Definition
“A variable refers to attributes of an object, thing, human being, event or situation that can be
measured. In other words, it refers to characteristics and traits that can be measured,
manipulated or controlled.”
Different Types of Variables
On the basis of causal relationship
A causal relationship refers to a cause-and-effect relationship between 2 variables in which
changing the values of 1 variable automatically produces changes in the other variable.
From the causal point of view, variables can be of the following types-
● Change Variable. Any changes that take place in a phenomenon.
● Outcome Variable. The effect of the change in the phenomenon on a particular individual.
● Unmeasured Variable. The link between the cause-and-effect relationship between the
change and outcome variable.
● Connecting Variable. The intermediate variable that connects the change and outcome
variable.
From the perspective of research methodology, Grinnell (1993) named change variable to be
the independent variable, the outcome variable to be the dependant variable, the unmeasured
variable to be the extraneous variable and the connecting variable to be the confounding
variable.
The dependant variable (DV) is any prediction made by the research regarding the behaviour
of a particular individual. The independent variable (IV) refers to the characteristic attributes
that are measured, manipulated or controlled.
The independent variable (IV), also known as the stimulus variable (Underwood, 1977) is a
variable that is manipulated to study its effects on the dependant variable (DV). The
dependant variable (DV), also known as the response variable (Underwood, 1977) is a
behavioural measure of a particular individual which is measured from time to time to
understand the effect of changes of the IV on it. The researcher makes a prediction about the
changes in the DV corresponding to the changes manipulated in the IV to study the
cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and the DV.
The extraneous (aka relevant or controlled variables) refer to potential IVs that can actively
manipulate and bring changes in the DV However, since they are out of context for the
present experiment and confound or jeopardise the attempt to study the relationship between
the IV and the DV, they are controlled through various measures.
Characteristics of the DV
● Sensitive. The DV must be sensitive enough to reflect any changes that take place in the
IV. A sensitive DV is one such dependant variable that changes even with minute changes
in the IV.
● Reliable. The DV must be consistent with the IV. In other words, the IV-DV relationship
must be consistent over spatio-temporal variations. For e.g., every time the IV increases,
the DV must consistently either increase or decrease.
● Valid. The DV measures what it is supposed to measure. In other words, the DV measures
that particular aspect of behaviour of an individual which is supposedly the goal of the
researcher.
Types of Independent Variable
On the basis of mode of manipulation (D’Amato, 1997)
● Type S IV. These are the independent variables which can only be manipulated through
selection. For e.g., race, sex, ethnicity, gender etc. For e.g., if the researcher wants to
study the effect of gender on recognition of emotions in adolescents, he selects the 2 types
of gender that exist- male and female and assign them to different groups.
● Type E IV. These are the independent variables which can be manipulated experimentally
by measuring and controlling the values in different levels and conditions. For e.g., level
of illumination, length of the list to be memorised, noise etc. For e.g., if the researcher
wants to study the impact of level of illumination on attention of the subject, the
researcher introduces 3 conditions with varying levels of illumination- high, moderate and
low and assesses the attention of the subject.
On the basis of nature of the variable (Underwood, 1978)
● Task Variable. This type of IV manipulates the characteristics of the task to be performed-
the characteristics of the physical apparatus used in the task or the characteristics of the
procedures required to complete the task to assess the corresponding changes in the
behavioural measures of the DV. For e.g., length of the list of non-sense syllables,
intensity of colour patches in Stroop test.
● Environmental Variable. This type of IV manipulates the characteristics of the
environment, not related to the physical features of the task, to assess the corresponding
changes in the behavioural measures of the DV. For e.g., noise, level of illumination etc.
● Subject Variable. This type of IV refers to the characteristics of the subjects that can be
selected or manipulated to assess the corresponding changes in the behavioural measures
of the DV. The subject variables can be natural- present right from the beginning of the
experiment and induced- produced due to the variant instructions given to the subjects.
For e.g., sex, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic status, height, weight etc are
natural subject variables and anxiety, restlessness, mental set etc are induced subject
variables.
Types of Extraneous Variable
● Subject Related Variable. These are characteristics of the subject- age, sex,
socio-economic status, socio-demographic status, height, weight etc. These are type S
variables.
● Situation Related Variable. These are characteristics of the task and the environment-
level of illumination, noise, intensity of the stimulus etc. These are type E variables.
● Sequence Related Variable. These refer to the ordinal position of different experimental
conditions that the subjects are exposed to. For e.g., practice, fatigue effect, carry over
effect etc.
On the basis of unit of measurement
● Qualitative Variable. The variable is divided into categories that cannot be ordered in
magnitude. In other words, the relationship between the different categories cannot be
measured or quantified. This does not allow precise and accurate measurement and hence
scientific investigation is not possible with qualitative variables. These are mostly used in
sociological studies. They belong to the nominal and ordinal scales. For e.g.,
socio-economic status, socio-demographic background, race, ethnicity, nationality,
religion etc.
● Quantitative Variable. The variable is divided into categories that can be ordered in
magnitude. In other words, the relationship between the different categories can be
measured or quantified. This allows precise and accurate measurement and hence
scientific investigation is possible with quantitative variables. These are mostly used in
natural sciences and psychological studies. They belong to the interval and ratio scales.
For e.g., height, weight, blood pressure, level of illumination, reaction formation etc.
● Categorical or Discrete Variables and Continuous Variables. Discrete variables cannot be
measured to any arbitrary degree of fitness or precision whereas continuous variables can
be measured to any arbitrary degree of fitness or precision. Thus, while discrete variables
hold specific values which cannot be further sub-divided or categorised to smaller values
continuous variables hold any value within a continuum or range of values which can be
divided or categorised to smaller values. While discrete or categorical variables belong to
the nominal and ordinal scale, the continuous variables belong to the interval and ratio
scale. There is not much difference between qualitative and categorical or discrete values
and continuous or quantitative values.
On the basis of design of the experiment
● Action Variable. The variable that is being manipulated by the experimenter. The IV is the
action variable.
● Attribute Variable. The variable that is being measured by the experimenter. The DV is
the attribute variable.
Measurement of the Dependant Variable (DV)
● Direct Observation and Measurement of Behaviour. For e.g., Schachter (1968) observed
the feeding patterns and measured the amount of food subjects consume with presentation
of diverse food cues. Cunningham (1990) studied how prosocial behaviour in individuals
change with their mood.
● Indirect Observation and Measurement of Behaviour. Sometimes our behaviour is a
reflection and manifestation of inner covert mental processes. We can try to understand
and draw inferences about the inner/internal covert mental processes by observing and
measuring the overt behaviour of individuals. For e.g., the number of non-sense syllables
recalled is a reflection of the cognitive processes of memory, retention and forgetting, the
reaction formation is an evidence of the internal cognitive processes, physiological
parameters like breathing rate, heart beat and more are indicators of the level of stress and
anxiety involved (Crack and Lockhart, 1969: Tanker, 1979).
● Judgements of the Subjects. Varying the characteristics of the stimuli and recording the
judgements and opinions of the subjects regarding the quality and features of the stimulus
is yet another way of measuring the DV. For e.g., in experiments of perception, the
experimenter gradually changes the characteristics of the stimulus and asks the subject to
describe what he sees so that the experimenter understands if the subject can see the
illusion or not (Stephen and Davis, 1990). In fact, experiments of just noticeable
differences or absolute threshold in psychophysics used this measure of DV.
● Self-reports. Mostly used in rating scales, self-reports allow the subject to express what
he thinks, feels and what ideas, attitudes, opinions and preferences he holds in his mind.
This is yet another measure of the DV. For e.g., conducting an experiment to understand
the role of sex education in creating an awareness of safe sexual practices in adolescents
might use a self-report inventory to measure the DV.
Techniques of Manipulation of the Independent Variable (IV)
● Manipulation of the Context. The stimulus is presented to the subjects in different
situational contexts with varying environmental characteristics and the corresponding
behavioural measures of DV are recorded simultaneously, For e.g., to study the effect of
rewards and punishments upon learning, a particular passage (stimulus) is presented to
subjects in different conditions of presence and absence of rewards of different types.
● Manipulation of the Stimulus. Different stimuli are presented in different experimental
conditions and the corresponding behavioural measures of DV are recorded
simultaneously so that the researcher understand how different stimulus conditions and
characteristics create different behavioural outcomes. For e.g., to study the emotional
upheaval experienced upon being exposed to emotionally toned photographs, in every
experimental condition or group different pictures with varying emotional content is
presented in front of the subjects.
● Manipulation of the Instructions or Information. The information that the subject is aware
of and the instructions presented to the subject might be varied across different
experimental conditions and/or groups and the corresponding behavioural measures of
DV are recorded simultaneously so that the researcher understands the role of different
kinds of information and instruction in producing different kinds of behavioural
outcomes. For e.g., in Latane and Darley’s experiment (1970) group A was informed that
they were already late for exam, group B was informed they were just in time and group
C was informed that they were early and had plenty of time to go to the venue. Now, the
prosocial tendencies of each of the groups were studied.
● Manipulation of the Social Situation. Sometimes, experiments take place in social
situations and manipulation of the characteristics and settings of the social situations is
done with the help of confederates who disguise themselves as fellow subjects or
bystanders. Consecutively, the behaviours displayed by the subjects are observed and
measured to try an understand if different social situations produce different behavioural
response so or not. For e.g., Asch (1951) noticed that subjects overestimate the length of
an item by large amounts in order to conform with the group of confederates.
● Manipulation of the Intervening Variable. The intervening variable is an internal, subject
related variable that is present in between the cause-and-effect relationship between the
independent variable and the dependant variable. The independent variable enhances the
intervening variable which in turn influences the dependant variable. It is usually the state
characteristics (temporary attributes due to situational factors) and not the trait
characteristics (permanent attributes due to non-situational factors) that can act as
intervening variables since they have the ability to change with changing characteristics
of the independent variable. For e.g., Harris (1978) performed an experiment where a
confederate would cut lines at different position to observe the reaction of people in the
line. The earlier the confederate cut the greater was the aggressive reaction of people.
Here, the frustration of the people in the line increases with the activities of the
confederate which leads to the aggressive reaction. Thus, frustration is the intervening
variable.
● Producing psychological and social stress. Sometimes, individuals are put through
situations which immensely increase the psychological and social stress in individuals
and then consecutively the behaviour is observed and measured in the subjects. For e.g.,
in an experiment subjects were made to argue something that was exactly opposite of his
attitude or what he believed in which created immense psychological and social stress and
the ways in which the subject resolves his internal conflicts were observed.
● Physiology. This is used strictly in animals wherein some parts of the body are lesioned,
removed surgically or activated and the consecutive behaviour of the animal is observed
and measured. For e.g., lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus when
removed in two different rats, the rats never eat and the never stop eating respectively.
Techniques of Controlling the Extraneous Variables (EV)
Experimental Control is important because-
(a) It allows the researcher to identify and control the influence of the many EVs which
produce an impact on the DV so that any changes in the DV can only be attributed to
the changes in the IV. This helps establish a pure and consolidated relationship
between the IV and the DV.
(b) Internal Validity of the Research. Internal validity refers to the degree to which the
research measures what it is supposed to measure. Controlling the EVs, the researcher
can guarantee that any changes in the DV comes from only 1 source and that is the IV.
(c) External Validity. External validity is the generalizability of the research. For a
research finding to be generalised from the sample to the population, it must have a
high external validity. In other words, the EVs must be controlled and the pure and
contaminated relationship between the IV and the DV must be reflected.
(d) Replicability and Transmitability.
Technique of Elimination. Using this method, the extraneous variables (EV) are identified
and completely eliminated from the experimental setting. While it is not possible to
completely eliminate the EV, this technique tries to eliminate the possible EVs as far as
possible. Some situation relevant variables can be controlled through the process of
elimination. For e.g., noise, distractions etc. However, it is a very rudimentary process of
controlling EV and subject relevant variables and most of the situation relevant variables
cannot use this method.
Constancy of Conditions. Using this method, the extraneous variables (EV) are held at a
constant value across all the experimental and control groups or conditions so that their effect
can be cancelled out of all the experimental and control groups. Subject relevant variables
and some situation relevant variables can be controlled through this process. For e.g., if sex is
an EV, through constancy of conditions all the experimental and control groups or conditions
must have only male or only female subjects. Similarly subjects of a particular age or
particular IQ can be chosen to participate in experimental and control groups. Situation
relevant variables like level of illumination, intensity of the stimulus and other aspects of the
environment or the task can be controlled by constancy of conditions. This technique is used
when elimination cannot be used and is slightly more sophisticated than the former technique.
Balancing. The technique of balancing is used in 2 situations- when the experimenter cannot
identify all the possible EVs and when the EVs can be identified but cannot be controlled
through other techniques.
● For the first instance, it is ensured that the different experimental and control groups and
conditions are equivalent to one another in each of the aspects or characteristics except
for the levels of IV administered. If the experimental and control groups are equivalent
to each other in every aspect, it would mean that whatever the EVs that operate in the
environment they are equally present in all the experimental and control groups and
conditions so that their effect, on whole, is balanced. Thus, it can be inferred that any
changes in the DV that takes place in the different experimental groups or conditions in
comparison to the control groups or conditions is due to the manipulation of the IV.
● For the second instance, most subject relevant variables can be controlled through the
process of balancing. Here, it is ensured that an equal representation of all the categories
of the EV is present across all the experimental and control groups and conditions. For
e.g., if sex is an EV, the experimental and control groups and conditions must have an
equal number of males and females.
Counterbalancing. The technique of counterbalancing is used when subjects are exposed to
more than one experimental conditions and chances of order effects and asymmetric transfer
are possible. Order effects include practice and fatigue effects. When exposed to more than
one condition, the performance of the subjects might actually get better due to practice in
previous sessions or might actually get hampered because of fatigue from previous sessions.
Further, the same effect on the DV might not be produced when condition A follows
condition B (BA) and when condition B follows condition A (AB). Thus, through
counterbalancing the order effects are balanced throughout the possible experimental
conditions and asymmetric transfer is changed to symmetric transfer. In counterbalancing,
each condition must occur an equal number of times in total, an equal number of times in a
practice session and each condition must be preceded and succeeded by an equal number of
other conditions.
● Difference between balancing and counterbalancing
▪ In balancing subjects are exposed to only one experimental condition, whereas in
counterbalancing subjects are exposed to more than one experimental conditions.
▪ In balancing subject relevant and situation relevant variables are controlled,
whereas in counterbalancing sequence relevant variables are controlled.
Randomisation. Through this technique each element of the population has an equal
probability of being selected from the population to the sample. The technique of
randomisation produces a representative or true sample. The technique of randomisation is
used to control EVs when the subject does not have an idea about the possible EVs in the
environment and/or identifies the possible EVs but they cannot be controlled by any other
technique. The process of randomisation claims that since the selection of elements from the
population to the experimental and control groups or conditions is completely random, the
effect of the EVs in the experimental and control groups or conditions cancel out each other
as a result of which any changes to the DV is due to changes in the IV.
Demand Characteristics
Demand characteristics refer to the cues available in the research context which produce
responses on the part of the subject guided or biased in a certain direction.
Sources of Demand Characteristics
● The subject carries with himself some subjective judgements, opinions, biases and
preconceived notions. This makes different subjects interpret the experimental situation
differently and act accordingly.
● The presence of environmental variables like noises, distractions, level of illumination,
presence of other objects or threatening apparatus is likely to be interpreted in different
ways by the subjects.
● Measurement might be one of the sources of demand characteristics. For e.g., people take
more time to mentally traverse between two places that are at a greater distance on the
map than two places closer to each other due to the rule that longer distances take greater
time to reach.
● The experimenter when too unfriendly might cause nervousness in the subjects and when
too friendly might cause the subject to become playful. Further, the experimenter might
produce some verbal or non-verbal behaviours which allow the subject to understand how
to respond to particular stimuli.
Effects of Demand Characteristics
● Internal Validity is Reduced. The subjects respond not to the manipulations of the IV but
the demand characteristics. Thus, any change that takes place in the DV is not because of
the manipulation of the IV but the demand characteristics. Therefore, if changes in the
DV are attributed to changes in the IV, this causes the experimenter to reach a false
conclusion.
● External Validity is Reduced. The experiment does not measure what it intends to
measure. While it was the intention of the experimenter to understand the effect of change
in IV on the DV of the subjects, it is found that due to confounding of demand
characteristics, the change in DV is in some parts due to the IV and in some other parts
due to the demand characteristics.
● Reliability. The consistency of changes in the DV due to manipulation of the IV is no
longer present. Because demand characteristics be interpreted in different ways for
different situations and hence impact the DV in any possible manner, the changes taking
place in the DV are not consistent.
Techniques to Control Demand Characteristics
On the part of the Experimenter
● The experimenter must not provide any cues that can guide the subjects in the research
context. He must not explain the specific objectives of the experiment to the subject, must
not provide extra instructions or information- something that the subject might not require
for his performance and must remove any possible distractions or threatening apparatus
set up in the laboratory.
● The experimenter must not be too friendly or too unfriendly. It is preferred for the
experimenter to maintain a neutral stance and not show significant verbal or non-verbal
behaviour that can lead subjects on to give some biased response.
● The experimenter must establish experimental realism. The task must engage subjects
psychologically enough so that the subjects do not pay heed to the demand characteristics.
Deception. Sometimes when a particular experiment and measurement of a DV causes a high
level of demand characteristics due to the nature of the experiment, deception can be used. In
deception, the true objective and DV of the experiment is kept hidden by a ‘cover story’.
While the subject believes he is assessed on a particular phenomenon, in reality he is assessed
in some other phenomenon. However, after the experiment is over, due to ethical reasons
debriefing must be done for the subject.
Placebo. When subjects in the experimental group are treated with some specific stimuli or
specific conditions to understand its effect on the DV being measured, it is difficult for the
researcher to understand if the changes in the DV are due to the specific stimuli or treatment
conditions or due to demand characteristics. Thus, the control group is administered with a
placebo (fake stimuli or conditions that look alike the real one) so that the effect of demand
characteristics on the experimental and control group are balanced.
Controlling expectancies. The expectations of the experimenter and the expectations of the
subject himself regarding the experiment and its findings might produce a guided or biased
response. To control the expectancies of the subject, a single blinding study is done where the
subject is not aware of the specific conditions presented to him and to control expectancies of
both the experimenter and the subject a double blinding study is done so that the
experimenter and the researcher both are not aware of the specific conditions being presented
while the actual experimenter observed the subject.