SAMPLE

MINDMAP

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 BUILDING MATERIALS
[Link] Description Page no
1 Bricks 2-3
2 Rocks & Stones 4
3 Aggregates 5
4 Cement 6-7
5 Timber 8-9
6 Paints 10
7 Steel 11
8 M-Sand 12
9 Mortar 13
10 Lime 14
11 Concrete 15 - 16
12 Brick Masonry 17
13 Green Building 18
14 Lighting, Ventilation & Safety 19
15 Construction Equipments 20
16 Building bye-laws 21
17 Heritage structures 22 - 23

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 CLASS WATER CRUSHING CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
ABSORPTION STRENGTH Composition of bricks
Tolerance limit of compressive strength = ± 8% (N/mm2)

Tolerance limit in dimensions = ± 3% Components Composition

I ≥ 20%(SSC JE) ≤ 10.5 Uniform texture,well Exposed
(12-15)%(TNPSC) burnt,sharp & square faceworks,flooring,pointing Silica 50 - 60%
COMPRESSIVE EFFLORESCENCE WATER corners,deep red / works,permanent
STRENGTH(N/mm2) ABSORPTION cherry colour structures,reinforced
Alumina 20 – 30%
brickwork
3.5,5,7.5,10,12.5 Moderate(10-50)% 20% II ≥ 22%(SSC JE) ≤7 Slightly Hidden works,Centering of Lime 4–5%
(16-20)%(TNPSC) overburnt,Rounded reinforced brick & RCC
19 ×9 ×5.7cm
edges,Slightly Structure
Oxides of iron 5 – 6%
15,17.5,20,25 Slight (<10%) 15% distorted

III ≥ 25% ≤ 3.5 Burnt in clamp,rough Temporary structures Magnesia < 1%

> 40 Slight (<10%) 5% surface,unburnt,light
color,dull sound
Alkalis < 10%

IS 1077: 1992
IV _ ≤ 1.5 Overburnt,badly Aggregate in concrete in
distorted,brittle,dark foundation,filling earth CO2, SO3 & H2O Very small %
Standard/ Modular size = 19  9  9 cm
Nominal size= 20  10  10 cm
Traditional size= 23  11.4  7.6 cm
II Class brick size= 19  9  5.7 cm CLASSIFICATION Fireclay
Unit weight of brick= 1800 kg/m 3 Based on BASED ON bricks
Average weight of 1 brick = 3 - 3.5 kg (30 - 35 manufacture BURNING
N) •Hand made •Pale bricks
No. of bricks in 1 m3 of brick earth = 500 - 550
for (first) I Class bricks & 750 II Class bricks
BRICKS •Machine made •Body bricks
•Arch bricks
Tile brick = 19  9  4 cm (no frog) •Half burnt (Pilas)
ACIDIC BASIC NEUTRAL
Frog size = 10  4  1 cm Fireclay bricks  made of fireclay (pure hydrated BRICKS BRICKS BRICKS
•Overburnt (Jhamas) •Chromite
aluminium silicate) White/ Yellowish white colour •Ordinary •Dolomite
Crushing strength = 200 – 220 N/mm2 ; Bricks •Magnesite •High
Water absorption = 5 – 10 %. It can withstand very high •Silica alumina
DEFECTS IN BRICKS temperature Tests on bricks bricks
Overburnt Brittle,loses shape Heavy duty bricks 1648 C - 1482 C
Tests on IS Code Explanation
Underburnt Soft,pores not closed,water Bricks
absorption is high Medium duty bricks 1482 C - 1315 C
Black core Contains bituminous matter/carbon Low duty bricks 870 C
Dimension IS 1077 : 1992 20 bricks, L = 3800 ± 80 mm, B = 1800 ± 40 mm,
Chuffs Rain water falling on hot bricks
test H = 1800 ± 40 mm; Individual brick = 190  90 90 mm
Check/cracks due to lumps of lime
% Area covered Efflorescence
Spots Iron Sulphide Water IS 3495 : 1992 – Part 2 24 hrs immersed in water,
Blisters air imprisoned during moulding absorption
Lamination a layer peel off due to air imprisoned Imperceptible Nil test
Brick Spalling Improper heating
Compressive IS 3495 : 1992 – Part 1 ≤ 5.5 Mpa, min 5 samples, Load = 14 N/mm2 till failure
Nodules Lime modules < 10 % Slight Strength
Lime blowing Presence of lime
Straight cracks Rapid drying
10 – 50 % Moderate Warpage IS 3495 : 1992 – Part 4 Steel/glass ruler, 0.5 mm divisions ,60  15  15 mm
Random cracks Pebbles in clay mix/differential
Test Maximum warpage ≤ 2.5 mm for 190 mm face
burning or drying
Bloating Carbanoceous & sulphur content > 50 % Heavy ( do not flake Efflorescence IS 3495 : 1992 – Part 3 150 mm ɸ porcelain/ glass disc & water depth should be
& lime in excess cause brick spongy away) Test 25mm
and swollen mass
Heavy deposits Serious (flake away)

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 MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS

DRYING
PREPARATION OF CLAY MOULDING OF CLAY (3-10 Days) BURNING

Unsoiling
(20 cm from GL)
Hand moulding Machine moulding
Natural drying Artificial drying Clamp burning Kiln burning
(3 – 10 days)
Digging
(heaps of 60cm to 120 cm) I .Dehydration
(400-650℃)
Ground mould Table mould Wirecut mould Pressed HARMFUL INGREDIENTS Intermittent
mould OF BRICK kiln
[Link]
Cleaning
Grade Grade Grade Grade B Grade C (650-900℃)
AA A Lime slaking – Brick red  Yellow Continuous
Iron pyrites - discolouration [Link] kiln
Weathering Alkalies – efflorescence (900-1200 ℃)
Compressive 140 105 70 35
( improve plasticity) Organic matter – Strength reduces
strength kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2
Pebbles/ Stones – reduces load
carrying capacity
Blending Types of bricks Compressive
strength (N/mm2)

Tempering(Pugging) Ingredients Composition Functions Excess causes

Hand - made bricks 3–5

Tempering Adding water to clay before mixing

Machine made bricks (Wet) 12 Silica (SiO2) 50 – 60 % Shape & durability high heat resistant, reduces Educes cohesion. Makes brick
Pugging Working & tempering of clay to shrinkage, warping and cracking brittle and weak
make it plastic and consistent In presence of lime, alumina and silica fuses
well
Moulding Giving required shape to clay Machine made bricks (Dry) 1
Alumina 20 – 30 % Imparts plasticity and hardness. Produce cracks on
Kneading Mixing water + clay + ingredients (Al2O3) drying,warps during heating &
causes shrinkage

Lime (CaO) 4–5% Present in fine powdered state and not in Brick will melt and lose shape.
•On Artificial drying, the bricks are placed along their edge.
•The period of artificial drying is 3 – 10 days. lumps. Helps in binding . Swelling of bricks
•The percentage of moisture in wet bricks = 7 – 30%.
Magnesia <1% Clay softens. Reduces warping & shrinkage. Decay if bricks
Artificial Circulation Drying (MgO) Gives yellow tint.
drying of air yard Screen

Oxides of Iron FeO Prevent shrinkage. If O2 good  Red color and Dark blue color and if it is
if O2 is insufficient  dark brown / black color less, gives yellow color
•The use of frog is to show trade name and to improve
It reduces fusion point & increases durability
bonding

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 SURVEYING
[Link]. Description Page no.
1 Classification of Surveying 25
2 Chain Surveying 26 - 27
3 Compass Surveying 28
4 Traversing 29
5 Plane table surveying 29
6 Levelling 30
7 Contour Surveying 31
8 Theodolite Surveying 32
9 Trigonometric levelling 33
10 Tacheometric Surveying 34
11 Curves 35
12 Total Station 36
13 GPS & Remote sensing 37 – 38
14 Photogrammetric Surveying 39
15 Hydrographic Surveying 39

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 SURVEYING Plan Map
Shape of Earth =
Oblate spheroid Large Scale Small Scale

Polar axis length=12713.8 km Small Area Large Area

Plane Surveying
Equatorial axis length=12756.27 km
Representative fraction  Representative fraction 
Primary Classification Secondary Classification

Geodetic Surveying B A S E D O N
Principle of Surveying :
To work from whole to part.
Atleast two reference points
needed. Instruments Methods Nature Objects

Triangulation Traverse Land Marine/ Astronomical Mine Archaeological Geological Military Engineering
Chain Compass PlaneTable Theodolite Tacheometric Photogrammetric Levelling EDM Hydrographic

Hydrological
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
Representative Topographical Cadastral City
Fraction: TYPES OF SCALES

Curvature of earth is not Curvature of earth is taken Map Distance

taken into account into account RF 
Ground Distance
Area < 250 km2 Area > 250 km2 Plane Scale Diagonal Scale Vernier Scale Chord Scale
Map Area
RF 2  2 dimensions 3 dimensions
Ground Area
Line joining two points is Here it is an Arc
straight
Difference between sum of angles of spherical triangle & plane
triangle comprising area of about 195 km2 is 1” . Direct Vernier Retrograde Extended Vernier Double Vernier
Less Accurate More Accurate Vernier
.0
Good Draughtsman accuracy =  0.25 mm nV=(n-1)S nV=(2n-1)S Direct + Retrograde
nV = (n+1)S
Property of plane triangle Property of spherical
triangle Survey Principle
Diff b/w arc distance Length Least Count:
& chord distance
S Well Conditioned Chain survey Triangulation
All plumb lines are parallel All plumb lines are radial
10 cm 18.2 km Lc  Triangle= 30 to 120
n
Ill Conditioned Triangle = Compass survey Traversing
SCALE 33 cm 54.3 km
Direct vernier = v < s ( < 30 & > 120 )
50 cm 91 km Retrograde vernier = v > s Plane Table Parallelism
Survey

Small scale Medium scale Large scale Shrinkage ratio: SR 

Shrunk length Optical Square Double Reflection
Original length Engineering 1 cm=2.5m to100m
Projects
1 cm  100m 1 cm = 10m to 100m 1 cm  10m Measured length on Map GPS Trilateration
CL 
SR Always Topographical 1 cm = 1km
SR < 1 Maps
Wrong Scale
Correct Length  x Measured length on Map Measured area on Map
Crct Scale CA  Plans of land 1 cm = 5m to 50m
Wrong Scale SR 2
Correct Area  x Measured Area on Map
Crct Scale Cadastral Map Large scale
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 Other instruments : CHAIN SURVEYING Instruments used in Chaining
Linear Measurement Pacing
Average Pace Length = 80 cm
Passometer
Watch size pocket like Chain Tape Ranging Arrows Pegs Offset Plumb Flags Optical Cross
instrument Rod Rod bob Square Staff
Pedometer
Direct Method Computation Method
Portable device
Chain,Tape Tacheometry,Triangulation Odometer
Cloth or Metallic Tape Steel Tape Fibre glass Invar Tape
Attached to wheel of any
Linen Tape Tape
vehicle
TYPES OF CHAIN Procedure in Chain Surveying

Reconnaissance Selection Location

Metric Chain Gunter’s/ Surveyor’s Revenue Engineer’s of stations of stations Ranging Chaining Offsetting Field Books Plotting
Chain Chain Chain

Types of Metric Chain Gunter’s Chain Engineer’s Chain Revenue Chain Types of Tapes Made up of Length Width Uses
Chain (m)

Length 20 m,30 m 66 ft 100 ft 33 ft Linen/ Cloth tape Linen/ Cloth with 10,20,30 12-15 offsets
20.12 m 10.05 m brass handles mm

Fibre glass tape Glass fibre coated 20,30,50 Electrical works

No. of Links 20m = 100 100 100 16
with plastic
30m = 150
Metallic Tape Linen tape reinforced 2,10,15, 10-15 Offsets
1 link 20 cm 0.66 ft 1 ft 2 1 ft with Cu/Brass wire 20,30,50 mm
16
(5 links = 1m) 20.11 cm 30.48 cm
2.0625 ft Steel Tape Steel ribbon 10,15,20 6-10 mm  = 12 x 10-6/ C
,30,50 Testing Chain
Remarks Every 1m  brass 10 [Link]=1acre Every 10 ft  Brass tally 40 [Link] = 1 acre length
ring 10 chains=1 furlong 25 [Link]=1 Beegha
Every 5m  brass 8 furlong=80chains Invar Tape Steel (64%) + Nickel 20,30,50 6 mm Accurate &
tally =1 mile (36 %) ,100 less 

NOTE: Order of tapes of Accuracy

Minimum tolerance Invar tape >Steel tape>Metallic tape>Linen tape
1 acre = 40 gunthas = 4840 [Link] Obstacles
1 yard = 3 ft ; 1 ft = 12 inches
1 fathom = 6 ft Length of Tolerance Ranging
4 pole = 1 chain chain (mm)
120 fathoms = 1 cable length
6080 ft = 1 nautical mile Obstacles in Chaining Obstacles in Ranging Obstacles to both
1 mile = 1.6 km = 5280 ft Chaining & Ranging
1m  2
1 hectare = 104 m2 = 2.471 acre Direct Ranging Indirect Ranging
Both ends may be Eg: Building
Obstacles can be visible
10 m  3 chained around
Steel Band Types of Min. no of rods Eg:Hill Types of Errors
Eg: Pond
Ranging
Length = 20 m to 30 m 20 m  5  Instrumental error
Width = 12 mm to 16 mm Direct 3  Personal error
Obstacles cannot be
Brass stud spacing = 20 cm Both ends may not be  Natural error
Indirect 4 chained around
Thickness = 0.3 - 0.6 mm 30 m  8 visible
Eg: River
Eg:Jungle
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 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
[Link]. Description Page no.
1 Stresses and Strains 41
2 Deformation & Thermal stress 42
3 Stress-strain curve for mild steel & Strain Energy 43
4 Law of forces & System of forces 44
5 Centre of Gravity & Moment of Inertia 45
6 Shear Force Diagram & Bending Moment Diagram 46
7 Theory of simple bending & torsion 47
8 Principal stresses and principal planes 48
9 Euler’s & Rankine’s formula for column & Effective length for different end conditions 49

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 STRESS & STRAIN
Unit: N/m2,MPa Stress
σ Load(P)
Area(A)
ML-1T -2 No Unit Strain(e) M0L0T 0

Direct strain Shear strain Volumetric strain

Normal stress Shear stress Bearing/
Crushing stress

Engineering Strain( e) True Strain ( t)

Tensile strain
Compressive
Direct Stress Bending Stress Direct Shear Torsional Shear
strain Original length is Instantaneous length is
Stress Stress δl
e considered considered
Engineering Stress( e) True Stress ( t) l
Shear strain
l δl
Tensile Stress Compressive 
τ t  εe  Volumetric Strain (eV) :
G lo li
Stress Original cross sectional Instantaneous cross σ
When axial eV  (1  2 )
 t  ln (1   )
area is considered sectional area is Volumetric force acts, E
Elasticity Constants considered Strain
When 3 mutually perpendicular
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity P P force acts,
(E): σt  σe  Material Total [Link] Independent
Ao Ai Elastic Elastic σX  σy  σz
E
Longitudinal Stress σ
 When =0.33 to 0.35, constants constants (1  2 )
Longitudin al Strain ε σ t  σ e (1  e) E
EK Homogeneous 4 2
Modulus of Rigidity / Shear On hydrostatic loading,
=0 to 0.5, & isotropic
Modulus (G) :
Poisson’s Ratio () :  lateral strain
 3
Shear stress  (1/m) longitudin al strain Orthotropic 12 9 eV  (1  2  )
G  E
Shear strain  E E 
Range: 0 to 0.5 G  to Anisotropic 21
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity(K) : 3 2
 < 1/3  = 1/3  > 1/3

Direct or Hydrostatic stress  Materials k Homogeneous
K  E>K E=K E<K
k
Volumetric strain V Cork 0 k
k
k
k
 P Steel 0.27 - 0.3 Materials E (GPa) k k
K x k
V UNIT: N/mm2 Concrete 0.2-0.3 Diamond 1200 y k Isotropic
Anisotropic
V Copper 0.33 Steel 200 k Orthotropic
Aluminium 0.33 Copper 120
E  2G(1   ) EI = Flexural
Nmm 2 Brass 0.32 - 0.42
Rigidity Aluminium 70 σ1 σ σ
E  3K(1  2 ) GJ = Torsional (ML3T -2)
Glass 0.18-0.3
Strain in x-direction εX  μ 2 μ 3
Rigidity Bronze 80 E E E
9KG Cast Iron 0.2-0.3 σ2 σ1 σ3
E Cast Iron 110
Strain in y-direction εy  μ μ
3K  G AE = Axial Wrought Iron 0.27
E
σ3 σ
E
σ
E
Rigidity Wrought Iron 190
Strain in z-direction εz  μ 1 μ 2
3K  2G N E E E
 GA = Shear (MLT -2) Gold 0.44
6K  2G Rigidity Wood 10 εV  εX  εy  εz
Rubber/Fully 0.5
plastic Rubber/Fully Plastic 0.01 – 0.1
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 Thermal Stress
Deformation (l) Due to Self Weight

Due to Axial load Thermal stress σ t  EαT

Type of Bar Elongation (l)
Elongation (l)
PL
Type of Bar
e  T l   Tl
AE
E1
γL2 WL Modular Ratio, m E1 > E2
δL   E2
Pl l 2E 2AE
Prismatic P δl  
bar AE E = coefficient of thermal expansion (/C)
W T = change in temperature

Circular Tapered Bar Uniform Tapering Conical Materials  (  10-6 / C)

Bar
4 Pl
L  Aluminium 23 - 24
D1 D1 D2 E γL2 WL
δl   Bronze 19
D2 6E 6AE
Copper 17
Rectangular Tapered Bar W
b  Concrete/ 12
Pl log e  2  Steel/ Cast Iron
P P
l   b1  Prismatic bar due to both

b2 b1 b2  b1 Et external weight & self

weight PL WL Material - 1, 1
δl   As temperature increases,
Material - 2, 2
AE 2AE
W (i) When material is constrained,(1 > 2)
Square Tapering Section Material 1 - Compression
l
Material 2 – Tension
Pdx
a
l   P
2 (ii)When both end is constrained by fixed wall (1 > 2)
 ba 
a   l  x  E
0
Solid Truncated conical bar Both the material - Compression
    of circular cross
b Section D
PL2 D  d 
δL 
Composite Bars P = P1 + P2
L 6ED  d  Bulk Modulus (K)
PL P L
l1  l2  1  2 Materials Bulk Modulus (MPa) x 105
P A1E1
AE AE d
P A1 E 1
P1  P Aluminium 0.68-0.7
A2E2 A1 E 1  A 2 E 2
Flat Steel Plate of
Brass 1.08
P2 
A 2E 2 Trapezoidal Form PL2 (B  b)
P δl 
A1E1  A 2 E 2 4E(B  b) Brass 1.16
A E A 2 E 2
E equiv  1 1 Copper 1.23
A1  A 2 Tapered bar of Area of
top(At) & Area of Bottom PL2  Ab 
(Ab) δl  1  2  Cast Iron 0.58-10.7
6E  At 
Malleable Iron 1.19

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 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
[Link]. Description Page no.
1 Static Indeterminancy 51
2 Kinematic Indeterminancy 52
3 Method of Structural Analysis 53 - 54
4 Fixed end moments 54
5 Slope & defection 55 - 56
6 Moment distribution method 56
7 Cables 57
8 Arches 58 - 60
9 Influence Line Diagram 60 - 61
10 Plastic Analysis 62 - 64
11 Matrix method 65

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 Structure Internal Static Indeterminancy
Determinate Structure Indeterminate Structure

Equilibrium equations are sufficient Equilibrium equations are insufficient It refers to internal redundancy due to closed loops.
to analyze the structure. to analyze the structure. In addition to
equilibrium equations, compatibility Determinate Structure Indeterminate Structure It deals with internal forces only (i.e. Axial force,
equations are needed. Shear force and Bending moment).
External Static
Indeterminancy
Condition: Ds = 0 ; R = e Condition: Ds  0 ; R > e Static Kinematic Types of structure Equi. equations
(Dse)
Indeterminancy (Ds) indeterminancy
B.M & S.F is independent from the B.M and S.F depends upon the cross- (Dk) 2D 3
cross-sectional area and flexural sectional area and flexural rigidity of Internal Static
rigidity of the members. the member. Indeterminancy 3D 6
(Dsi)
No stresses are caused due to lack Stresses are caused due to
of fit or differential settlement or temperature variations and due to lack Structure 2D 3D
Pin jointed frame Rigid jointed frame
temperature change. of fit or differential settlement.
Only axial & shear force Axial force, shear force &
Ex.-Simply supported beam, Ex.– Fixed beam, Continuous beam, can be transferred from Bending Moment are
Beam
Dsi  0 -
Cantilever beam, 3-Hinged arch, Two hinged arch, Fixed arch, Propped one member to another transferred
Single & double over hanging beam cantilever. member Truss Dsi  m  (2j, 3) Dsi  m  (3j  6)
,
Doesn’t resist moment or Resists rotation
rotation
Frame Dsi  3C  R r Dsi  6C  R r
Resists only horizontal & Resists the relative
vertical movement horizontal movement &
relative vertical movement m = no. of members C = No. of closed loops
j = no. of joints Rr = [Link] released reactions

Internal reactions External reactions

Static Indeterminancy
Reactions developed in Reactions developed in support
member (due to DOF in a Structure 2D 3D
member) (Ds) (Ds)

Static Kinematic Beam -

Indeterminancy Indeterminancy Ds  r - s

Truss
Number of unknown reactions Number of unknown Ds  m  2j  r Ds  m  3j  r
displacements
Frame

 If available equilibrium equations are less than the Ds  3m  3j  r Ds  6m  6j  r

unknown forces  Static Indeterminancy If Rr is given,
 It is the sum of internal & external static indeterminancy. Ds  6m  6j  r  R r
Ds  Dsi  Dse If Ds > 0  Indeterminate structure Ds  3m  3j  r  R r
Ds = 0  Determinate structure
R r  3 (m j 1)
R r   (m j  1)
External static indeterminancy is found for 3 structures such as mj = no. of members
Beam, Rigid jointed frame, Pin jointed frame . connecting to internal
r = no. of unknown forces hinge
Dse  r - s s = no. of equilibrium equations
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 Types of frame Members are Kinematic Indeterminancy Stability of structure
subjected to

Pin jointed frame Only Axial forces Structure 2D 3D

Rigid jointed plane Axial forces, shear Internal stability External stability
frame forces and bending
moments Extensible Inextensible Extensible Inextensible
External stability
Rigid jointed space Axial forces, shear
frame forces, bending Beam D k  3j  r - No. of independen t
moments and twisting Dk  3j  r displaceme nt presented
Plane  The minimum number of
moments. required reaction is three and that
reaction are neither concurrent nor
Truss - -
Condition Released component Dk  2j  r Dk  3j  r parallel.
(m – 1)
Space  Minimum 6 reactions. It
Horizontal guided roller Axial force (Rr = 1) Frame
Dk  3j  r  R r Dk  3j  r  R r  m Dk  6j  r  R r Dk  6j  r  R r  m should be non concurrent, non-parallel
and non-coplanar.
Hinged joint Bending moment
(Rr = 1) Overall stability
Truss is unstable
Vertical guided roller Shear force (Rr = 1) Ds  0 Internal stability

Roller joint Bending moment, Axial Ds  0 Statically Indeterminate or redundant

force (Rr = 2) When a part of the structure moves
Overstiff externally Deficient internally
(Support reaction > 3) (m < 2j - 3) Ds  0 Statically Determinate truss appreciably with respect to the other
part within the structure, then the
structure is said to be internally
Type of structure DOF per joint
m = 2j-3 Perfect, simple or statically determinate Statically determinate unstable.
stable truss Structure
Pin jointed plane structure 2 (∆x, ∆y)
Rigid  Internal stability may
Indeterminate structure Cantilever beam occur due to formation of mechanism
Pin jointed space structure 3 (∆x, ∆y, ∆z) Simply supported beam (i.e. three consecutive hinges).
m < 2j – 3 Deficient or unstable structure Overhanging beam If reactions are parallel, framed
Rigid jointed plane frame structure 3 (∆x, ∆y, θ) m > 2j – 3 Redundant or indeterminate structure Statically Indeterminate structure is unstable.
Structure
Continuous beam Truss:
Rigid jointed space frame 6 (∆x, ∆y, ∆z, θx, θy, θz)
structure Fixed beam
Method of analysis of Indeterminate beams
Propped cantilever beam
m  2j  3 Unstable (2D)
Area moment method
Method of analysis
m  3j  6 Unstable (3D)
Theorem of three moment method Types of prop
Rigid prop
Moment distribution method Sinking prop
Elastic prop
Statically determinate truss Statically indeterminate truss
Strain energy method
Force/ Flexibility
method Rigid prop Sinking prop
Method of joints Column analogy method
Displacement/ Stiffness Upward deflection = Downward Upward deflection  Downward
Method of sections method Slope deflection method deflection deflection
Castigliono’s II
Tension factor method theorem SR ENGINEERING CLASSES
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52
 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
[Link]. Description Page no.
1 Types of soil 65
2 Properties of soil 66 – 67
3 Particle size distribution 68
4 Consistency limits 68 – 69
5 Classification of soil 70
6 Permeability 71
7 Stress distribution of soil 72
8 Effective stress 73
9 Compressibility 74
10 Consolidation 75
11 Shear strength 76
12 Foundation 77
13 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity theory 78 - 79

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 FORMATION OF SOIL Dr. Karl Terzaghi - Father of Soil Mechanics The process of soil formation- Pedogenesis

Rock

Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering

Ice(wedging Plants & Temperature Water Oxidation Carbonation Hydration & Leaching by
GEOLOGICAL
CYCLE
action)/ Frost Animals & Pressure (H2O + CO2 → H2CO3) Hydrolysis Organic Acids
Weathering/denudation/ wedging
disintegration
Deposition/
Upheaval TYPES OF SOIL
Soils formed away from origin by
Soils formed at place of origin. natural transporting agents
Eg: Black Cotton Soil Eg: Alluvial soil, Aeolian, Marine

Angular particles Rounded particles, Stratified

Transportation Residual soil/ Transported Soil/
Non - stratified
Sedentary soil Sedimentary soil

Alluvial Soil- Lacustrine soil- Aeolian Soil Marine Soil Glacial drift Colluvial Soil Red Soil
Running H2O Lake/Still water Air/wind blown deposits Suspended in sea Due to melting glaciers Due to Gravity From meteoric weathering
Eg: Loamy Soil Eg: Varved clay Eg:Sand dunes, Loess water Eg: Till, Simple drift/ Poorly graded, Angular, Decomposition of granite,
(Equal proportions of formed in lake beds (low density, high Eg: Marine clay Stratified drift, Outwash High shear strength gneiss & feldspar
sand, silt, clay) (Alternate layers of silt permeability, collapsible Well graded,Dam construction when confined Have low water holding
& clay) structure) Eg: Talus capacity & low fertility
Rich in iron oxide
Cumulose Soil Peat Muck Black Cotton Soil
Tuff Soil/ Volcanic Due to partially High Montmorillonite
ash soil Combination of Peat + decomposed organic Fully decomposed Residual soil Humus Soil
Volcanic eruption Muck matter vegetative matter in the Good Cotton growth Half decomposed vegetative
Black/deep brown presence of excess water High swelling & matter
Organic odour shrinkage properties
Bentonite Soil Shale
Amorphous in nature
Moorum Laterite Soil Marl Soil
Chemically decomposed Intermediate stage between
volcanic ash
Gravel + Red clay used Leaching out of Silica Fine graded CaCO3 from Collapsible Soil
Lubricant in drilling clay and slate
in road sub-base compound marine origin, animal Gumbo
operation’
Accumulation of Fe2O3, bones & aquatic plants Soil that reduce in
High Montmorillonite Black,Sticky,highly
Al2O3 volume by wetting
High shrinkage & Drilling Mud Hilly areas, humid Stiff, Green colour plastic Soil
swelling properties
climate Eg: Loess
Low shear strength Bentonite clay + water Very fine particles of clay
Brick red colour, formed Not used in foundations
in tropical climate due to CaCO3 leaching. Liquid limit > 90%
Plasticity index > 50 -
Expansive

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 Two phase diagram
Three phase Four phase PROPERTIES OF SOIL
diagram diagram

Vw
Air Water

Mw
Ma

Va

Va
Air

Ma
Air

Water Engineering

Mw

Vw
Solids Solids Ice Basic property Index property property
Ms

Ms
Vs

Vs
Eg: ,consistency Eg: Shear strength,
Eg:e,n,na,w,G
limit,sensitivity, Bearing capacity
Solids toughness etc.,

Ms

Vs
Water
Dry Soil Saturated
Soil
Partially
M=Ms & V =Va + Vs M = Mw +Ms & V= Vw+Vs Saturated Soil Solids
Unit weight
M = Mw +Ms & V= Va+Vw+Vs
Expressed in 
Water content Void Ratio Wd
Apparent water emax emin Porosity Dry Unit Weight, γd  where,
W d=weight of dry soil
M V
w  w  100 content V
Ms e v 0.91 0.35 Vv
W sat=weight of
Mw Vs n  100 Wsat saturated soil
w'   100 V Saturated unit weight, γ sat  W=weight of soil in
M n = 47.64% n = 25.95%
Range: w≥0 Range: e>0 V existing condition
e>5(Bentonite Cubical array Rhombohedral W W sub=weight of
clay) array (60)
0<n<1
Bulk unit weight, γ submerged soil
V V=Total Volume of
w' w Ws soil
w w' 
1  w' 1 w Unit weight of solids, γ s  Vs=Volume of solids
n e Air Content Vs
e n
1 n 1 e W
ac 
Va
100 Submerged unit weight, γ'  sub
Vv 0≤ac≤1 V
Degree of Saturation s > sat > b > d > ’
Void Ratio of coarse grained soil is
less than void ratio of fine grained ac Condition
Vw
Sr   100 0≤Sr≤100 soil
Vv 0 Fully Saturated

γb 
G  eSγ w γd 
Gγ w
γ sat 
G  eγ w γ' 
G  1γ w
0 to 1 Partially
Saturated 1 e 1 e 1 e 1 e
Degree of Nature of Soil
Sr Condition
Saturation
1 Dry ’=sat - w γ sat
0 Dry γ'  @ 4℃,
na= nac
0-0.25 Humid 2 w = 9.81 kN/m3
w=1000 kg/m3 ac+Sr=1
0 to 100 Partially
Saturated 0.25-0.5 Damp % of air voids
Va
100 Fully Saturated 0.5-0.75 Moist na  100 Archemedis principle :
V
100(sometimes) Super Saturated 0.75-1 Wet Volume of object immersed = Volume of water displaced
0≤na≤n & 0≤na<1

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 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
[Link] Description Page no
1 Water demand 81
2 Population forecasting 82
3 Water quality parameters 82 – 84
4 Treatment of water 85 – 88
5 Distribution system 89
6 Sewerage system 90 – 91
7 Sewer appurtenances 92
8 Characteristics of waste water 93
9 Sewage treatment 94 – 95
10 Trickling filter 95
11 Activated Sludge Process (ASP) 96 – 97
12 Oxidation ditch & Oxidation pond 97
13 Anaerobic treatment 98 – 99
14 Solid waste management 100
15 Environmental pollution 101
16 Effects of pollution 102
17 Control devices of air pollution 103
18 Water pollution 104
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 Per capita Water Demand Water losses & theft Calculation of Fire demand Coincidental draft

Yearly water demand of city Q 10 – 15 % of total water consumption Kuchling’s Formula

 Q  3182 P
365  Design population 365  P ltr/day
Maximum daily demand +
Buston’s formula Q  5663 P Fire demand
Q = Annual water demand in litres/year
P = Design population Maximum
Industrial Water Demand of Maximum hourly demand
Freeman’s formula
P 
20-25 % of total water consumption Q  1136  10
50 - 450 lpcd 5 
Rate of demand depends on Depends on type of industry
National Board of fire
Q  4637 P (1  0.01 P ) Goodrich Formula
Quality & cost of water Distribution pressure Underwriters formula
Size of city Climatic conditions Public uses Water Demand
Supply system Living Standards P = Population (1000 s) Max daily demand
Industries Population
5 – 10 % total water consumption  1.8t 0.10
Sewerage Manual of Ministry
Q  100 P
Annual avg demand
Design period
Fire Demand where p = % of annual draft
p  180t 0.10 t = time in days
Domestic Water Demand 1 – 2%  1 - 2 liter per capita per day Based on population
135 lpcd - 200 lpcd

Institutional/Commercial Peak Factor

Water Demand Use Demand Population Demand
50-60 % of total (lpcd)
water [Link] water demand
consumption Domestic use 200 Peak factor 
Upto 20000 Avg daily water demand
20 lpcd – 50 lpcd without flushing
Industrial 50
system
1
Usage Full Weaker Type of Water per capita
Commercial 20 a)Standpost 40 lphd Peak factor 
b) Houseservice 70 – 100 Population
Flushing section Buildings per day (Liter) Civic/Public 10 connections lphd
use
Cinema & 15 lpcd per seat 20000 – 100000 100– 150
Drinking 5 lpcd 5 lpcd Population Peak factor
Concert halls Waste & 55 (with full lphd
thefts flushing system)  50000 3
Cooking 5 lpcd 5 lpcd Schools 45 lpcd per
student Fire demand 1-2 > 100000 150 – 200 50000 – 200000 2.5
Bathing 75 lpcd 55 lpcd (with full lphd
Offices 45 lpcd per head Total demand = 335 lpcd flushing system) > 200000 2
Washing 25 lpcd 20 lpcd
Clothes Factories with 45 lpcd per Variation in Demand For Rural water supply 3
bathrooms worker

Washing 15 lpcd 10 lpcd Restaurants 70 lpcd per seat Max. hourly demand 1.5 x Avg hourly demand of Fire Demand for Residential cities
utensils
max day
Hotels 180 lpcd per bed Types of City Quantity of water (ltr/min)
Flushing 45 lpcd 30 lpcd Max daily demand 1.8 x Avg daily demand
water Hostels,Medical 135 lpcd per head Small cities 2200
quarters
Max weekly demand 1.48 x Avg weekly demand Large cities 4500
Lawn 15 lpcd - Hospital with < 340 lpcd per bed
watering 100 beds High value 7650-13500
Max monthly demand 1.28 x Avg monthly demand apartment
Cleaning 15 lpcd 10 lpcd Hospital with > 450 lpcd per bed
100 beds 3-storey building 27000
house Max hourly of max day demand 2.7 x Avg hourly demand of the
max day
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 Design Life Period
Methods of Population Forecasting Water Quality Parameters
Components Design Life
Period (Years) Arithmetical increase method
Geometrical increase method/ Exponential growth
Water treatment plant units 15 method/ Logarithmic growth method/ Uniform growth
method
Physical Parameters Chemical Parameters Biological Parameters
Pumps & Electric motors 15 Incremental increase method/ Varying increment
method
Service reservoirs, Headworks 15 Decrease rate of growth method
Physical Test Acceptable Rejection Remarks
Simple Graphical method
Storage reservoirs/ Dams 30 parameter instrument limit limit
Comparative method
Master plan method/ Zoning method
Infiltration galleries/ wells 30 Colour Tintometer/ 5 TCU 15 TCU Apparent colour = Suspended &
Logistic curve method
Ratio method Nessler’s dissolved solids
Intake structures 30 tube True colour = Dissolved solids
Distribution system, pipe 30 Geometric increase method Taste & Odour Osmoscope 1-3 TON 3TON AB Diluted sample
connections, pumping station TON  
A Undiluted sample
Percentage growth rate from decade to decade
Arithmetic increase method remains constant.
Gives highest value of forecasted population. Temperature Thermometer > 10 C > 20C If temperature increases at the
Immersion rate of 10C, then biological
Population increases at a constant rate. n
 r  r =Avg growth probes/ activity will be doubled.
Gives lowest forecasted population. Pn  Po 1   rate Sensors
 100 
Pn  Po  n x Specific Conductivity 500 ppm 500 ppm
TDS  Specific Conductanc e
r  r  r  ...rn Conductivity of sensor
r 1 2 3 or r1  r2  r3  ...rn 
1/n
where Pn = Population after n decades water @25 C x 0.65
Po = Present population n
n = No. of decades Turbidity Nephelometer 1 NTU 5 NTU > 5 NTU  visible in naked eye
P2 P1 = Initial population
x = Arithmetic mean of population increase in rn  1 100
known decades P1 P2 = Final population

Incremental increase method Turbidity

Jackson’s Turbiditimeter:
 Principle: Light absorption
Arithmetic increase + Geometrical increase Turbidity Rod:
 Measures High turbidity ( > 25 ppm)
Growth rate may increase or decrease  Aluminium rod with platinum needle
 Expressed in JTU.
of about dia 1mm & length 25 mm.
n(n  1)
Pn  Po  n x  y  Measured in Silica unit.
Baylis Turbidimeter:
2  Principle:Colour matching
1 STU = 1 mg of silica powder in 1 ltr of
technique
x distilled water
=Avg increase in population  Measures low turbidity
 Blue cobalt scale.
y = Avg of incremental increase in population

Forecasting Method Forecasted Suitable for Nephelometer:

population  Principle : Scattering
 Expressed in FTU /NTU.
Arithmetic increase method Lowest Very old city  FTU - Formazin Turbidity Unit
 Measure low turbidity
Geometric increase method Highest Young & fast growing city  Drinking water
 Turbidity measured r light
Incremental increase method Medium City with increasing growth rate rays
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 RCC
[Link]. Description Page no.
1 Introduction of RCC 106 – 108
2 Working Stress Method (WSM) 109 – 111
3 Limit State Method (LSM) 112 – 113
4 T-beam 113 – 114
5 Shear & torsion 115
6 Bond stress 116
7 Slab 117 – 118
8 Column 119 -120
9 Footing 121
10 Prestressed structure 122 – 124
11 Steel structures 125 - 127

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 Reinforced Cement Concrete
Target Mean Strength
Concrete
3 days 50%f28 or 0.45 f28

7 days 60% f28 or 2/3 f28

Plain Cement Concrete Reinforced Cement

14 days 85% f28
(PCC) Concrete (RCC)

28 days 99.99% f28

Properties of PCC Properties of RCC

A mixture of cement, fine A mixture of cement, fine 1 month f28

aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate (sand) and coarse
aggregate without aggregate with reinforcement.
3 months 1.1 f28
reinforcement. Sufficient compressive and
More compressive strength
and negligible tensile strength.
tensile strength.
Ductile failure
f m  f ck  1.65σ
6 months 1.15 f28
Brittle in nature. Higher fire and weather
Above equation is used when probability of block failure is
resistance & high durability
5% or less.
1 year 1.2 f28

Steel reinforcement (f ck )100  (f ck )150

B.I.S. recommended following types of steel for reinforcement : Flexural tensile strength
Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming to IS 432 :
1982 (Part-I)
(f ck ) cylinder  (f ck ) cube
High yield strength deformed steel (HYSD) bars conforming to IS Flexural tensile strength / Modulus of Rupture/ Bending
:1786-1985
(i) Fe-415 (Tor-40)
Crack Strength:
(f ck ) cylinder  0.8(f ck ) cube if λ  2
(ii) Fe-500 (Tor-50) According to IS 456:2000,
Hard drawn steel wire fabric for concrete reinforcement
conforming to IS : 1566 -1967. f cr  0.7 f ck (N/mm 2 ) (f ck ) cylinder  0.75(f ck ) cube if λ  3
Structural steel conforming to grade A of IS 2062.

Specimen :
(i) If aggregate size ≤ 20 mm (f ck ) cylinder  0.67(f ck ) cube if λ  4
Average Strength Variation Specimen size - 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm
Rate of loading - 180 kg/min = 3kN/min
(ii) If aggregate size > 20 mm
Specimen size - 150 mm × 150 mm × 700 mm Direct tensile strength:
Grade Average of the group of 4 Non Individual
Rate of loading - 400 kg/min = 6.67 kN/min
overlapping test results (N/mm2) test result It is the half of the flexural strength of concrete. Its
(N/mm2) 3Pl
Flexural tensile strength, f cr  value varies, 0.55 to 0.62.
2bd 2
M-15 (≥ fck + 0.825σ) or (fck + 3) whichever is (fck – 3) f ct  0.55f cr or 0.3  0.5f ck
more
2P
M-20 (≥ fck + 0.825 σ) or (fck + 4) whichever is (fck – 4) Split tensile strength:
f cs 
more πdl Order of strength of concrete
Specimen:
where fck = Characteristic strength Length- 300 mm
 = Standard deviation Cube strength > Cylinder strength > Modulus of rupture > Split tensile
Dia.- 150 mm 2
Test result of the sample is rejected if individual variation becomes Dia. : Length- 1 : 2 f ct  f cr  0.66f cr strength
greater than ± 15% of average for 3 cubes. 3 f ck  f cr  f cs  f ct

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 107
Characteristic compressive NOTE: Creep
Strength (fck)
k= 0% fall
Creep can be defined as the elastic and long term deformation of concrete under
The strength value below which not more than 5% of test f m  f ck  kσ k=1 50% fall a constant load.
results are expected to fall.
k = 1.65 5% fall It is a time dependent component of total strain.
A statistical measure of concrete strength, ensuring consistent
performance. Ultimate creep strain
Creep Coefficient ,
θ
Elastic strain
Modulus of Elasticity
Standard deviation ()
Total creep  Elastic strain  Ultimate strain
Quality of concrete or strength variation is depend on
standard deviation.
Initial tangent Tangent Secant modulus Long term Creep Recovery
(i) If No. of test samples  30 modulus of modulus of of elasticity modulus of Age (days) 
elasticity elasticity elasticity After unloading of structure the reduction in

σ
 (x  μ) 2
strain with time other than elastic strain
7 days 2.2
n Initial tangent modulus of elasticity/ Dynamic Creep recovery < Creep strain
(ii) If No. of test samples < 30 modulus (EIT): 28 days 1.6
Also known as short term modulus of elasticity(Ec). Creep strain is due to

σ
 (x  μ) 2
As per IS 456:1978 (Min grade  M15) 

Dead load - Permanent strain
Live load - Temporary strain
1 year 1.1
n -1 E c  5700 f ck N/mm 2

σ As per IS 456:2000 (Min grade  M20)

Coefficient of variation, Cv  E c  5000 f ck
Min Ordinary Sea H2O
μ N/mm 2 M5 1:5:10

PCC M 15 M 20
M 7.5 1:4:8
Initial tangent (EIT) The slope of stress-strain
Average strength,
μ
x curve at origin of curve.
M 10 1:3:6
RCC M 20 M 30

n Tangent modulus of Slope of tangent of any

M 15 1:2:4 Concrete Old New
elasticity (ET) point in stress strain curve

where n = No. of test sample M 20 1:1.5:3 Ordinary M10 – M20 M10 – M20
Secant modulus of Slope of line joining the
x = Strength of concrete block
x- = Deviation from mean
elasticity (ES) any point on stress strain Standard M25 – M55 M25 – M60
curve to origin M 25 1:1:2
High strength M60 – M85 M65 – M100
Standard deviation  Strength variation Long term modulus of Effect of creep on young’s
1 elasticty (Ecl) modulus of elasticity
Standard deviation  Exposure Min NC
Exposure Min NC Clear cover
Quality of concrete (mm)
(mm)
Mild 20
Ec 5000 f ck where  = creep Slab 20 mm 15 mm
E cl  
Grade Standard deviation () 1 θ 1 θ coefficient
Moderate 30
Beam 25 mm 25 mm
M10, M15 3.5 N/mm 2
E IT  ES  E T  E Chord Severe 45
Column 40 mm 45 mm
M20, M25 4 N/mm 2
For the elastic region, E IT  ES  E T V,Severe 50
M30 – M50 5 N/mm 2 Footing 50 mm 75 mm
For the inelastic region, E IT  E T  ES Extreme 75
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 FLUID MECHANICS
[Link] Description Page no
1 Properties of fluids 129
2 Types of fluids 130
3 Pressure & its measurement 130
4 Hydrostatic forces 132
5 Fluid kinematics 133 – 134
6 Fluid dynamics 135 – 136
7 Orifice 137
8 Mouthpiece 138
9 Notches & Weirs 138 – 139
10 Pumps 140 – 141
11 Open Channel Flow 142 - 145

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 Surface Tension
The Substance which deform continuously when subjected to Units: 1kgm/s2 = 1 N Properties of Fluids Capillarity
external shear stress is known as fluid. 1N/m2 = 1 Pa Force F
1 atm = 101325 Pa=1.01bar σ  Unit: N/m or kgf/m
Liquid Pressure  Fluids = 760 torr Fluid obey Newton’s law of Length L Due to both cohesion & adhesion.
FLUID Stress  Solids viscosity  Newtonian Fluid
1 bar = 105 Pa
Work done 1 The phenomenon observed in liquid
Gas 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg
σ σ
1 torr = 133.416 Pa Fluid don’t obey Newton’s law Increase in area T due to molecular attraction at the
1 kgf/cm 2 = 9.81 x104 Pa of viscosity  Non-Newtonian liquid boundary, as the rise or fall of
Fluid liquid surface in a narrow tube is
Pressure Surface tension is due to cohesion between called capillary action.
Specific Volume liquid molecules
Kinematic Viscosity
F V 1
P Vs   μ
A
Unit: N/m2 or Pascal M ρ ν Unit: m2/s,cm 2/s or Condition Pressure Capillary rise Capillary fall
or dyne/cm2 ρ stokes
Unit: m3/kg ν air  15.2 ν water Adhesive force > Cohesive force >
Dimension: ML-1T -2 1 stokes =10-4 m2/s Cohesive force Adhesive force
1 centistokes = 10-2 stokes @ 20 C Pressure inside droplet 4σ 2σ
(Solid as Sphere) p or  < 90  > 90
Mass Density d R
Cohesion Adhesion Bulk Modulus Wetting Surface Non-Wetting
Pressure inside bubble Surface
M Same molecular Different 8σ 4σ
ρ Unit: kg/m3 Increase in Pressure dP (Soap bubble) p or
V attraction molecular K d R
attraction Volumetric Strain  dV Capillary rise or fall in
Dimension: ML-3T 0 V Pressure inside liquid 2σ σ liquid in
Cohesion enables Adhesion enables
Unit: N/m2 jet p or
 water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cc@ 4C a liquid to resist a liquid to stick to d R
 air= 1.2 kg/m3 @ NTP tensile load other surface
 Hg= 13600 kg/m3
Compressibility
Newton’s Law of Viscosity Parallel plate,
Mass density is independent of Capillary tube,
Volumetric Strain  dV/V 1
acceleration due to gravity.
Shear stress on a fluid element layer is β   2σ cos θ
 It is constant everywhere. Increase in Pressure dP K 4σ cos θ 4σ cos θ h
directly proportional to the rate of shear h  ρgt
Specific Weight
strain or rate of angular deformation.
Unit: m2/N βair  β water ρgd wd
du dθ du dθ
τ or τ  μ or μ  water = 4.6 x 10-1 m2/N &  air = 7.65 x 10-10 m2/N
W dy dt dy dt
γ  ρg Unit: kN/m3
Adiabiatic  =1/p & Isothermal  =1/RT
where
V
dθ = Rate of shear strain / t = Distance b/w plates
Where
w = Specific weight of liquid
Dimension: ML-2T -2 dt Rate of angular deformation Properties Temperature Pressure σ = Surface tension
θ = 0 for pure water and glass tube
 water = 9.81 kN/m3 du = Velocity gradient 1
Density () Gases  θ = 8 for water and glass tube
 air = 11.77 kN/m3 dy T Gases  P θ = 140 , For mercury and glass tube
γ poles  γ equator θ = 26, for kerosene and glass tube
g poles = 9.83 m/s2  = Coefficient of viscosity/ Dynamic viscosity 1 Constant
g equator = 9.78 m/s2 Unit: Ns/m2 or Pa.s / kg/ms Liquid  Capillarity is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.
T
CGS = Dyne-s/cm2 or poise 1 Dia. of capillary tube should be less than 6 mm.
1Ns/m2 = 10 poise = 1 Pa.s Weight Gases 
Specific gravity T Gases  P
1 poise = 100 centipoise density ()
1
Density of fluid Liquid 
S  water =1 centipoise = 0.01 poise @20 C T Constant
Density of Standard fluid
water = 55  air @20 C
γ ρ Viscosity () Gases  T Constant
S  No unit Measured by Reynold Viscometer.
γw ρw Liquid 
1 Constant
T
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 HYDROLOGY & IRRIGATION
[Link] Description Page no
1 Hydrological cycle 147
2 Hydrological parameters 148
3 Precipitation 149 – 151
4 Evaporation 151 – 152
5 Transpiration 152
6 Infiltration 152 – 153
7 Evapotranspiration 153
8 Hydrograph 154 – 155
9 Floods & Flood routing 156 – 158
10 Types of Irrigation 159 - 160
11 Quality of irrigation water 161
12 Water requirement of crops 162 – 164
13 Types of canal 165
14 Design of irrigation channel 166 – 167
15 Canal headworks 168
16 Cross drainage works 169

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 147
HYDROLOGY Evaporation Water is converted into vapour
Availability of water : from the water surface
Hydrology : The branch of science which deals
with study of occurrence , distribution & circulation of
Blue water Rainfall falling down into water body Transpiration The plants expels/lost the
water above & below GL along with the study of Total available volume of world water = water/moisture from its leaves
engineering aspects of quantitative measurement, 1380 Mkm3 through stomata (Microscopic
analysis & forecasting of flood data.
Saline water = 97.2% Green water Rainwater falling down directly on Pores) into the atmosphere.
(Salinity = 35%) vegetation
Precipitation A process under which water
Occurrence Origin  Precipitation reaches to the earth surface from
Glaciers = 2.15% White water Water escaped into atmosphere as
the atmosphere.
Distribution Above & below GL, different Deep water = 032% vapour
regions, non-uniformly Remaining fresh water available = Runoff Water flow over the earth surface
0.33% Grey water Sullage & Sewage (Wastewater) under gravity action
Circulation Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Total Fresh water = 2.8%
Lithosphere Interception During rainfall some part of rainfall
water gets stopped by some
obstacle (on the leaves of Plants,
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE on the building roofs)
(Water cycle)
Infiltration The process of water going down
through the pores of the soil
(Atmosphere)
Percolation The process of moving water from
Evaporation a soil zone to a deeper soil strata

force
Gravitational
(Vapour)
radiation

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE EQUATION

Solar

Runoff Mechanical
forces Precipitation = Evaporation + Runoff
P=E+R
(Hydrosphere, Lithosphere)

Precipitation
Hydraulic retention time (i)
(Liquid/Solid))
Vol of water in a phase
Residence time(i) 
Closed cycle Avg flow rate in that phase
Infiltration (Liquid) Includes all 3 phases of
water
(Lithosphere) Scientist - Vitruvius The water of hydrological cycle which has longest
hydraulic retention time = Infiltered water

Index of wetness Rainfall = Evaporation + Transpiration + Runoff + Interception + The water of hydrological cycle which has lowest
Infiltration + Other losses hydraulic retention time = Runoff

Rainfall in a year
IOW(%)  100 % Rainfall deficit Condition IOW (%) Condition
Catchment/ Watershed area
Avg annual rainfall
30 – 45% Severe deficit < 100% Bad year
%Rainfall deficiency  100  IOW(%) (Drought/Deficit) Area of land draining into a stream or a water course of a
given location.
45 – 60% Most severe deficit
It is a comparison of annual rainfall with =100% Normal year Also called basin area/ drainage area/ drainage basin.
average annual rainfall. Separated by a ridge called divide or watershed.
> 60% Disastrous > 100% Good year It is measured by Planimeter.

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 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
[Link] Description Page no [Link] Description Page no
1 Highway development 171 17 Stations 191

2 Types of pavement 172 18 Points & Crossings 192

3 Geometrical design of highway 173 – 174 19 Signals 193

4 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) & 175 20 Airport Engineering 194 – 195
Overtaking Sight Distance(OSD) 21 Bridge Engineering 196 – 197
5 Superelevation 175 22 Construction of roads 198

6 Extrawidening & Transition curve 176

7 Setback distance & Vertical alignment 177
8 Traffic Engineering 178 – 180
9 Intersection 181
10 Types of conflicts 182
11 Traffic signals 183
12 Rotary 184 – 185
13 Design of flexible & rigid pavement 186
14 Rigid pavement 187
15 Railway Engineering 188 – 189
16 Geometric design of railway 190

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 Sequence of Highway John Macadam  Father of modern Development of Highway Sequence of Road survey
development roadway
Specification 1st 20 year road plan 2nd 20 year road 1st 20 year road plan Map Study
Road density = Road length/100 km 2 plan
Roman roads (t = 0.75 – 1 m)
For India, it is 35 – 50 km/100 km 2 Name of plan Nagpur road plan Bombay road plan Lucknow road plan
Reconaissance
Duration 1943 – 1963 1961 – 1981 1981 – 2001
Completed – 1961 Completed – 1974
Tresaguet construction
(30 cm & 1 in 45) Organization Establishment Preliminary Survey
Target density 16 km/100km 2 32 km/100km2 82 km/100km2
year

Central Public Works July 1854

Total target 532700 km 10 lakhs km 27 lakhs km Final location &
Department (CPWD)
Metcalf construction Detailed Survey
Achieved target 709122 km 1502697 km 2702000 km
Public Works Department 1854
(PWD) Road pattern Star & grid - Square & block Types of Road
patterns
Telford construction Jayakar Committee 1927 Provision of No provision 1600 km 3200 km
(1 in 45) Expressway
IRTDA 1927
Road NH,SH,MDR,ODR,Villa NH,SH,MDR,ODR, 1o  Expressway,NH Radial/Star & grid pattern
Central Road Fund 1929 Rectangular or Block pattern
Classification ge roads Village roads, 2o  SH,MDR
Macadam construction Expressway 3o  ODR,VR Radial/Star & block pattern
Central Road Organisation 1930 Radial/Star & Circular pattern
(1 in 36)
Development 15% 5% Nil Hexagonal pattern
Indian Road Congress 1934
allowances
Motor Vehicle Act 1939
Water Bound Bituminous Road Life
Macadam Macadam Urban Roads
CRRI 1950
Earthen road 2 years
National Highway Act 1956
WBM road 5 years
CBR Method
Highway Research Board 1978 Arterial roads Sub-arterial roads Collector streets Local streets
Bituminous road 10 – 15 years
(vd=80 Kmph) (vd=60 Kmph) (vd=50 Kmph) (vd=30Kmph)
NHAI 1988
Classification of Roads Concrete road 30 years

Modified CBR Method Roads

As per Traffic As per Load

Type of traffic Vehicle per day Type of load Vehicle load (tonnes)

Extra heavy > 600 Extra heavy road 1500

Based on usage Based on Carriage way According to IRC According to 3rd
traffic
road development
plan Heavy road 1001 – 1500
Heavy traffic 250 – 600
Medium road 500 – 1000
All weather Fair weather Paved roads Unpaved roads Medium traffic 70 – 250
roads roads 1o 2o 3o Light road 500
Expressway SH ODR Light traffic 1 - 70
NH MDR VR
As per BRO

Class 9 road Width = 6 m & carry 3 tonne vehicle loads

National State Highways Major District Other District Village Roads
Highways (NH) (SH) Roads (MDR) Roads (ODR) (VR) Class 5 road Width = 4.5 m & carry 1 tonne vehicle loads

Class 3 road Width = 2.45 – 3.65 m

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 172
Road length as per 3rd 20 year road plan Road Structure Components of Road Structure

Sub soil
Total length of road = Max 4.74 x No. of towns & villages
Road density x Area Subgrade

2 Base course
Length of NH = Area( k m )
50 Wearing course/Surface
course
Length of SH = Max Area( k m 2 )
25 Berm

(62.5 x No. of towns) – Len of NH

Length of MDR = Max Area( k m 2 )

Tests of pavement
12.5 Flexible pavement Rigid pavement

90 x No. of towns Made up of one or more layers Constructed with cement Tests Cause
of materials concrete slabs

Length of ODR & VR = Total length – (Len of NH,SH & MDR) Load transfer – grain to grain Load transfer – Slab action
CBR test Evaluate soil subgrade & base
Design is based on load Design is based on flexural course material of flexible
distributing characteristics strength pavement
Types of pavements
Low flexural strength High flexural strength Plate bearing test Evaluate the support capability
for both rigid & flexible pavement
Deformation in the subgrade is Deformation in the subgrade is
transferred to upper layers not transferred to subsequent Crushing test Strength of aggregates
Flexible pavement Rigid pavement Semi-rigid Composite layers
pavement pavement
Low construction cost but High construction cost but
Abrasion test Hardness of aggregates
Flexible Example Based on repairing cost is high repairing cost is low
pavement design
High maintenance cost Low maintenance cost
method Impact test Toughness of aggregates
Low lifespan High lifespan

Empirical method GI method Physical properties Surfacing cannot be laid directly Surfacing can be laid directly on Soundness test Durability of aggregates
CBR method on subgrade subgrade
[Link] method
Stabilometer method No thermal stresses Thermal stresses induce
Shape test Workability & stability of mix
No need of expansion joints Expansion joints are needed

Rolling of surface is needed No need of rolling of surface Bitumen Adhesion test Stripping value of aggregates
Semi-empirical / Triaxial test method Stress strain
Within 24 hrs, road can be used Roads cannot be used until 14
Semi-theoretical function
for traffic days of curing Penetration test Resistance to flow & Hardness of
method
bitumen
Friction force is less Friction force is high

Theoretical Burmister method Mathematical Strength of road highly depends Strength of road less dependent Float test Viscosity of bitumen
method method on strength of subgrade on strength of subgrade

Damaged by oils & certain No damage by oil & greases

chemicals
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 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
[Link] Description Page no
1 Activities of a project 215
2 Methods of project management 216 – 217
3 Types of organisation 218
4 Activity 219
5 Critical Path Method (CPM) 220
6 Network diagram 221
7 Program Evaluation & Review Technique (PERT) 222
8 Cost time balancing of project 223

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 215
Construction Management
Project 4 M’s:
 Men Project Management Skills Men required to execute work
A temporary endeavour which has taken to create a unique  Machine
product or service consuming resources (4M’s) to satisfy the  Materials
A systematic approach for a project by application of skills, Knowledge Planning & execution of project
important stakeholders.  Money
knowledge & scientific tools to achieve project goals from starting
to ending to simplify the activity & to achieve time bound Scientific tools Primavera, MS Project
completion is called project management.
Project Production (Operations)

Activities of a Project
One time activity Repetitive operations/ activities
commissioning of a project

Temporary endeavour Permanent operations

Unknown and Unpredictable work Known work elements Management activities Technical activities
elements (Common to all projects) (Project specific, varies from
project to project)
High skill set Limited skills Planning

Scheduling
Temporary organisation Permanent organisation
Organizing Engineering Procurement Construction
Unique work Same work
Budgeting Designing Material purchase Earthwork

Monitoring Layout plan Tendering Foundation

Project Constraints
Controlling Elevation design Machinery rentals Slab

Getting permissions

Project planning Tools Project Tools

controlling
Setting goals Time and cost estimates
Defining the project Budgets
Quality Typing needs into Cash flow charts Monitoring PERT Charts
timed project activities Material availability resources, costs,
Organizing the term details quality budgets Reports
Personal data charts describing
Engineering diagrams Revising and
SCOPE changing plans Budgets by
Project Scheduling Tools department
Shifting
Assigning CPM & PERT resources to Delayed activities
resources,to specific Milestone charts meet time, cost &
Time Cost activities Cashflow schedules quality demands Slack activities
Relating activities to GANTT Charts
each other Quality of work
Updating and completed
Project Constraints according to PMBOK Indian model of project constraints revising on regular
basis

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 ESTIMATION
[Link] Description Page no
1 Systems of estimation 200
2 Unit of measurements 201
3 Types of estimates 202
4 Types of area – Definition 203
5 Contingencies 204
6 Work done per day per mason 205
7 Quantity calculation 206
8 Out-turn 207
9 Valuation 208 – 210
10 Rent calculation 211
11 Contracts & tenders 212
12 CMDA Rules & Regulations 213

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 200
Estimation Trade system Group system
Estimation Estimate
Systems Measurements are being taken by seeing Measurements are taken easily
Estimation is the method of process of
An Estimate of a project is a fore-cost of its the drawing thoroughly
determining the probable cost of a
construction before the work is started. probable cost.
The method of computing the Deductions for opening have to be done It is convenient to make deduction at
quantities of various items of in each trade some time.
The predetermination of the quality and It may also be defined as the process of
works is called system .
quantity of material required, labour calculating the quantities and cost of various
Time taking process Saves time
required etc., items of proposed work.

Alterations are complicated Alterations are easy

Depends on :
Data required for preparing for estimates Unit of measurements Trade Group
More chances of missing Less chances of missing measurements
system system
measurements
Item of work
Followed in TNPWD Followed in CPWD
Rate
Drawings Specifications Rate
Part - 8 Steel work and iron Linear dimension 0.001 m
Plan Unit rate of all work except cross section
Section Item (Manpower, Degree of accuracy
and thickness
Elevation Machine, Material) Reinforcement 0.005 m
Location General Detailed
Area 0.001 m2
Dimensions IS Code Work Degree of accuracy Weight Nearest 1kg
Nature Quantity 1200 ref SP-
Class Proportion 27-1987 Part –14 Glazing Linear dimension 0.01 m
Quality of work Workmanship Area 0.01 m2
& material Method of working Part – I Earthwork Linear dimension upto Nearest 0.01m
25 m Nearest 0.1m Part –11 Paving, Linear dimension 0.01 m
More than 25 m 0.01 m2 flooring, Area 0.01 m2
Areas 0.01 m3 finishes
Volume
Taking off quantities Part – 9 Roof covering Linear dimension 0.01 m
Concrete Linear dimensions 0.01 m Area 0.01 m2
Part - II works Thickness of slab 0.005 m
The procedure by which the quantities of the Areas 0.01 m2 Part - 10 Ceiling, lining Linear dimension 0.01 m
various items in a particular structure are worked out. Volume 0.01 m3 Area 0.01 m2

The quantities are obtained by studying in detail the Part - 12 Plastering, pointing Linear dimension 0.01 m
drawings of the structures. Part – III Brickwork Linear dimensions 0.01 m Area 0.01 m2
Areas 0.01 m2
Part – IV Stone Volume 0.01 m3 Part - 13 White washing, Linear dimension 0.01 m
Volume (m 3) Earth work excavation, Concrete colour washing, Area 0.01 m2
masonry
distempering
Area (m 2) Painting , flooring Part - 23 Foundation Part - 15 Painting, polishing, Linear dimension 0.01 m
varnishing Area 0.01 m2
Running Laying of pipe lines Part – 5 Formwork Linear dimension 0.01 m
metre Areas 0.01 m2 Part - 19 Water supply, Linear dimension 0.01 m
Plumbing and
Numbers Supply if basins, closets etc., Part – 21 Woodwork Length 0.01 m drains
& joinery Width 0.002 m
Thickness 0.002 m Part - 17 Road work Length and width 0.01 m
PWD Method Areas 0.01 m2 Thickness 0.005 m
Volume 0.01 m3 Area 0.01 m2
PROCESS : Taking off  Grouping  Billing Volume 0.01 m3

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