Physiology of the Endocrine System
Dr. ILÈS Imène - ENSV d’Alger 2025-2026
DEFINITION
▪ The endocrine system is a system for communication and regulation
within the body.
▪ It consists of cells, tissues, and glands that release hormones directly into
the bloodstream to regulate distant target organs and maintain
homeostasis.
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
THE ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system comprises various glands:
▪ Pituitary gland
▪ Pineal gland
▪ Thyroid gland
▪ Parathroids gland
▪ Pancreas (Endocrine)
▪ Adrenal gland
▪ Ovaries (female)
▪ Testicles (male)
LES GLANDES ENDOCRINES
ENDOCRINES VERSUS EXOCRINE GLANDS :
THE MAIN DIFFERENCES
Endocrine Exocrine
Structure Do not have ducts Have ducts
Secretions Hormones Sweat, mucus, sebum,
saliva, digestif juices,
milk.
Target area Secretions are released Secretions are released
into the bloodstream directly onto epithelial
surfaces, body cavities
or external area.
Endocrines versus
exocrine glands :
The main
differences
Différences entre glande exocrine et endocrine
FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system regulate different physiological processes such as :
▪ Growth and development
▪ Reproduction
▪ Digestion and Nutrition
▪ Regulation of organic metabolism
▪ Regulation of Hydromineral metabolism
▪ Biological rhythms
▪ Thermoregulation
▪ Stress
220px-Arnold_Adolph_Berthold
THE DISCOVERY
OF THE
ENDOCRINE
FUNCTION IS
DUE TO
BERTHOLD, A
GERMAN
PHYSIOLOGIST
(1849)
BERTHOLD CONDUCTED SOME
EXPERIMENTS ON ROOSTERS
Roosters in their normal state
have a well-developed comb
(crête) and wattles (barbillons).
INITIALLY,
BERTHOLD
PRACTISED
CASTRATION
ON ROOSTERS.
Castration Crest and wattles
(Testicules Ablation) have regressed
XX
Castrated rooster Capon
After six month…..
Testicle transplant Crest and wattles
into the abdomen of a develop
capon
Berthold’s deduction
▪ “Transplanting testes into capons’ abdomens can recover normal
male characteristics.
▪ “The testicles secrete a substance into the blood that ensures
the development of the rooster's secondary sexual characteristics
(comb, wattles, etc.)” .
• This substance was identified 50 years later as testosterone.
• The work of Berthold gave rise to the principle of internal or
endocrine secretion.
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN THE STUDY OF
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: 3 STEPS
Removal of an organ suspected of being an endocrine structure
and observation of the effects = deprivation syndrome
Correction of disorders through transplantation or injection of
extracts from the organ
Identification of the hormone produced by the gland
Hormone deprivation syndrome refers to the set
symptoms that occur when there is a sudden drop or
deficiency in certain hormones.
For example, the absence of Growth
hormone in young dog leads to
stunted growth, causing dwarfism
THE HORMONES
Definition
I. Biochemical classification
II. Metabolism and Transport
III. Mechanism of action
DEFINITION
▪ Hormone is a chemical substance that is secreted by an endocrine
cell directly into the bloodstream and has a specific effect on other
cells, known as target cells.
▪ A hormone is a messenger that conveys information.
Structure of human growth hormone (GH).
THE DIFFERENT TYPES
OF ENDOCRINE CELLS
FIRST CATEGORY
Endocrine gland
The cells form a well-defined gland.
Examples:
The thyroid gland
The adrenal gland
The anterior pituitary gland
SECOND CATEGORY
Cells form islets within an organ
E.g.: cells of the islets of Langerhans in
the pancreas
THIRD CATEGORY
▪ The endocrine cells are neurons
▪ The hormone secreted is called a
neurohormone
▪ E.g.: Hypophysis neurons that
release ADH and Oxytocin
I. BIOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
There are three types of hormones based on their chemical
composition :
▪ Peptide hormone
▪ Steroid hormone
▪ Amine hormone
PEPTIDE
HORMONES
PEPTIDE (PROTEIN) HORMONES
▪ These hormones are made from chains of amino acids.
▪ They are water-soluble (hydrophilic) and cannot pass through the lipid
cell membrane.
• Example of Peptide Hormones :
▪ Insulin (51 AA)
▪ Growth Hormone (191 AA)
▪ ADH (9 AA)
PARATHYROID
HORMONE
(84 AA)
STEROID
HORMONES
STEROID HORMONES
Steroid hormones
consist of lipo-
soluble molecules
derived from
cholesterol
STEROID HORMONES
• Adrenal cortex : Aldosterone, Cortisol
• Ovary : Oestrogens, Progesterone
• Testicule : Testosterone
AMINE HORMONES
• Amine hormones are small molecules derived from the amino
acids tyrosine and tryptophan, examples :
• Catecholamines : epinephrine, norepinephrine, from the adrenal
medulla, derived from tyrosine
• Thyroid hormones : thyroxine, triiodothyronine, derived from
tyrosine
• Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland to regulate circadian
rhythms, derived from tryptophan
THE HORMONES
Definition
I. Biochemical Classification
II. Metabolism
III. Mechanism of Action
II. METABOLISM
A. Biosynthesis
1. Peptide Hormone
2. Steroid Hormone
[Link]
1. Hormone-specific transporters
2. Non-specific transporters
C. Catabolism
1. BIOSYNTHESIS OF PEPTIDE HORMONES
Peptide hormones are synthesised
according to the general mechanisms of
protein synthesis :
Pre Prohormone
Transcription (Nucleus): DNA is
transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA)
Hormone
Translation (Ribosomes/ER): mRNA is
translated by ribosomes bound to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) into a
Pre-prohormone.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PEPTIDE HORMONES
• Maturation and Transport (ER & Golgi): The pre-prohormone is cleaved into
a Prohormone in the ER, then transported via vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.
• Packaging and Storage (Golgi): In the Golgi apparatus, the prohormone is
matured (final cleavage into active hormone) and packaged into storage vesicles.
• Secretion: Storage vesicles containing the mature hormone are stored in the
cytosol until a signal triggers their release by exocytosis
Example : Insulin Biosynthesis
Prepro Insulin : 110 AA
Pro Insulin : 84 AA
Insulin : 51 AA
Peptide Hormone Synthesis
EXOCYTOSE
Storage vesicles are moved along
microtubules to the cytoskeleton
just below the plasma membrane.
The vesicle membrane fuses with the
plasma membrane, releasing the
hormone into the extracellular fluid
Exocytosis is a calcium-dependent
mechanism that requires an increase in
intracellular calcium concentration.
II. METABOLISME
A. Biosynthesis
1. Peptide Hormone
2. Steroid Hormone
[Link]
1. Hormone-specific transporters
2. Non-specific transporters
C. Catabolism
2. BIOSYNTHESIS OF STEROID HORMONES
Steroid hormones are
synthesized from cholesterol
Cholesterol derived from
lipoproteins or intracellular
synthesis
Noyau Stérol
Cholestérol Progestérone
Testostérone Oestradiol
BIOSYNTHESIS OF STEROID HORMONES
Steroid hormone synthesis occurs in the mitochondria and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum of endocrine cells.
The first step takes place in the mitochondria and results in the
conversion of cholesterol into pregnenolone.
EXAMPLE : CORTISOL BIOSYNTHESIS
BIOSYNTHESIS OF STEROID HORMONES
▪ Because they are lipophilic, steroid
hormones cannot be stored in vesicles
▪ They diffuse immediately through the
plasma membrane upon synthesis
II. HORMONES METABOLISME
A. Biosynthesis
1. Peptide Hormone
2. Steroid Hormone
[Link]
1. Hormone-specific transporters
2. Non-specific transporters
C. Catabolism
B. TRANSPORT OF HORMONES
To reach their target cells, most hormones travel through
the bloodstream.
There are two categories of hormones:
▪ Those that circulate in the blood without being bound
to a transport protein.
▪ E.g. : most peptide hormones ADH, Oxytocin
▪ Those that bind to transport proteins
▪ E.g. : Thyroid hormones and most steroid hormones
B. TRANSPORT OF HORMONES
There are two categories of hormones transporter:
1. Hormone-specific transporters : they have high affinity for specific hormones
Example: CBG = Corticosteroid Binding Globulin, which transports cortisol
2. Non-specific transporters : they have low affinity but high capacity, acting as general
carriers. Example: Albumin
The liver is a major source of many binding proteins that transport hormones
II. HORMONES METABOLISME
A. Biosynthesis
1. Peptide Hormone
2. Steroid Hormone
[Link]
1. Hormone-specific transporters
2. Non-specific transporters
C. Catabolism
C. CATABOLISM OF HORMONES
Hormones catabolism prevents the accumulation of hormones in the blood.
Why is catabolism necessary ?
▪ Hormone = chemical messenger, information sent from one cell to
another cell.
▪ Its concentration in the blood at a given time must correspond to a
specific need of the body.
▪ This allows the endocrine system to be an effective regulatory
system.
HORMONE INACTIVATION OCCURS AT THREE LEVELS
Liver : is an organ rich in enzymes.
Chemical transformations of hormones, resulting in a loss
of their activity.
Kidney: hormone inactivation and/or elimination
through urine
Target cell: the hormone is phagocytosed by its target
cell. This is the phenomenon of internalization.
HORMONE INTERNALIZATION
▪ Process by which target cells absorb
hormones and their receptors, usually
through endocytosis.
▪ Once internalized, receptors may be
recycled back to the surface or
degraded
▪ Examples: This pathway is used by
protein hormones, such as Insulin
THE HORMONES
Definition
I. Biochemical Classification
II. Metabolism
III. Mechanism of Action
III. MECHANISM OF ACTION
The hormone only acts on cells
that are specific to it.
This specificity of action is due
to the presence of a particular
structure on the target cell: the
hormone receptor.
HORMONES
RECEPTORS
THE HORMONE RECEPTOR
▪ The hormone receptor is a protein or glycoprotein
macromolecule
▪ Example : The Growth Hormone Receptor (GHR)
in humans is a 620-amino-acid protein
GH Receptor
HORMONES RECEPTORS
▪ There are specific receptors for each
hormone.
▪ The specificity of action results from a
complementary structure between
the receptor and the hormone
A hormone can have different types of receptors and exert various effects.
Hormone
R1 R2 R3
Target cell Target cell Target cell
1 2 3
Response 1 Response 2 Response 3
Different biological effects of Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Heart : Adrenaline increased heart rate Beta 1 receptors
Lungs : Adrenaline induces bronchial dilatation Beta 2
receptors
Liver : Adrenaline induces Glycogenolysis Beta 1 and Beta
2 receptors
Blood vessels : Adrenaline induces vasoconstriction
Alpha 1 receptor
Multiple, distinct
hormone receptors
frequently exist on
the same target cell
Example :
Liver cells (hepatocytes) are a example of target cells
possessing multiple, distinct hormone receptors :
▪ Insulin Receptors: Promote glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis
▪ Glucagon and adrenaline Receptors: Promote glycogen
breakdown (glycogenolysis) and release of glucose.
▪ Cortisol Receptors: Stimulate gluconeogenesis.
LA LIAISON HORMONE-RÉCEPTEUR…..
A hormone receptor can :
▪ Distinguish its specific hormone from other molecules
▪ Bind to the hormone even at very low concentrations
▪ Initiate biochemical events leading to a biological response.
H
Receptor
Reaction 1
Reaction 2
Reaction n
Biological response
EXAMPLES OF BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
Once bound to its own receptor, the hormone transmits a message that
stimulates the target organ to perform a specific action.
▪ Contraction or relaxation of a smooth muscle fiber
▪ Exocytosis
▪ Protein synthesis
▪ Stimulation of an enzyme
▪ Opening of pores in the plasma membrane
▪ Stimulation of cell division, growth, and specialization.
▪ Activation or inhibition of specific genes