coupling):
It was shown by Cooper that, this attractive force be- Aluminum (Al), Tin (Sn), and Lead (Pb) are conven-
comes maximum if two electrons have opposite spins and tional superconductors where the BCS approximation
momentum. The attractive force may exceed coulombs re- is accurate.
pulsive force between the two electrons below the critical
temperature, which results in the formation of bound pair 2. High electron-phonon coupling (strong-coupling):
of electrons called cooper pairs. Niobium (Nb), Mercury (Hg), and lead under high
pressure exhibit stronger phonon-mediated pairing,
requiring corrections to the BCS predictions.

4.13 High Temperature Supercon-

ductivity

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Superconducting materials which exhibit superconduc-
tivity at relatively higher temperatures are called high
Below the critical temperature the dense cloud of
C temperature superconductors. Thus high temperature su-
Cooper pairs form a collective state and the motion all perconductors posses higher value of critical temperature
Cooper pairs is correlated resulting in zero resistance of compared to conventional superconductors. Most of the
the material. high temperature superconductors are found to fall into the
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category of ceramics. In 1986 George Bednorz and Alex
Muller discovered a compound containing Lanthanum,
4.11.1 Phase coherence:
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Barium, Copper and Oxygen having 𝑇𝑐 =30K was devel-

The phase coherence explains why the superconducting oped. In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is
current flows without dissipation: a disturbance to a sin- an oxide of the form 𝑌 𝐵𝑎 2 𝐶𝑢 3 𝑂 7 which is referred to as
gle pair cannot destroy the collective order, since the entire 1-2-3 compound with 𝑇𝑐 > 90𝐾 was discovered.
condensate resists scattering in a correlated way. More-
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over, the quantum nature of this phase leads to observable All high temperature superconductors are oxides of cop-
macroscopic effects such as the Josephson effect, where per and bear Perovskite crystal structure characterized by
current can tunnel between two superconductors depend-
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large number of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that

ing on the phase difference of their order parameters. Thus, addition of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical
the BCS phase coherent state is the cornerstone of su- temperature 𝑇𝑐 to higher values. The super currents are
perconductivity, transforming a collection of independent strong in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc-
electrons into a single macroscopic quantum entity gov- tion perpendicular to the planes. Following is the list of
erned by a unified phase. High Temperature Superconductors.

4.11.2 Limitations of BCS Theory

4.14 Quantum Tunneling
Although BCS theory successfully describes conventional
low-temperature superconductors, it has several limita- In classical mechanics, when a particle has insufficient
tions: energy, it would not be able to overcome a potential bar-
rier. In the quantum world the particles can often behave
1. High-𝑇𝑐 superconductors: BCS cannot fully explain like waves. On encountering a barrier, a quantum wave
the pairing mechanism in cuprates and iron-based su- will not end abruptly. Rather its amplitude decrease ex-
perconductors. ponentially. This drop in amplitude corresponds to a drop
2. Strong-coupling effects: Materials with very strong in the probability of finding a particle further into the bar-
electron-phonon interactions may require Eliashberg rier. If the barrier is thin enough, then the amplitude may
theory, as BCS assumes weak coupling. be non-zero on the other side. This would imply that there
is a finite probability that some of the particles will tunnel
3. Non-phonon pairing: BCS relies on phonon-mediated through the barrier.
attraction; in systems with other pairing mechanisms In regions where the potential energy is higher than the
(e.g., spin fluctuations), BCS fails. wave’s energy, the amplitude of the wave decays exponen-

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Here 𝜙0 is the phase difference between the wave func-

tions describing Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier,
and 𝐼𝐶 is the critical current at zero voltage condition. 𝐼𝐶
depends on the thickness and width of the insulating layer
and the temperature.

4.15.3 AC Josephson Effect

If we apply a dc voltage across the Josephson junction,
it introduces an additional phase on Cooper pairs during
tunneling. As a result a strikingly new phenomenon will be

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observed. The dc voltage generates an alternating current
I given by
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙0 + Δ𝜙) (4.18)
Because of the dc voltage V applied across the barrier, the
C energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ
in energy by 2eV.
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tially. If the region is narrow enough, the wave can have a

non-zero amplitude on the other side.
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4.15 AC and DC Josephson Junc-

Figure 4.3: DC and AC Josephson Effects
tions
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4.15.1 Josephson Junction

4.16 DC and RF Squids
In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted that Cooper pairs
could tunnel through a very thin insulating layer separat- 4.16.1 SQUID
ing two super conductors. The superconductor-insulator-
superconductor layer constitutes the Josephson junction. A superconducting quantum interference device
(SQUID) is a device used to measure extremely weak
magnetic flux. Thus, it is basically a sensitive magnetome-
4.15.2 DC Josephson Effects ter made of a superconducting ring. The flux penetrating
ℎ
a superconducting loop is quantized in steps of 𝜙0 = 2𝑒 .
Consider a Josephson junction consisting of two supercon- The heart of a SQUID is a superconducting ring, which
ducting metal films separated by a thin oxide barrier of 10 contains one or more Josephson junctions. There are
to 20 Å [Link] Cooper pairs tunnel from one side of two main types of SQUID: DC SQUID and RF (or AC)
the junction to the other side easily. This due to the phase SQUID.
difference introduced by the insulator between the wave
function of Cooper pairs on both sides the junction. Due
to the phase difference a super current flows through the 4.16.2 DC Squid
junction even if the applied voltage is zero. This is known The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert Jakle-
as the DC Josephson effect. Josephson showed that the vic, John Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Mercereau. It
super current through the junction is given by has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconduct-
ing loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. It relies
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙0 (4.17) on the interference of currents form each junction.

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In RF SQUID the flux is coupled into a loop contain-

ing a single JJ through an input coil and an RF coil. RF
coil is part of a high-Q resonant circuit to read out cur-
rent changes due to induced flux in the SQUID loop. The
tuned circuit is driven by a constant RF oscillator which is
weakly coupled to the loop. Measuring the change in the
input coil current is done by counting the number of peri-
ods the coil produces in the detected RF output, because
the detected RF output is a periodic function.

Note : The DC SQUIDs offer higher sensitivity, but RF

The dc SQUID is biased with a dc current equal to about SQUIDs have lower sensitivity. RF SQUIDs are com-
twice the superconducting current 𝐼𝑐 . Dc voltage across monly used form of the sensor, because of their ease and
the junctions is created. Change in the flux penetrating low price of manufacturing in small batches.
the loop enhances the current through one JJ and reduces
the current through the other. This leads to JJs working
asymmetrically, one JJ is driven normally and one is super- 4.17 Applications of Superconduc-

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conducting. This asymmetry provides a feedback current tivity in Quantum Computing
that nulls the flux penetrating the SQUID loop. Total flux
within the loop is multiples of 𝜙0 . The feedback current is Squids find application of magnetometers to measure very
a direct measure of changes in flux applied to the SQUID. C small fields like human brain magnetic fields. But the ap-
plications of SQUIDs in Quantum computing are as fol-
lows.
4.16.3 RF (AC) Squid
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The RF SQUID was invented in 1965 by Robert Jak- 4.17.1 Charge Qubit
levic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Edward
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Zimmerman at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson ef- In quantum computing, a charge qubit is also known as
fect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less sensi- Cooper-pair box. it is a qubit whose basis states are charge
tive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to states. The states represent the presence or absence of ex-
manufacture in smaller quantities. cess Cooper pairs in the island (dotted region in the fig-
ure). In superconducting quantum computing, a charge
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qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled

by Josephson Junction to a superconducting reservoir.
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4.17.2 Flux Qubit

Flux qubits (also known as persistent current qubits) are
micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal that is
interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. These de-
vices function as quantum bits. The Josephson junctions
are designed so that a persistent current will flow continu-
ously when an external magnetic flux is applied. Only an
integer number of flux quanta are allowed to penetrate the
superconducting ring.

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9. Distinguish between/Explain Type-1 and Type-2 su-

perconductors.

10. Describe the evolution of high temperature of super-

conductivity.
11. Elucidate the BCS Theory of Superconductivity.
12. Explain the phenomenon of quantum tunneling.

13. Define a Josephson Junction and hence explain the

DC and AC Josephson effects.
4.17.3 Phase Qubit 14. Define Squid and describe DC and RF Squids.
A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, oper-
15. Brief the applications of superconductivity in quan-
ated in the zero voltage state with a non-zero current bias.
tum computing.
This employs a single Josephson junction and the two lev-
els are defined by quantum oscillations of the phase differ-
ence between the electrodes of the junction. DC Squid is a 4.19 Numerical Problems

.IN
type of phase qubit.
1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of
7.26𝐾. If the initial field at 0𝐾 is 50 × 103 𝐴𝑚 −1 Cal-
C culate the critical field at 6𝐾.
2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of
3.7𝐾 at zero magnetic field and a critical field of
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0.0306 tesla at 0𝐾. Find the critical field at 2𝐾.
3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead
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is 7.26𝐾. Calculate the initial field at 0𝐾 given the

critical field at 5 K as 33.644 × 103 𝐴𝑚 −1

4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconduc-

tor at 7𝐾 and 5𝐾 give the critical temperature 8𝐾.
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5. The critical field for niobium is 1 × 105 𝐴𝑚 −1 at 8𝐾

4.18 Model Questions and 2 × 105 𝐴𝑚 −1 at 0𝐾. Calculate the transition tem-
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perature of the element.

1. Define Phonon. Describe Mathiessen’s rule.

2. Explain the failures of Classical Free Electron Theory

of Metals.

3. Mention the Assumptions of Classical Free electron

theory of metals.

4. Explain the concept of Fermi Level, Fermi Energy,

Density of States.

5. Define Fermi Factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi

Factor with Energy and Temperature and represent
graphically.

6. Discuss the discovery of Superconductivity and hence

discuss the variation of resistivity with temperature in
superconductor with critical temperature as reference.

7. State and explain Meissner’s Effect.

8. Define Critical field and hence explain its variation

with temperature below critical temperature.

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Part IV

MODULE 4 : PHOTONICS
C
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 .IN
C
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Chapter 5

LASER

5.1 Introduction
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stim-
ulated Emission of Radiation. The first LASER was built
by Theodore H Maiman in the year 1960. Thus it finds

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various applications starting from industries to communi-
cation.

5.2 Characteristics of a LASER

beam
C
Figure 5.1: Induced absorption
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The LASER beam has the following four characteristics.
1. LASER beam is highly monochromatic.
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5.3.2 Spontaneous Emission

2. LASER beam is highly coherent.
3. LASER beam is highly directional. Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of pho-
ton, when an atom transits from higher energy level to
4. LASER is a high intensity beam of light.
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lower energy level without the influence of any external

energy.
5.3 Interaction of radiation with
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matter
The interaction between radiation and matter occurs
through the following three processes.
1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

5.3.1 Induced Absorption Figure 5.2: Spontaneous emission

When a photon of right energy is incident on the atom
then the photon is absorbed This process is induced by the
photon and hence it is called Induced Absorption.
Consider an atom in a lower energy states 𝐸 1 , it will An electron in the higher energy state of an atom makes
excite to higher energy states 𝐸 2 by absorbing the incident a transition to lower energy state without the action of any
photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . Here 𝐸 1 energy external agency. the energy of the photon emitted is given
of the lower energy state, 𝐸 2 is the energy of the higher by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 . In this process the emitted photons
energy state, ℎ is the Planck’s constant 𝜈 is the frequency need not travel in the same direction. Thus the light beam
of photon. is not directional.

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5.3.3 Stimulated Emission 2. Rate of Induced absorption = 𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈

When a photon of suitable energy interacts with an
atom in the higher energy state then the atom is stimulated Here 𝐵12 is proportionality constant called Einsteins coef-
(Forced) to make transition from higher energy state to a ficient of Induced absorption.
lower energy state with the emission of a photon. Both
the incident photon and the emitted photons are coherent Rate of spontaneous emission:
and travel in the same direction. Thus the process is called
stimulated emission. The number of spontaneous emission per unit volume in
unit time is called rate of spontaneous emission. Rate of
spontaneous emission depends on

Since spontaneous emission is a voluntary process it is

independent of energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . The rate of sponta-
neous emission depends only on the number of atoms in
the higher energy state 𝑁2 . Thus

1. Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ 𝑁2

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2. Rate of Spontaneous emission = 𝐴21 𝑁2

Here 𝐴21 is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s

Figure 5.3: Stimulated emission C co-efficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission

When a photon of energy ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 interacts with
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an atom in the higher energy state the stimulated emission The number of stimulated emission per unit volume in unit
takes place with the emission of two photons of same en- time is called rate of stimulated emission. Rate of stimu-
ergy that are highly directional and [Link] stimu- lated emission depends upon,
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lated emission could be used to generate a highly coherent

1. Number of atoms in the higher energy state (𝑁2 )
directional beam of light.
2. The energy density (𝐸 𝜈 ).

5.4 Einstein’s A and B co-efficients Hence

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and expression for energy den- 1. The Rate of stimulated emission ∝ 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈

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sity 2. Rate of stimulated emission = 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈

Consider a system containing 𝑁 atoms and is under ther- Here the proportionality constant called 𝐵21 is Einstein’s
mal equilibrium. Let 𝐸 1 and 𝐸 2 be the lower and higher coefficient of stimulated emission.
energy levels that contain 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 number of atoms re- Under Thermal Equilibrium the total Energy of the Sys-
spectively. Let the incident energy density of the radia- tem remains unchanged. Hence Rate of Absorption is
tion be 𝐸 𝜈 . Hence the system absorbs and emits the en- equal to rate of emission.
ergy through the following processes. The energy of the ∴ Rate of Induced Absorption = [Rate of Spontaneous
photons absorbed and emitted by the atoms is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = emission + Rate of Stimulated Emission]
(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 1 ) ∴
𝐵12 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2 + 𝐵21 𝑁2 𝐸 𝜈 (5.1)
Rate of induced absorption
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 ) 𝐸 𝜈 = 𝐴21 𝑁2
The rate of induced absorption is defined as the number
of induced absorption per second per unit volume in unit
time. Rate of absorption depends on 𝐴21 𝑁2
𝐸𝜈 = (5.2)
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
1. Number of atoms in the lower energy state 𝑁1 .
𝐴21
𝐸𝜈 = (5.3)
2. The incident energy density 𝐸 𝜈 . 𝑁1
𝐵12 𝑁2 − 𝐵21
Hence
" #
𝐴21 1
𝐸𝜈 = 𝐵12 𝑁1
(5.4)
1. Rate of Induced absorption ∝ 𝑁1 𝐸 𝜈 𝐵21
𝐵21 𝑁2 −1

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According to Boltzmann relation the we have 5.5.2 Active medium

𝑁2 −ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (5.5) Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the ac-
𝑁1 tive medium due to the absorption of energy. The active
or we can re-write as, medium supports meta-stable states. After this stage the
active medium is capable of emitting LASER light.
𝑁1 ℎ𝜈
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (5.6)
𝑁2
5.5.3 Resonant cavity (or) LASER cavity
Here ℎ is the Planck’s constant, 𝑐 is the speed of light in
vacuum, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the photon, 𝑘 is the Boltz- The LASER Cavity consists of an active medium bound
mann constant and 𝑇 is the absolute temperature. Substi- between two highly parallel mirrors. The reflection of
𝑁1
tuting for 𝑁 in equation 5.4 photons from the mirrors results in multiple traverse of
2
photons through the active medium inducing more and
  more stimulated emissions. Thus amplification of light is
𝐴21  1 
achieved. This also helps to tap certain permissible part
𝐸𝜈 = (5.7)
 
  ℎ𝜈  
𝐵21  𝐵12 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 
 𝐵21  of LASER energy from the active [Link] cavity res-
  onates and the output will be maximum when the distance
According to Planck’s radiation law, the equation for en- 𝐿 between the mirrors is equal to an integral multiple of 𝜆2 .

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ergy density in the frequency domain is given by Here 𝜆 is the wavelength of incident suitable [Link]
length of the LASER cavity is expressed as
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
 
1
𝐸𝜈 = (5.8) 𝑛𝜆
𝑐3 ℎ𝜈
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1 𝐿= (5.12)
on comparing equations 5.7 and 5.8 we can get 2

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
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= (5.9) 5.6 Types of LASER
𝑐3
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𝐵21
and 1. Gas LASER
𝐵12 A gas laser is a laser that uses a gas or a mixture of
=1 (5.10)
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𝐵21 gases as its active medium to produce a coherent light

or 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 beam.
This means that Probability of Induced absorption is 2. Liquid LASER
equal to Probability of Stimulated emission. Hence 𝐴21 A liquid laser is a type of laser that uses an organic
& 𝐵21 can be replaced by 𝐴 & 𝐵. Thus equation 5.7 could
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dye dissolved in a liquid solvent as its active medium.

be written as   These are also known as dye lasers and are notable for
𝐴 1
𝐸𝜈 = (5.11) their ability to produce a wide, tunable range of wave-
VT

ℎ𝜈
𝐵 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1 lengths, from the ultraviolet to the infrared spectrum.
Hence the expression for energy density in terms of Ein-
stein’s co-efficient 𝐴 and 𝐵. 3. Solid state LASER
A solid-state laser uses a solid material, such as a
crystal or glass, as the active medium, rather than a
5.5 Requisites of a LASER system liquid or gas. The solid material is doped with spe-
cific ions that absorb energy and produce a coherent
The three requisites of a LASER system are, light beam through stimulated emission.
1. Excitation source for pumping action 4. Semiconductor LASER (Diode LASER)
2. Active medium that supports meta-stable states
3. LASER cavity 5.7 Semiconductor LASER or Diode
LASER
5.5.1 Energy Source or Pumping Mecha-
nism Introduction

In order to achieve population inversion more and more Semiconductor diode LASER is an LED with heavily
atoms are to be moved to higher energy state and is called doped P and N sections. First semiconductor LASER was
pumping. This is achieved by supplying suitable energy fabricated in 1962 using 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 by Hall with his co-
using an energy source. If optical energy is used then the workers. It is a low cost and high efficiency LASER.
pumping is called optical pumping and if electrical energy
is used then the pumping is called electrical pumping. Construction

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Advantages
1. It has excellent efficiency

2. The output can be modulated

3. It produces both continuous wave output or pulsed

output.

4. It is highly economical

Applications
Figure 5.4: Semiconductor Diode LASER 1. It is used in optical fiber communication.

2. It is used in commercial CD recording and reading.

Construction 3. It is used in Barcode Reader, Laser printing and Laser

Cooling.
The 𝐺𝑎 − 𝐴𝑠 LASER diode belongs to direct band gap

.IN
semiconductors. The 𝑛-section is derived by doping the
substrate with Tellurium and 𝑝-section is derived by dop-
ing the substrate with Zinc. The diode used is in the form
5.8 Single Photon Source
of a cube with dimension 0.4 mm. The depletion region is
A single Photon source is a device or a system which emit
of thickness 0.1 micrometer and lies horizontal as shown
in the figure [Link] current is passed through the ohmic
C one photon at a time.
contacts provided to the top and bottom faces. The front
N
and back faces are polished and made highly parallel to 5.8.1 Single Photon Sources are listed below
each other to have a LASER cavity. The other two faces
1. Quantum dot single Photon source
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are roughened.
2. Color center single Photon source

3. Atomic and ionic single Photon source

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4. Molecule based single Photon source

5. Attenuators
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5.8.2 Attenuators
The following types of attenuators are used to obtain single
photons:

1. Neutral Density (ND) Filters

Working
The Diode is forward biased using an external source. 2. Variable Optical Attenuators (VOA)
Therefore electrons and holes flow across junction. Hence
3. Polarization-based Attenuators
the current flows through the diode. When a hole meets
an electron it recombines with electron emitting a pho-
ton. This could be considered as the transition of electron
from conduction band to valance band. When the current
5.9 Use of Attenuators for single
is low spontaneous emission is predominant. If the cur- photon sources
rent is sufficiently high population inversion is achieved.
The photons liberated initially due to spontaneous emis- It is possible to produce single photons by attenuating the
sions induce further stimulated emissions. The LASER light source using suitable attenuators. Actually, attenu-
cavity helps in the amplification of light. Finally this re- ators do not produce single photons, but they reduce the
sults in an avalanche of photons and hence the LASER ac- power of the beam and thereby reduce the average number
tion is achieved. If the GaAs semiconductor is used then of photons in the beam to exactly one. In this case, the
the wavelength of the LASER emitted is 840nm. output behaves as a pseudo-single photon source.

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When a high-loss attenuator is placed in the path of a 1. Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

laser beam, it either absorbs or scatters or polarizes the
light and removes a very large number of photons from the 2. Indium phosphide (InP)
beam. The term 𝜇 (called mean photon number per pulse)
Using Pockel’s effect, the phase, polarization state, and
decides the photon number in the transmitted beam. By
amplitude of the light passing through the crystals can be
setting 𝜇 = 0.1, it is possible to have only one photon in
modulated by applying an electric field.
the transmitted beam.
Pockel’s Cell
5.9.1 Optical Modulators A Pockel’s cell is a device that works on the principle of
the Pockel’s effect. It consists of a crystal placed between
An optical modulator is a device used to control or modify
two electrodes. When light passes through the crystal and
the property of light, such as its amplitude, phase, polariza-
a very high voltage is applied across it, the phase of the
tion, or frequency. Optical modulators are essential com-
light changes due to the change in refractive index. By
ponents in a wide range of applications, including telecom-
using suitable polarizers in the cell, one can also modulate
munications, signal processing, and laser systems.
the amplitude of the light.
1. Electro-optic modulators : They utilize the electro-
optic effect, where the refractive index of a material

.IN
changes in response to an electric field.
Electro-optic modulators There are two types in this
namely:

(a) Pockel’s effect

(b) Kerr effect
C
N
5.10 Pockel’s effect (Linear electro-
SY

optic effect)
When an electric field is applied to some transparent crys-
tals, the refractive index (RI) of the crystal changes. As Figure 5.6: Pockel cell
the applied voltage increases, the refractive index increases
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linearly. The incident light splits into two parts due to the
change in RI, and hence birefringence occurs. This phe-
nomenon is known as the Pockel’s effect. 5.11 Kerr effect (linear electro-optic
VT

effect)
When electric field is applied to transparent crystals, the
refractive index (RI) of the crystal changes. The change in
the RI is directly proportional to square of the applied volt-
age or square of the applied field strength. This is known
as Kerr effect.
The RI is different for light polarized parallel to and per-
pendicular to applied field. This change makes the crystal
Figure 5.5: Pockel effect birefringent (even though it was not birefringent earlier!).
Hence the crystal can be used as ‘electrically controllable
Pockel’s effect occurs only in non-centrosymmetric ma- wave plate’. If Δn is the change in RI of the beams, is the
terials such as: wavelength of the incident light and E is the applied field
strength then
1. Lithium niobate (𝐿𝑖𝑁 𝑏𝑂 3 ) Δ𝑛 = 𝜆𝐾 𝐸 2 (5.13)
2. Lithium tantalate (𝐿𝑖𝑇 𝑎𝑂 3 ) Where K is known as Kerr constant.
3. Potassium di-deuterium phosphate (KDP) The Kerr cell is placed between two crossed polariz-
4. 𝛽 Barium borate (BBO) ers. With no voltage applied, the polarizers block all light
from passing through them. When voltage is applied, the
It also occurs in compound semiconductors such as: Kerr effect causes the polarization of the light to rotate.

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This rotation allows some light to pass through the second 19) arranged in a cascade. Each electrodes is held at a pro-
polarizer, effectively "opening" the shutter. By modulating gressively higher positive potential than the previous one.
the voltage, one can precisely control the amount of light Anode: The final electrode in the tube, which is at the
transmitted. highest positive potential. It collects the amplified cloud
of electrons.

Figure 5.7: Kerr cell

5.12 Photodetectors
A photo-detector is an opto-electronic device that converts
light into an electrical signal. Figure 5.8: Photo-multiplier tubes

.IN
5.12.1 Types of Photo-detectors
1. Photo-diodes Working:

2. Photo-transistors
C The working of a PMT involves a three-step process:
Photo-emission: When a photon enters the tube and
3. Photo-multiplier tubes strikes the photo-cathode, its energy causes an electron to
N
be ejected. This initial electron is called a photo-electron.
4. Single Photon Avalanche Diode Electron multiplication: The photo-electron is acceler-
ated by a high-voltage electric field toward the first elec-
SY

5.12.2 Photo-multiplier tubes trode, which is set at a higher potential. When the elec-
tron strikes the first electrode, it releases several secondary
A photomultiplier tube (PMT) converts weak light into an electrons. These new electrons are then accelerated toward
electrical signal through the principles of the photoelectric the second electrode, which is at an even higher potential.
effect and secondary emission.
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This process is repeated down the chain of electrode, creat-

ing a cascade or avalanche of electrons. The gain, or multi-
Principle: plication factor, of the tube is determined by the number of
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electrode stages and the voltage difference between them.

The operation of a PMT is based on two fundamental
Signal collection: The large, multiplied cloud of electrons
physics principles:
finally reaches the anode. This surge of electrons produces
Photo-electric effect: When a suitable frequency of elec-
a measurable output current, which is then sent to an ex-
tromagnetic radiation strike a specific photo-emissive ma-
ternal circuit for signal processing. The output current is
terial, they transfer their energy to electrons, causing the
directly proportional to the initial number of photons that
electrons to be released.
hit the photo-cathode.
Secondary electron emission: A single, accelerated elec-
tron striking an electrode can knock multiple secondary
electrons free from the electrode surface. 5.12.3 Single Photon Avalanche Diode
(SPAD):
Construction:
Principle:
A photomultiplier tube is an evacuated glass tube contain-
ing several key components: The biasing a p-n semiconductor junction with a reverse
Photocathode: A photoemissive material, often a cesium- voltage that exceeds its characteristic breakdown voltage,
antimony alloy, that is mounted inside the tube at the end placing it in a metastable state where an extremely high
where light enters. When light strikes the photo-cathode, electric field is present. When a single photon is ab-
it emits electrons via the photoelectric effect. sorbed within the 𝑆𝑃 𝐴𝐷 𝑠 active region, it generates a sin-
Focusing electrodes: These guide and accelerate the gle electron-hole pair. This carrier is then accelerated by
photo-electrons from the photo-cathode toward the first the intense electric field, triggering an avalanche of impact
electrode. ionization events. This chain reaction, or avalanche mul-
Electrodes: A series of multiple electrodes (typically 8 to tiplication, results in a massive, self-sustaining avalanche

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of charge carriers, which is registered as a sharp, macro- voltage, making it ready to detect the next photon. This ro-
scopic current pulse. This 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠 leading edge indicates bust and repeatable process effectively converts single light
the precise arrival time of the photon, converting a single quanta into standardized electrical pulses, making SPADs
quantum of light into a strong electrical signal. ideal for a wide range of applications that demand single-
photon sensitivity and high timing resolution. I-V charac-
teristics of Single Photon Avalanche Diode,

5.12.4 Superconducting nanowire single

photon detectors (SNSPD’s):
Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors
(SNSPD’s) are the advanced devises for single photon
Figure 5.9: Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) detection. They work on the principle that when a photon
is incident it breaks cooper pairs and reduces the local
critical current. By measuring, the changes in the current
can detect the photon.

.IN
Construction:

The SNSPD consists of a thin and narrow superconducting

C wire. The wire is arranges in a curved fashion (called Me-
ander geometry) to achieve high detection efficiency. The
wire is kept at a temperature below the critical temperature
N
and connected to DC source. The biasing current (𝐼 𝐵 ) in
the wire is maintained just below its critical current (𝐼𝐶 ).
SY

The whole arrangement is connected to a special type of

Construction:
electronic circuit called as readout.
SPADs are typically fabricated using standard semicon-
ductor processes, with silicon being the most common ma-
terial for detecting visible light. A crucial feature is the Working:
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guard ring, an implant surrounding the active junction that

prevents premature breakdown at the device edges by con- When a photon is incident on the wire, it breaks the cooper
pairs and local critical current decreases (fig i). If the criti-
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fining the high electric field to the intended avalanche re-

gion. To minimize noise, high-performance SPADs are of- cal current decreases below the bias current then the super-
ten built on high-quality epitaxial layers. Advanced de- conductivity is spoiled and a local non-superconducting re-
signs may utilize back-illumination to increase quantum gion or ‘Hotspot’ is created. The resistance of the hotspot
efficiency by allowing light to enter from the thinned back is larger than the resistance of the readout (about1Kilo-
of the wafer. For applications requiring high-resolution ohm). As a result bias current flows through the read-
imaging, SPADs are frequently arranged into arrays, some- out. (In fact the readout acts as a shunt for the current).
times integrated monolithically with readout electronics This produces a measurable voltage pulse (fig ii) such that
using 3D stacking techniques to improve the pixel fill fac- one photon pulse. By measuring this voltage, we can de-
tor. tect the incident photon. With most of the bias current
flowing through the readout, the non superconducting re-
Working: gion rapidly cools and returns to the superconducting state,
ready to detect another photon.
The working cycle of a SPAD is a continuous sequence of
arming, detection, quenching, and resetting. In the quies-
cent state, the SPAD is biased at a voltage above its break-
down level but remains non-conductive until a charge car-
rier initiates an avalanche. Upon detection, the single pho-
ton triggers the avalanche current, which is then swiftly
terminated by a quenching circuit. Quenching can be pas-
sive, using a high-value series resistor, or active, using a
Figure 5.10: Photo-multiplier tubes
fast electronic circuit to quickly lower the bias voltage.
After quenching, the device is reset by restoring the bias

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Advantages: 3. A pulsed LASER has an average power output 1.5

mW per pulse and pulse duration is 20 ns. The
SNSPD’s offers many important advantages over SPADs.
number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to
Some of them are 1. Unparalleled detection efficiency and
be 1.047 ×108 . Find the wavelength of the emitted
timing precision. 2. Negligible intrinsic dark counts. 3.
LASER.
Ultrafast detection rates. 4. Broadband operation.
4. A pulsed LASER with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns.
Uses: If the number of photons emitted per pulse is 5 ×107 .
Calculate the wavelength of LASER.
They are becoming more popular in the applications of bio
photonics, quantum optics and quantum computing. 5. A Ruby LASER emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with
average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 , calculate the
5.13 Model Questions wavelength of photons.
1. What is LASER? Enumerate the Characteristics of a 6. In a LASER system when the energy difference be-
LASER Beam. tween two energy levels is 2 × 10−19 J, the average
power output of LASER beam is found to be 4 mW.
2. Discuss the three possible ways through which radia-
Calculate number of photons emitted per second.

.IN
tion and matter interaction can take place.
3. Explain the terms, (i) Induced absorption, (ii) Sponta-
neous emission, (iii) Stimulated emission, (iv) Popu-
lation inversion, (v) Meta-stable state & (vi) Resonant
cavity.
C
4. Explain the rates of absorption and emission and
N
hence derive an expression for energy density using
Einstein’s A and B coefficients.
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5. Explain requisites of LASER system.

6. What is Semiconductor LASER? Describe with en-
ergy band diagram the construction & working of
Semiconductor diode LASER along with applica-
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tions.
7. Describe the Single Photon Source and Explain the
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use of Attenuators for the single photon sources.

8. Explain Optical Modulators.
9. Describe Pockel’s effect, and Explain the construction
& working of Pockel’s effect along with pockel’s cell.
10. Explain the Kerr effect.
11. Describe the construction & working of Photo-
multiplier tube.
12. Sketch the Construction & working of Single Photon
Avalanche Diode(SPAD).

5.14 Numerical Problems

1. The average power output of a LASER beam of wave-
length 6500 Å is 10 mW. Find the number of photons
emitted per second by the LASER source.
2. The average power of a LASER beam of wavelength
6328 Å is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted
per second by the LASER source.

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Chapter 6

Optical Fibers

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Total Internal Reflection

Optical fibers are the wires and strands made of trans- Consider a ray of light moving from a denser medium to
parent dielectrics which guide light over longer distances rarer medium. As a result the incident ray of light bends
away from the normal. Hence the angle of refraction is

.IN
using the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection. Many
optical fibers are bundled together and are given a protec- greater than the angle of incidence. As the angle of inci-
tive layer of covering using an insulating material. This dence increases the angle of refraction also increases. For
bundle is called Optical Fiber Cable or Fiber Bundle (Bun- a particular angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 the refracted ray grazes
dle Fiber). the interface separating the two media. The corresponding
C angle of incidence 𝜃 𝑐 is called Critical Angle. If the an-
gle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then all
the light is turned back into the same medium and is called
N
Construction: The sectional view of a typical optical
fiber is as shown in the figure. It has three regions named Total Internal Reflection.
Core, Cladding and Sheath.
SY

1. The innermost light guiding region is called Core.

2. The layer covering core and helps in total internal re-

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flection of light is called Cladding or Clad.

3. The outermost protective layer is called Sheath (Coat-

VT

Figure 6.2: Total Internal Reflection

ing). The sheath protects the fiber from mechanical
stress and chemical reactions.

The optical fiber is designed to support total internal re- According to Snell’s law
flection and hence the RI of core𝑛1 is made greater than
the RI of cladding 𝑛2 . A typical fiber will be of the order 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
of few microns.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 1 = 𝜃 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 2 = 900
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐 =
𝑛1
 
−1 𝑛2
𝜃 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (6.1)
𝑛1

6.3 Angle of acceptance and Numer-

Figure 6.1: Optical fiber construction
ical aperture
Acceptance angle (𝜃 0 ) is the maximum angle of incidence
with which the ray is sent into the fiber core which allows

45

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the incident light to be guided by the core. It is also called 1 √︁ 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.4)
as waveguide acceptance angle or acceptance cone half an- 𝑛1
gle. use equation (1.26) in equation (1.24) we have,
𝑛1 1 √︁ 2
In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2
𝑛0 𝑛1
is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of
angles over which the fiber can accept light. Numerical 1 √︁ 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.5)
aperture represents the light gathering capability of optical 𝑛0
fiber and it is given by 𝑁 𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 . Numerical aperture 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
1 √︁ 2
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.6)
6.3.1 Condition for propagation 𝑛0
If the fiber is in air 𝑛0 = 1 then,
√︁
𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 (6.7)
Light is transmitted through the fiber only when
𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝜃0 (6.8)

.IN
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 (6.9)
√︁
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
Figure 6.3: Ray propagation in the fiber
C 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ (6.10)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 ≤ 𝑁.𝐴 (6.11)

N
Consider an optical fiber with core made of refractive This is the condition for propagation. Light will be trans-
index 𝑛1 & cladding made of material refractive index 𝑛2 . mitted through the optical fiber with multiple total internal
SY

Let 𝑛0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium. reflections when the above condition is satisfied.
Let a ray of light 𝐴𝑂 entering into core at an angle of in-
cidence 𝜃 0 w.r.t fiber axis. Then it is refracted along 𝑂𝐵 at 6.3.2 Fractional RI Change
an angle 𝜃 1 & meet core-cladding interface at critical angle
of incidence (𝜃 𝑐 = 90 − 𝜃 1 ). Then the refracted ray grazes Fractional index change (Δ) is defined as the ratio of
U

along 𝐵𝐶. On applying Snell’s law at O, we get difference in refractive indices of core & cladding to the
refractive index of the core.
VT

𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
Δ= (6.12)
𝑛1 𝑛1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 (6.2)
𝑛0
On applying Snell’s law at point B, we get 𝑛1 Δ = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2 (6.13)

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(900 − 𝜃 1 ) = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 6.3.3 Relation between NA and Δ

𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = 𝑛2 consider the equation
𝑛2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 = (6.3) √︁
𝑛1 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
From trigonometric identity √︁
𝑁.𝐴 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) (6.14)
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 1 = 1 For small difference of 𝑛1 & 𝑛2 , we can have,
√︁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 1 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 (6.15)
using equation 1.25 ∴ 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ≈ 2𝑛1
√︁
√︄
 2 ∴ 𝑁.𝐴 = (2 𝑛1 ) (𝑛1 Δ)
𝑛2 √︁
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 = 1− 𝑁.𝐴 = 2 𝑛1 2 Δ
𝑛1 √
√︄ 𝑁.𝐴 = 𝑛1 2 Δ (6.16)
2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 Thus the Numerical aperture can be increased by in-
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 =
𝑛1 2 creasing the fractional index change.

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6.4 Modes of propagation The attenuation in fibers gives is due to the following
three losses
Though optical fiber should support any numbers of rays
for propagation practically. But it is found that the opti- 1. Absorption losses
cal fiber allows only a certain restricted number of rays for
propagation. The maximum number of rays or paths sup- 2. Scattering loss (due to Rayleigh Scattering)
ported by the fiber for the propagation of light is called
3. Geometric Effects (Radiation losses)
Modes of propagation.

6.5.1 Absorption loss

V-number (Normalised Frequency of the fiber) An
Optical fiber may be characterized by one more parameter In this type of loss, the loss of signal power occurs due
called V-number. This determines the Number of modes to absorption of photons associated with the signal. Pho-
supported by an optical fiber for the propagation. tons are absorbed either by impurities in the glass fiber
or by pure glass material itself. Absorption loss is wave-
𝑉=
𝜋 𝑑 √︁ 2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 2 (6.17) length [Link] absorption loss is classified in to
𝜆 two types.

.IN
𝜋𝑑 Extrinsic absorption : Extrinsic loss in an optical fiber
𝑉= 𝑁.𝐴 (6.18)
𝜆 is due to the absorption of light by the impurities such
as hydroxide ions and transition metal ions such as iron,
here 𝑑 is the diameter of the core, 𝜆 is wavelength, 𝑛1 C chromium, cobalt and copper.
is the refractive index of the core and 𝑛2 is the refractive
index of the cladding. N.A is numerical Aperture. If the
fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index 𝑛0 , Intrinsic absorption Intrinsic loss in fiber is due to the
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then absorption of light by the material of the fiber glass itself.
√︁ The intrinsic losses are insignificant.
𝜋 𝑑 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑉= (6.19)
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𝜆 𝑛0
6.5.2 Scattering loss
If 𝑉 ≫ 1, the number of modes supported by fiber can
be determined using the formula Light traveling through the core can get scattered by im-
purities or small regions with sudden change in refractive
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𝑉2 index. Rayleigh scattering varies as 𝛼 = 𝜆14 and leads to

𝑁
2 significant power loss at smaller wavelengths. The scat-
tering results in loss of photons. Rayleigh scattering is re-
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sponsible for maximum losses in optical fibers.

!
𝜋2 𝑑 2 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑁 (6.20)
2 𝜆2 𝑛20
6.5.3 Geometric effects
These may occur due to manufacturing defects like irregu-
6.5 Attenuation larities in fibre dimensions during drawing process or dur-
ing coating, cabling or insulation processes. The micro-
The optical energy (signal) passing through the optical
scopic bends are the bends with radii greater than fiber di-
fiber gets reduced progressively. This is due to attenuation.
ameter. The microscopic bends couple light between the
It is also called the fiber loss or significant loss. The atten-
various guided modes of the fiber and some of them then
uation is measured in terms of attenuation co-efficient. The
leak through the fiber.
attenuation co-efficient 𝛼 is defined as the ratio of optical
power output to the optical power input for a fiber of length
L and for a given wavelength of propagating light. It is ex-
pressed in 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚. Attenuation co-efficient is given by
6.6 Mach-Zehnder interferometer
 
(MZI)
−10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛼= log10 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚 (6.21) The Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) is a type of beam
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛
division interferometer used in electro optic modulator,
Here 𝐿 is the length of the cable in 𝑘𝑚, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is Power quantum cryptography, quantum computing, quantum en-
of optical signal at launching end (input power) & 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is tanglement etc. It is highly configurable instrument com-
Power of optical signal at receiving end (output power) pare to other interferometers.

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6.6.1 Construction and working 4. What is attenuation coefficient? Mention the expres-
sion for the attenuation coefficient.
MZI consists of a monochromatic source S (usually laser
source), two half silvered mirrors called beam splitters BS- 5. What are the advantages of optical communications
1 & BS-2, two plane mirrors M1 & M2 and two detectors over other conventional types of communication?
D1 and D2 arranged as shown in fig. The light emitted by
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an opti-
cal communication.

7. Describe the construction & working of Mach-

Zehnder interferometer

6.8 Numerical Problems

1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of accep-
tance for an optical fiber having refractive indices
1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.

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2. The refractive indices of the core and cladding of a
step index optical fiber are 1.45 and 1.4 respectively
and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚. Calculate its fractional
C refractive index change and numerical aperture.

3. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and

Figure 6.4: Mach-Zehnder interferometer critical angle of a fiber having a core RI 1.50 and
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cladding RI 1.45.
the source is incident on BS-1 where it splits into two. The
reflected beam R travels along X-axis and the transmitted 4. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The
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beam T travels along Y-axis. If the reflected beam R and refractive index of cladding is 1.48. Calculate the re-
the transmitted beam T are then reflected by M1 & M2 and fractive index of the core, the acceptance angle of the
finally arrive at BS-2 and the path length remains same, fiber and the fractional index change.
they then interfere constructively.
5. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85%
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If may be observed that beam R at D1 and T at D2 with a

of input power after traveling a distance of 500 m in
phase difference of 180° (as shown in fig). Hence, they in-
the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.
terfere destructively at D2. Beam proceeding towards D1
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will have same phase and interfere constructively. Hence 6. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is
only D1 receives the light or now some sample is placed in 3% less than the core index. Calculate the numerical
the path of R beam or T, the path of S is blocked then both aperture, angle of acceptance critical angle.
D1 and D2 receives the light.
MZI can be used to estimate the phase shift of photon go- 7. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when
ing through one interferometer by estimating the probabil- surround by air. Determine the RI of its core, given
ities. In that case beams splitters are matrix operators. This the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the accep-
estimation is very crucial in the understanding of quantum tance angle when the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.
super positions, quantum computing, QKD etc.
8. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 300
when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.
6.7 Model Questions
9. Calculate NA, V-number and number of modes in
1. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numer- an optical fiber of core diameter 50𝜇𝑚, core and
ical aperture, (iii) fractional index change (iv) modes cladding refractive indices 1.41 and 1.4 respectively
of propagation & (v) refractive index profile. at wavelength 820 nm.

2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and ar- 10. For a step index optical fiber RI of core is 1.45 and
rive at the condition for propagation. RI of cladding is 1.40 and its core diameter is 45𝜇𝑚.
Calculate its relative refractive index difference, V-
3. What is attenuation? Explain the factors contributing number at wavelength 1000 nm and the number of
to the fiber loss. modes.

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11. Calculate the number of modes of an optical fiber

will transmit using the following data 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 1.50,
𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 = 1.48, core radius = 50𝜇𝑚, 𝜆 = 1𝜇𝑚.

12. An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120

mW which emerges out with power of 90 mW. Find
attenuation in fiber.
13. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6
dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?
14. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2
dB/km. What fraction of its initial intensity is remains
after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?

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