ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
(0460)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one

country or region to another
1. Population and Settlement Birth rates
Death rates
1.1. Population Dynamics Fertility rate: The average number of children a
female is expected to have in their lifetime
Keywords: High death rates in LEDCs:
Under-population: when country has declined too Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics
much that it can’t support its economic system Poor sanitation/hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places
Overpopulation: too much population of an area: Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases
overcrowding, depletion of resources Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for HIV/AIDS
every 1000 people Natural disasters/drought/ ood
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases
people Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g.
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death smoking/diet
rate Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s
Reasons for population explosion: homes
Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, Low birth rates in MEDCs:
doctors, new drugs and scienti c inventions Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions
Improved sanitation and water supply Educated in contraception/family planning
Improvements in food production (quality & quantity) Can a ord contraception/family planning/abortions
Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc. Traditionally small families
Decrease in child mortality Expense of bringing up children (high standard of
Problems of overpopulation and underpopulation: living)
Many women have careers/women are educated
Overpopulation Underpopulation Origin and impact of HIV/AIDS:
Unemployment Shortage of workers HIV-1 – arose in Central Africa
HIV-2 – arose in West Africa
Pressure on healthcare and
Less people paying taxes HIV mostly occurs in women
education
When women give birth, they infect the child as well
Schools, hospitals & services resulting in low death rate for infants
Shortage of housing close down due to lack of Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan
customers generation
Tra c congestion Less innovation/development Due to the countries being poor, there is a lack of
In ation (excess demand) Hard to defend country state welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of
Shortage of food and water Have to attract migrants education
Population policies:
Noise, air & water pollution
Some countries have population policies to either
Diseases spread quicker decrease or increase their population

Reasons for contrasting rates of natural population Decrease population:

change:
Population size is related to the amount of resources China’s One Child Policy
Started in 1979
available e.g. water, wood and minerals
Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment Country’s fertility rate was 5.7
can support without there being negative e ects to Would be ned up to 3000 if a family had a second
child
the population
Optimum Population: amount of people that a
Can have second child only
region/country can ecologically support, usually less Evaluation
if….
than carrying capacity
Population Density: number of people living in a given First child died in 2008 Fertility rate dropped from
earthquake 5.7 in 1960 to 1.5 in 2010
area (km2)
Population Distribution: how a population is spread High dependency ratio - lack
out around a country or an area First child has disability of working population to
Factors that contribute to population size: support old dependents
Living in rural area Narrowing gender imbalance

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Can have second child only Employment: People may move to another country in
Evaluation
if…. search of better jobs and better pay, or for new business
Multiple births (twins, triplets Forced abortions often opportunities
Education: Young adults from developing countries
etc), gets to keep all children happened
typically choose to move away from their home country
to study abroad for a better future
Increase population:
Healthcare: Elderly and medically challenged individuals
Germany’s Pro Natal population policy may opt to travel and then stay for access to better
Fertility rate 1.38 in 2012 medical facilities
Youth unable to support ageing population Reasons for population migration:
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from
Encourage by… Evaluation their home country
Free education Not very e ective Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their
destination
More immigration Fertility rate 1.54 in 2021
Rewards are given but no Push factors Pull factors
Paid maternity leave
punishment
Unemployment More job opportunities
Paid parental leave
War Better salary
No tax for families who have
Pollution and congestion Better schools and hospitals
more than one child
Bad weather Peaceful and safe
Friends and family may
1.2. Migration High crime rates
already live there
Poor education and
Keywords: Citizenship
healthcare
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
another Poor housing Higher standard of living
Immigrants: People who arrives at a country to live Famine Closer to relatives
there permanently
Emigrants: People who leaves the country to live in Impacts of Migration:
another country permanently
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus number COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
of emigrants Home country for migrants; country they were living in
Types of migration: before moving
Internal migration: When people move to a di erent Advantages Disadvantages
place within the country Labour force reduced -
Less pressure on healthcare
Eg - California, US to Texas, US reduced output
International migration: When people move from a Brain drain: more
country to another; involving the crossing of a Decline in birth rate skillful/educated labour leave
country’s border country - fewer innovations
Eg - Malaysia to Korea
Migrants bring back new
Temporary migration: When people stay in an area for Division of families
skills
a limited amount of time
Eg: Seasonal migrants Money is sent back Left with elderly population -
Permanent migration: When people move and never
(remittances) less income
return home Creates more job
Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are opportunities: reduces
forced to move unemployment
Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their Less pressure on education
home and their country, may be due to a natural disaster, Increased quality of
war, religious or political persecution education and healthcare
Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they
Decrease tra c congestion
believe in e.g. their religion or political belief
and air pollution - less cars
Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge (residency) in a
foreign country because their life is in danger in their
COUNTRY OF DESTINATION
home country
Where migrants are moving to
Voluntary migration: When people choose to move
Advantages Disadvantages

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Advantages Disadvantages
Overcomes labour shortage Competition for jobs
More pressure on healthcare
Dirty unskilled jobs done
and education
Brings expertise to country:
Japanese moves to Australia Tra c congestion - air and
to set up Japanese restaurant noise pollution
- authentic
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for
innovations immigrants
Cultural diversity
Will work long hours for low
salary

MIGRANTS THEMSELVES
Advantages Disadvantages
More job opportunities Culture shock
Stage 1: high birth rates; high death rates; short life
Better salary & access to expectancy; less dependency (since there are few old
Racism
wider variety of good people and children must work anyway)
Better access to education & Stage 2: high birth rates; fall in death rates; slightly longer
Language barriers
healthcare life expectancy; more dependency due to more elderly
Safer & peaceful; can start a Di erent culture may be Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining g death rate; longer
family di cult to integrate life expectancy; more dependency
Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest
Separated from friends and
Higher pay dependency ratio; longest life expectancy
family
Stage 5: When proportion of old dependents is increasing
Higher standard of living Higher cost of living
Occurs because life expectancy increases, but also
Send remittances to family Not used to weather because birth rates start to fall
back home conditions typically happens in very developed countries
Visa Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age
Di culty in nding houses to and sex structure of the country
stay

1.3. Population Structure

Keywords:
Ageing population: Old dependents (people above 60
years old)
Dependent population: People who don’t work;
retired and young children

The Demographic Transition Model:

Problems of having too many Old Dependents:

More pensions to be paid
More pressure on public transportation: many old
dependents do not drive
More pressure on healthcare
Not enough labour force
Di cult to evacuate old dependents during natural
disasters

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Why do LEDCs have more young dependents than Sparse Population Dense Population
MEDCs?
Political Government Reliable and stable
LEDCs cannot a ord contraception
factors corruption government
LEDCs have no education on family
Poor public services
planning/contraception
such as healthcare Good public services
Children wanted as labour in LEDCs
and education
Cost of living higher in MEDCs
Implications of Young Dependents: Civil war

Too few Too Many

1.5. Settlements & Service Provision
Closure of child related Child care needed so parents
services; fewer jobs can work
Less consumers and Taxes for public schools from
taxpayers in the future government
An increase in the age of the
Increased dependency ratio
population
Birth rates fall below
Creation of teaching and
minimum because the An isolated, Buildings are
nursing jobs Buildings are
population declines building or a group strung along a line
grouped together,
Pressure on healthcare and of two or three of communication,
Less labour in future initially for defence,
education buildings, for example a main
or a common
separated from the road, a river valley,
resource.
next by 2 or 3 km. or canal
1.4. Population Density & Distribution
Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement
Keywords:
is located – the actual piece of land
Population density: number of people per unit of area
Situation: describes settlement in relation to other
(typically per kilometer square)
settlements and physical features around it – this
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
determines whether the situation will grow into a large
density
city or remain a small town or village
Densely populated: an area with high population
Factors in uencing settlements:
density
Wet point site: this has a good water supply
Factors in uencing:
Dry point site: this has less risk of ooding
Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay etc.
Sparse Population Dense Population
Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with
Physical Mountainous areas - Flat relief - easier to steep sided and commanding views
Factors inaccessible build Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Extreme climates Favourable climates Food supplies: land suitable for farming
Rivers - easy access Nodal points: where routes converge
High risk of ooding
and trading Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops Aspect: settlements often on sunny side of a valley
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain
Locations with
No or few natural
frequent natural Hierarchy of settlements:
disasters
disasters
Availability of natural
resources for industry
and manufacturing
Economic No economic Many job
factors opportunities opportunities
No infrastructure Good infrastructures
Many transport routes
No transport routes
to travel easily
Social
High crime rates Low crime rates
factors

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

The Central Business District

The CBD:
Centre point of the city and has highest land prices
Most accessible point in the city
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers
Functions: retail, entertainment, nancial services, and
other professional services
Land uses:
Leisure and recreation - may include open land
Residential - High/multi-story buildings.
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and
airports
Business and commerce - o ces, shops, and banks
Industry - factories, warehouses, and small
Determining order of importance: production centers
The population size
The CBD is in the centre because it is:
The range and number of services
A central location for road/railways to converge
The sphere of in uence
The most accessible location for workers
Sphere of In uence: The distance or area people travel Accessible to most people for shops and businesses
from to access a service. Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack of
Services: Facilities that are o ered to people e.g.
space
supermarket. Services have a threshold population,
which helps explain why bigger settlements have more Residential Areas
services.
Range: This usually refers to the number of di erent Old inner-city area:
services e.g. Typically found next to CBD
Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern
a school, a post o ce, etc. Suburbia:
Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people
well-planned and spacious houses
required for a service to be o ered and remain open. Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden
High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy Typically, detached or semidetached
less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues
people will normally compare quality and price before
Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city
purchasing e.g. a car
Demand can make some areas expensive
Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy Outer-city estate:
every day. They don't usually cost much money and Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing
people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. People relocated here when inner city was being
bread and milk
redeveloped
Functions of settlements: Rural-urban fringe:
Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than This is found at the edge of a town or city
urban areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses,
areas is normally agriculture & low-order services.
allotments, businesses, parks and airports.
This is because rural areas have less people, poorer
transport, poorer communication, less technology, & Industrial Areas
the land is better used for other purposes.
Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions Factories were built:
ranging from shopping functions, to educational As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space
functions, to transport functions, to administrative Next to canals and railways to transport materials
functions and residential functions; more middle and Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
high order services. disposal
Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area Next to land where lots of workers could live
into the rural-urban fringe; provides mostly middle –
Urban Growth in Urban Areas
order services
Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation, due to building
1.6. Urban Settlements in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation
Problems of urban growth in urban areas:
Urban settlements tend to have several land uses

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

For People For Environment Advantages Disadvantages

Overcrowded Loss of vegetation Often near rural-urban fringe The government now
Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats so good transport links protects many sites
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains Public protests for building
Less congestion
Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers on green eld site

Di culties of waste/litter Death of sh/other species Room to expand

Tra c congestion Pollution of ground water

Brown eld Sites: increasing building on brown eld sites
Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution allows less pressure to be put on rural areas
Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up
Poor quality of life Advantages Disadvantages
Food shortage Site polluted – expensive to
Often cheap to buy
clean
Near the CBD No room to expand
1.7. Urbanisation
May not be in desirable shape
Closer to transport routes
Urban Growth in Rural Areas or location

Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in
for several reasons: wedges ensuring some green areas protected throughout
Better transport links e.g. road, rail, river city
Better trading prospects Housing density: increasing housing density means less
Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel land will be destroyed
Better job prospects
Better schools and hospitals Characteristics of Squatter Settlements
Better supply of electricity, gas and water
Squatter settlement: a rural residential area which has
Varied entertainment
developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Rural-Urban Migration the land
Extremely high home density
Movement of people from countryside towards cities Extremely high population density
Rural-urban migration is main cause of urbanisation Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
It is caused by several push & pull factors: No electricity
No running water or sewage
Push factors from rural area Pull factors from urban areas Diseases spread easily
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs Strong smell of human waste
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare No infrastructure or privacy
Agricultural products have
Good transport/comms
low prices 2. The Natural Environment
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment
2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Better quality & quantity of
Poor housing quality
houses Earthquakes
Drought/famine A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust
Shortage of resources
How earthquakes happen:
Poor transport/comms.
Tension released from inside crust
Plates get stuck
Reducing negative impacts of urbanisation
Pressure builds up
Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is Pressure released
protected from development
Features of earthquakes E ects of earthquakes
Green eld Sites: sites that are barred from being built on
by government policies Focus: point of earthquake Large number of deaths
Epicenter: point directly
Advantages Disadvantages above the focus, on the Fires breaking out
Land never used – not Con icts with other land ground
polluted users Seismic waves Water pipes burst

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Features of earthquakes E ects of earthquakes Impacts/hazard of Why do people live near

Water contamination, volcanoes volcanoes?
Shaking ground
diseases Pyroclastic ows Fertile soil for crops
Subduction zone: occurs at Tourism (tour guides,
Lava ow
destructive margin, one plate Corpses: human & animal restaurants)
goes under the other Ash clouds Scienti c research
Accessibility di cult Landslides Mining
Building damaged/destroyed Deaths Geothermal energy
Tsunami can follow Agriculture a ected
Reconstruction costs Lahars

Reduce impacts of earthquakes: Causes of eruptions:

At constructive margin: plates move away from each
Prediction Preparation other; magma rises to ll the gap;
Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from
pressure, and release of gas buildings friction and heat from mantle; newly formed magma
Use maps and facts to nd is lighter so it rises to surface
Train emergency services
pattern in time/location Stages of volcanoes:
Unusual animal behaviour Set up warning system Active: has erupted recently
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future
Seismometer Create evacuation plan
Extinct: unlikely to ever erupt again; no magma inside
Richter scale Emergency food supply Types of volcanoes:
Prepare earthquake kit

Earthquake proof buildings:

Automated weights on roof to reduce movement
Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations
Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay
Automatic shutters come down over the windows
Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth
movements

Volcanoes Low viscosity (runny lava) -

A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
basaltic lava
escapes onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere
Low in height, gentle sloping High in height, steep sided
Diagram of volcano: sides with wide base volcanic cones
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers
long distance) short distance)
Frequent eruptions but low in Infrequent but high
magnitude magnitude
High temperature Low temperature
Low gas content High gas content
Little build up pressure Enormous build up pressure

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Where earthquakes occur and volcanoes form is

governed by plate tectonics
Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is
How do volcanoes form? constantly being destroyed and replaced
Magma rises through cracks of the Earth’s crust Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is
Pressure builds up (inside Earth) permanent
Pressure released → plate movement Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the
Magma explodes to surface causing eruption mantle
Lava cools and forms new crust
Over time, rock builds up and volcano formed

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Diagram Description
Example: paci c plate and
the Eurasian plate

Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains

Constructive Gentle Gentle No
Destructive Violent Violent Yes
Collision None Violent Yes
Conservative None Violent No

Earthquakes:
2.2. Rivers
Encircle the whole of the Paci c Ocean
Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean The Hydrological Cycle
Stretch across southern Europe and Asia
Volcanoes:
Encircle the whole of the Paci c Ocean (known as the
Ring of Fire)
Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean & east Africa
Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river
Plate Boundaries
Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage
Diagram Description basin, marking the boundary between two drainage
basins
Source: the beginning or start of a river
Collision: occur when two Con uence: the point at which two rivers or streams join
continental plates move Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger
towards each other. stream or river
Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when
entering sea
Example: Indo-Australian and
the Eurasian Plate River Processes

Constructive: occur when two

plates move away from each
other.

Example: North American

and Eurasian Plate

Conservative: occur when

two plates slide past each
other. Drainage basins act as a system with:
Inputs: precipitation
Example: North American Transfers: in ltration, percolation, surface runo ,
Plate and the Paci c Plate through ow & groundwater ow
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage
Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or
Destructive: occur when evapotranspiration
oceanic plate is subducted by
a continental plate. Characteristics of rivers

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small

particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting

River Pro les

Long pro le:

Bed: The bottom of the river channel

Bank: The sides of the river channel
A river has two banks
Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of
a river
Speed of ow: how fast the water in a river is moving;
di erent speeds arise at di erent parts of the river
Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact Cross pro le:
with river
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that Course Long Pro le Cross Pro le
a river ows. The ow of the river is often described as Upper Steeply sloping Steep sided v-
channel ow.
towards the lower shaped valley, thin
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the
sections of the river channel, deep
middle of the river channel, where there is least friction
river in places
Erosion V-shaped valley
Middle remains with a
Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and Shallow slopes
wider valley oor,
break into smaller pieces; occurs at higher part of river towards the mouth
river begins to
Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges of the river
meander, channel
particles from its banks and bed
is wider & deeper
Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks
and bed like sand-paper; occurs at low part of river Wide, shallow
Solution: acid in rivers dissolve rocks; occurs at any part valley, with large
Lower Almost at sea level,
of river ood plains &
gently sloping to its
meanders; channel
mouth
is wide deep &
smooth sided

png)
Transportation FLOODS

Traction: rolling stones along the bed Causes of ooding:

Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog No vegetation
motion Deforestation
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the Urbanisation
water ow Poor drainage
Solution: minerals dissolve in the water Steep slopes
Rock type (impermeable rocks does not absorb water)
Wet soil (over saturation)

Why do people live near

Impacts
rivers?
Water supply (drinking,
People can be killed
washing)
Deposition
Homes destroyed Fishing industry
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins Spread of water borne
Transportation for trading
depositing the heaviest particles diseases
Happens when there is less water or where the current Shortage of clean water and
Tourism
slows down food

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Why do people live near Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages

Impacts
rivers? Reduce
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil erosion and Very expensive
Businesses destroyed Powerplants (dams) prevents and big,
Coastlines/foot
Sports/recreation Sea wall ooding; requires
of cli s
Curved constant
structure maintenance
Flood Management Techniques
breaks waves
Dams: Increases
Built across a river to control the amount of discharge distance
Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir between
Certain
Released in a controlled way to control ooding waves and
In front of area sections of
Is expensive to build, can a ect farmers & cause coasts →
Groynes facing coastal coast may be
erosion downstream Waves lose
erosion more exposed
A orestation: energy →
to erosion
Trees planted near to the river Reduces
Greater interception of rainwater impacts of
Lower river discharge waves
Relatively low-cost option, enhances environmental Reduces
quality of the drainage basin impact of
River engineering: Not as
waves on cli ,
Channel widened/deepened to carry more water e ective as
Gabions Base of cli prevents cli
Channel straightened so water travels faster other coastal
from being
Course altered to divert oodwater away from homes defences
undercut;
Alterations may lead to a greater risk of ooding cheap
downstream, as the water is carried there faster
Absorbs
Managed ooding: Allow river to ood naturally in places,
energy of
to prevent ooding in other areas
waves,
Planning:
prevents cli s
Authorities & government introduce policies to
from being
control urban development near/on oodplain Slanted barrier
eroded;
reducing risk of ooding & damage to property Revetments against waves Expensive
Rippled
Enforcing regulations may be di cult in LEDCs at base of cli
surfaces helps
dissipate wave
2.3. Coasts energy; No
need much
Coasts are formed by the sea and wind working together maintenance
in 3 key tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
Visual
Rocks and Absorbs wave
Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats pollution,
stones put energy,
Rip-raps susceptible to
Sports/recreation Hurricanes against base of protects cli s
being moved
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms cli behind
by the sea
Habitat for sh Tsunamis E ective, Visual
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides breaks pollution,
Breakwaters Near coasts
Tourism Flooding incoming easily
Job opportunities Coastal erosion water destroyed
Prevents storm
Tidal
Coastal Management Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
Hard Engineering: e ective
Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages
Soft Engineering:
Name Description Advantages Disadvantages

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Name Description Advantages Disadvantages Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Increases
TYPES OF WAVES
distance
Constructive Destructive
between
Sand/shingle Low wave height High wave height
Beach waves and E ectiveness
added to the
nourishment cli s → Waves is uncertain Beach gradient is gentle Beach gradient is steep
beach
lose energy → Spill forward gently Plunge forward
Less erosive Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
power
Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
Tourism material strong backwash
Good barrier a ected as
Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Land Protect and against coastal dunes marked
management rebuild dunes ooding and out of bounds Deposits material
erosion to general Builds up beaches
public
Constructive:
Break up
waves and
reduce speed
and power of
waves → E ectiveness
Marshland
Limits area is uncertain
which waves
can reach →
Prevents
ooding
Destructive:
Widen beach
Planting dead and reduces
Beach E ectiveness
trees in sand wave energy,
stabilisation is uncertain
to stabilise lowers pro le
of beach

Erosion at Coasts

Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cli

Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cli
Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate
Cli s & Wave-cut platforms
Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in cli s
Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cli
Transportation – Longshore Drift
A wave-cut notch is formed
Waves approach coast at an angle Cli is undercut & collapses
Swash moves up the beach at an angle Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cli
Backwash drains straight back down the beach
Gradually moving material along beach in zig-zag motion

Deposition

Components of a wave:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Caves, Arches & Stacks

A band of weaker rock extends through a headland

Erosion produces caves on both sides of headland Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily
More erosion produces an arch through the headland Headlands are usually formed since they are made of
Eventually the roof is weak & collapses forming a stack resistant rock and so is eroded more di cultly

Spits

Spits form when the coastline changes direction

Longshore drift carries material in same direction
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind

Sand Dunes

Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches

Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-
water mark & carry it landward by saltation
If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy &
Beaches deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle
Eventually a dune is formed
In bays, the waves diverge outwards Plants grow on it which stabilizes it & traps more sand
The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy
environment hence deposition to form beaches Mangrove Swamps

Bays and Headlands Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in
saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics
Provide a habitat and protection for many sh & other
sea animals, especially when young
They slow water ow encouraging any sediment to be
deposited, keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for formation of mangrove swamps:

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Coral Reef
Protip: important to know how weather instruments look like
Coral reefs support a great diversity of life and brief knowledge of how to use
Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons & Rain Gauge: has a xed diameter so that they collect the
coralline algae same amount of water & so comparisons can be made
Conditions required for growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
Plentiful supply of plankton
Lack of strong current

2.4. Weather
Weather:
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
Can vary from day to day and from place to place

Protip: important to know features of the Stevenson’s screen

Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers

Painted white to re ect sun with double lid for insulation

Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light getting in
Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground
On short grass for same amount of re ection
Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
Funnel (A) to collect the water.
Container to collect water which may be graduated
Emptied once every 24hrs
Rain is measured in millimetres.
Sunk into ground, but not level so splashes or surface
water can’t get in

Anemometer: Measures wind speed

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are

blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted &
converted into m/s, km/h or knots

Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains
sunshine at a given location
alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index and when it cools, mercury contracts and index is
left in place at highest temp
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with
it; but as alcohol expands, it ows past index, leaving it at
lowest temp
Both indexes read from bottom once every 24hrs

Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate

humidity of air

Burns a timeline
Traces sun shine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focusses the light
This burns a line onto the card

Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. temp. over 24hr

period

Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it

measures actual air temperature
Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a ne cloth
which is connected to a reservoir of water.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read Describes condition of atmosphere eg sunny, hot,
windy
Barometer: Measures air pressure Climate
**Protip**Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021 This is the average conditions over a longer period of
Geography paper 4) time, usually a few years

Equatorial Hot Desert

Between 5° and 30°
Close to the
Location north and south of
equator
the equator
Mean temp. of
≈25°C ≈30°C
hottest month
Mean temp. of
≈25°C >18°C
coldest month
Annual temp. range <5°C <5°C
Rainfall amount >200mm <250mm
Same
Rainfall distribution throughout Irregular
year
Wind Low Strong
Cloud Heavy Almost none
Humidity High Low
An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
Pressure Low High
As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
expands
Equatorial Climate Graph
Levers conduct this movement to a spindle which moves
pointer on the dial which records the air pressure in
mmHg

Wind vane: Records wind direction

Hot Desert Climate Graph

The etching is blown by the wind so that the arrow head

points into the wind.
Mounted on a high places (rooftops)
Factors In uencing Climate Characteristics:
Make sure no trees are blocking
Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and
cooler summers
Weather Prevailing winds: seasonal di erence in heating between
land and sea a ects temperature of prevailing wind.

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature Distribution:

Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures
in coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
100m)

Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem

Distribution:

Vegetation & Animal Adaptations:

Vegetation Animal
Camel have humps to store
Seeds remain dormant
water
Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce
transpiration heat
Thorns to protect from Shelter in underground to
predators avoid heat
Vegetation & Adaptation:
Long roots to search for Only comes out at night to
Emergent: tall trees up to 50m, few lower branches, water hunt
grows above others to get full sunlight Thick stem to store water
Canopy: trees 20-40m forming a continuous canopy, few Light colours to re ect
lower branches, makes up 50% of vegetation sunlight
Shrub: low shrubs & saplings, plants that adapt because
they are extremely close to the forest oor Climate:
Lianas: use large trees as support to reach sunlight
Fan Palms: wide leaved plants that capture as much Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places
sunlight & rainfall as possible Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
Humus Layer: decaying biological matter; rainforest soil Air is dry because:
fertility is dependent on this Most of the moisture has precipitated over equator
Buttress Roots: very long roots that support tall trees & Air travelling to desert travels over land, not the sea
suck up maximum amount of nutrients in poor soil No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to
Drip tip leaves: leaves that let rainfall travel over them & high levels of incoming radiation from the sun
drip to the ground, causing less damage by excess water Causes day-time temps. to be very high
Lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape
Wildlife & Adaptation: Causes night-time temps to be low
Annual temperature range is very low
Home to many mammals
Daily temperature range is very high
Tigers in SE Asia
Jaguars in Central & South America Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests
Leopards in Africa
Sloths Causes:
Primates Population growth
Lemurs Economic growth
Home to birds, amphibians, reptiles & insects too Mining
Animals adapt in di erently to survive e.g. camou age Road building
Agriculture
Climate: Urbanisation
Exploitation of land by TNCs
Are close to the equator so they have very similar
E ects:
climates all year around
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Global
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly Local environment People
environment
Days start of warm & then temp. and humidity build up
Death of local
Hot air rises causing low pressure Loss of vegetation Melting ice
tribes people
Hot Desert Ecosystem

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Global
Local environment People
environment
Global
More carbon
Causes oods warming/increase
dioxide
temperatures
Threatens species
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction
Changes in climate Reduction of
Loss of habitat patterns eg materials available
drought to build buildings
Reduction of food Loss of species
supply such as polar bears
Low proportion in primary sector:
Soil erosion
Mechanizations of jobs in primary
Food chain Primary resources exhausted
disrupted Resources are now imported
Numbers falling in secondary sector:
Mechanization - as machines are taking over jobs in
3. Economic Development factories
Tertiary sector is main growth area:
3.1. Development Most work in hospitals, schools, o ces & nancial
services
Main Indicators Greater demand for leisure services as people have
Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total more free time and become wealthier
population More jobs become available in the tertiary sector
Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of
An LEDC e.g. Ghana
total population
Gross National Product (GNP): total value of goods
and services produced annually
GNP per Capita: wealth of a country averaged per
person
Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
under 1, per 1000 live births per year
Life expectancy: the average age people live to
Human Development Index (HDI): measures and
compares international development
Adult literacy rate: the percentage of adults that can
read and write
Sectors of the industry:
Majority in primary sector:
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and
High tech mining
Collecting Provides
Manufacturing and Farming very important because most eat what they
De nition natural services
goods research grow
resources to people
based jobs Few in secondary sector:
carpenters, medical Lack of factories because machinery is too expensive
farming, food researchers, MNCS manufacture instead
lawyers,
Examples shing, production, scientists, Tertiary may be larger than secondary:
teachers Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
mining car computer
manufacturers design Growth of jobs in tourism

An NIC e.g. Brazil

Comparing nations:

An MEDC e.g. UK

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Advantages Disadvantages
Higher position jobs awarded
to foreigners instead of locals

3.2. Food Production

Agricultural Systems
Physical
HumanInputs Process Outputs
Inputs
Things that
While Brazil’s economic base is developing, there are still Natural things The events
are built or Things that
a large number of people employed in primary industries that are found that take place
made by are produced
such as farming. on a farm or on a farm to
humans and on a farm that
There are a large proportion of people employed in added to a turn inputs
added on to a are often sold
tertiary industries. farm into outputs
farm
One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist
destination. Labor/rent Soil Rearing Pro ts
Also, there have been signi cant improvements in the Machinery Precipitation Shearing Meat products
provision of health care, education and transport Building Temp. Ploughing Wool
Length of
Globalisation Animal feed Fertilizing Milk
Season
Process in which the world is becoming increasingly Fertilizers Alluvium Weeding Waste
interconnected Pesticide Floods Irrigating Crops
Causes of globalisation: Market
Improvements in transportation Relief Cultivating Pollution
demand
Freedom of trade
Government
Improvements of communications Drainage Harvesting Erosion
controls
Labour availability and skills
Impacts of globalisation: Seeds Slaughtering
Planting
Positive Negative
Local businesses may close
Provides jobs and skills Food Shortages & Famine
down
Countries may lose control of When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to
Culture diversity
important decisions undernourishment
Wider choice of goods and Usually operates in richer Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
services for locals countries health and eventually lead to starvation

Governments of di erent Human Causes Physical Causes

countries can work together
Increasing population; supply Too hot or cool temperatures
to tackle global issues
cannot keep up with demand can kill crops and animals.

TNCs (Transnational Corporation) Overgrazing reduces integrity

Shortage of rainfall kills most
of soil and can cause topsoil
crops or require irrigation
Companies that operate in more than 1 country erosion and soil degradation.
Overcultivating causes soil Too much rainfall can ood &
Advantages Disadvantages degradation, using up and kill crops or wash away
Working conditions may be not giving nutrients recovery topsoil reducing soils fertility
Create job opportunities
harsh time leading to low yield
Improved education and Damage to environment - Natural disasters can destroy
Deforestation of woodland,
skillls factories create air pollution large areas of agricultural
damages integrity of soil as
Increased economy Pro ts going overseas land and kill or injure
well as its source of nutrients.
Invest in infrastructures, Natural resources being over farmers.
healthcare or education exploited

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Human Causes Physical Causes Successes Failures

If soil is infertile because the HYV did increase food
Required fertilisers &
Farming and industrial bedrock contains few production and made
pesticides polluted water
pollution can both degrade minerals it can be hard to countries more self-su cient
land and reduce crop yields cultivate land and lead to low Food prices began to fall The HYV were more prone to
yields. making; a ordable for poor disease and drought
Corruption of government Shorter growing season, More water had to be
more crops could be grown diverted to growing crops
E ects: Many poorer farmers
Hunger The yields were more reliable couldn’t a ord to buy
Susceptible to infectious diseases expensive HYV
Impair physical and mental development
Di erent crops were grown Mechanisation led to
Reduce labour productivity
adding variety to local diet unemployment
Measures to increase output:
There were surpluses so
GM Crops and Farming crops could be traded Many natural varieties lost
commercially
Genetically modi ed crops are crops that have their
Countries & farmers became
genes altered to improve quality and/or quantity Farmers became wealthier
dependent on foreigners
Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to
Natural species may die
3.3. Industry
transport/appeal consumers
Growing season shorter Taste often not as good Input: resources, can be physical e.g. ore or human e.g.
labour
Lead to development of
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things e.g.
Drought resistant – less water super weeds – stronger than
steelmaking; turning usable things into other things e.g.
GM
assembling cars
No one knows long term Outputs: product + pro t or loss + waste materials
Higher yields
e ect on humans Types of Industry:
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically
Monoculture used by consumers e.g. toys
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials
Growing of only one type of crop
used in manufacturing e.g. metal production
Cash crops: crops grown in large plantations for selling
Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put
and making a pro t
together a nished product e.g. electronics
Advantages Disadvantages Hi-Tech: specialised industries that mostly do
research but often have small sections dedicated to
Become more e cient If demand falls, no pro t
each of the 3 normal types of industry
Pro table Less variety
Can have high yields Bad season, no pro t Factors in uencing location of an Industry
Easily controllable Labor becomes deskilled Physical Human
Low training required Only source of income Power/energy: industry
should be near source of raw Labour: quantity/quality
Green Revolution materials
Natural routes: river
The introduction of modern western style farming valleys/ at land is good for Markets: size & location
techniques in LEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's. transport
High Yield Varieties:
Transport: cost increases
Developed to try and end food shortages by
Site/land: availability/price when items are bulky, fragile,
increasing yields.
perishable
Were rst developed by cross pollinating di erent
varieties Government policies
This is now being done through genetic modi cation Leisure facilities
Capital
Successes Failures

3.4. Tourism

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Tourism: the occupation of providing information, Impose nes on littering or breaking any rules
accommodation, transportation and other services to Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
tourists Create paths for people to walk on

Growth of Tourism
3.5. Energy
Greater a uence: higher salary + holiday with pay
Greater mobility: increased cars + more aircraft Non-renewable resources:
Improved accessibility & transport facilities: Are nite
Better roads Fossil fuels were produced by photosynthesis
Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays Takes millions of years for them to form
More leisure time: Examples: coal, oil, gas
Longer vacations Fossil fuels used mainly by MEDCs
Shorter working hours; people work from home Uranium for nuclear energy
More elderly
Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in
Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirement
MEDCs but important in LEDCs
Increase in recreational activities
Advertising holiday destinations: TV + Internet
Advantages Disadvantages
Factors that Change Tourist Patterns Cost of production high,
Lasts 300yrs, now become produces lot of GH gases,
Transport & accessibility: access to various means of Coal more e cient, needed to dangerous, open cast =
transportation e.g. trains, cars, planes, ships make coke visual pollution, costly to
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places transport, acid rain
Weather: climate is important e.g. cold place for ski trip
Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil
Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts More e cient than coal,
spills, releases greenhouse
easier to transport,
Amenities: variety of recreational, historical, leisure Oil gases, prices uctuate,
diversity of uses, petro-
facilities & sites o ered re neries use lot of space,
chemicals
acid rain
TOURISM Releases methane,
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
Advantages Disadvantages explosive, prices uctuate,
Gas cheaper than oil, easy to
To create job opportunities More congestion acid rain, greenhouse
distribute
Money can be used for gases.
Damage to landscape
development
Renewable resources:
Attract foreign investment
Noise/air pollution Are continuous
(TNCs)
Are, by de nition, sustainable
Cultural exchange Shortage of supplies
Types:
Improve health care and Geothermal
In ation a ecting locals
education Wind
Roads built or improve Seasonal unemployment Solar
Airports improve Social/cultural problems Bio fuel
Electricity/water supply Racism may happen between Hydroelectric
improve locals and tourists Tidal
Wave

Managing Tourism ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities & Reduce dependence upon Di cult to produce required
are sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding fossil fuels energy quantity
Sustainable tourism: tourist activities that are socially, Alleviate the world’s energy Energy produced much less
environmentally & economically sustainable crisis than fossil fuels
How? Development of alternative Unreliable supply of constant
Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money energy energy
raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of
Some countries lack the
parks No pollution
conditions for these
Ban hunting/ shing
Fence prohibited or protected areas
Cost of technology high
Source lasts forever
Put up signs such as “no littering” compared to fossil fuel

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

NUCLEAR POWER Desalination:

Bene ts Drawbacks Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
Technology for nuclear power Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-
Risk of nuclear accidents permeable membrane to remove salt
exists
Sewage Treatment:
Plenty of radioactive supply Risk of nuclear plants as
Removal of contaminants from waste water &
as fuel terrorist targets
household sewage
Very low amounts of Nuclear technology can be Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to
greenhouse gases made used to make WMDs remove all the contaminants and make safe
Reduces dependency on Risky to transport material &
fossil fuel countries expensive Causes of Water Shortages

Nuclear waste stored safely Risk of nuclear radiation Population Growth: increased pressure on water sources
underground related to cancer as world's population grows
Electric supply altered easily Uranium mining dangerous Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
based on demand and polluting Demand: as development increases globally so does
Remains radioactive for long amount of water needed
time & expensive Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that
waste is often pumped directly into water sources
Climate Change: global warming may be releasing
3.6. Water freshwater from glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is
running directly into oceans; inaccessible
Uses of Water
Political: water sources are often shared; some people
Agriculture: to water plants control large percentages of the shared resource, leading
Industrial: to shortages for others
Heated to make steam to turn turbines Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately causing
Cooling down reactors water shortages
Domestic:
Impact of Water Shortages
Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking
Recreational e.g. swimming, sports Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged
Environmental: preserving water in a dam period
Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage
Evolution of Global Water Use
Con ict arise when sharing a limited supply of water
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases
Eutrophication due to run-o
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity
Eutrophication:
Run-o from farms containing fertiliser causes excess
Water Use in Di erent Economies growth of algae in water
Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light
LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK
Causes plants & animals to su ocate & die

Solutions to Water Shortages

Desalination: governments should invest more in

desalination plants
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
policies regarding disposal and reuse of waste water
Conservation:
Half ush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
Collecting rainwater to use on garden
Using appropriate plants for the climate
Methods of Water Supply Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete Water Charities:
Reservoirs: arti cial lake that develops behind a dam Building wells to access groundwater
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Teaching appropriate farming techniques Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous
Low cost schemes to lter and clean water system
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute Water Pollution:
water & water the land Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
Oil spilling into the sea
3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic Acid rain; destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Health hazards for humans
Development Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic eld
Soil erosion: Noise pollution:
Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is Vehicles
washed away by rain because no tree roots to retain it Machinery in industries and farms
In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers Noisy humans
& pollutes drinking water Visual pollution:
Global warming: all man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases nature
Greenhouse e ect: Deserti cation:
When infrared radiation passes through atmosphere, Overgrazing
& some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by Soil erosion
greenhouse gas molecules Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less
This warms the surface & lower atmosphere rain
E ects: Deforestation - less roots of trees to hold soil together
Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms Sustainable development: Economic development
Change in the distribution of precipitation without destroying natural resources
Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust Management:
Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America Population policies
More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases Sustainable tourism
Greenhouses gases are: Use of renewable energy
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood A orestation
Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste Resource conservation: Meeting needs of present without
CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators a ecting needs for the future
Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations Ways of conservation:
Air pollution: 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon- Renewable energy
containing substances causes oxygen starvation Use energy e cient products
Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes Restrict the use of resource
respiratory problems and acid rain Use more public transport
Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to Government can raise tax on petrol prices
heat (furnace/engine); same e ect as sulphur dioxide

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CAIE IGCSE
Geography (0460)

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