TYPE Review

PUBLISHED 19 May 2026

DOI 10.3389/frsus.2026.1773409

Advancements in sustainable
OPEN ACCESS
textiles: electrospinning through
EDITED BY
Biswajit Sarkar,
the lens of textile design
Yonsei University, Republic of Korea

REVIEWED BY
Diego Dani 1*, Giovanni Maria Conti 1, Carol Monticelli 2 and
Gianni Pecorini,
University of Pisa, Italy Alessandra Zanelli 2
Swayam Aryam Behera,
Siksha O Anusandhan University, India Department of Design, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, 2Department of Architecture, Built
1

Nisha Shankhwar, Environment and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Jawaharlal Nehru University, India

*CORRESPONDENCE
Diego Dani The global fiber market is dominated by fossil-derived synthetic polymers,
[Link]@[Link]
whereas bio-based alternatives remain heavily reliant on virgin wood. In such
RECEIVED 22 December 2025 context, the electrospinning technique emerges as an option to produce cellu-
REVISED 25 March 2026
ACCEPTED 04 May 2026 lose-based textiles. Drawing on a qualitative literature review that spans chem-
PUBLISHED 19 May 2026 istry, engineering and textile studies, the work first outlines the principles of
CITATION electrospinning and the specific advantages of electrospun nanofibrous struc-
Dani D, Conti GM, Monticelli C and tures, including high surface area, tuneable morphology and suitability for bio-
Zanelli A (2026) Advancements in
sustainable textiles: electrospinning based and waste-derived polymers. It then reframes electrospinning “through
through the lens of textile design. the lens of textiles” by distinguishing three main outcome categories—nonwo-
Front. Sustain. 7:1773409. vens, nanofiber yarns and coatings onto fabrics and yarns—and discussing how
doi: 10.3389/frsus.2026.1773409
recent process innovations begin to address productivity and scalability into
COPYRIGHT
conventional textile manufacturing, while still presenting challenges in energy
© 2026 Dani, Conti, Monticelli and
Zanelli. This is an open-access article consumption, solvent use and process complexity. A dedicated section focuses
distributed under the terms of the on electrospinning for cellulosic fiber production from agro-industrial and textile
Creative Commons Attribution License waste, highlighting both the opportunities of waste valorisation and the technical
(CC BY). The use, distribution or
reproduction in other forums is and environmental constraints associated with solvent systems, throughput and
permitted, provided the original end-of-life. On this basis, the paper proposes two exploratory textile-design-ori-
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are ented approaches. A layering approach explores differentiated thickness, material
credited and that the original publication
in this journal is cited, in accordance layering and color layering in electrospun membranes and coatings for various
with accepted academic practice. No fields of application. A 3D approach investigates direct electrospinning onto
use, distribution or reproduction is pre-shaped conductive forms to create textured, form-fitting membranes and
permitted which does not comply with
these terms. high-value components that could reduce assembly steps in technical clothing,
footwear and medical products. Overall, the paper argues that electrospinning
should not be considered intrinsically “sustainable,” but as a potentially enabling
technology whose contribution to sustainable textile innovation depends on
explicitly interdisciplinary collaboration. In this perspective, textile designers,
chemists and engineers must co-develop greener formulations, more efficient
setups and design processes embedded in life-cycle thinking, positioning design-
ers as active agents in defining briefs, applications and experimentation protocols
rather than as end-users of a given technology.

KEYWORDS

agricultural waste, cellulose, electrospinning, nanofiber yarns, nanofiber coatings,

nanofibers, nonwovens, textile design

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1 Introduction traditional nonwovens and woven fabrics. Such characteristics are

quantifiable through specific surface area (m2/g) and surface area-to-
In the contemporary landscape of the textile industry, the global volume ratio (m−1), which can be 103 times higher than that of a
fiber market is characterized by a strong predominance of synthetic microfiber (Kny et al., 2018).
fibers derived from non-renewable fossil fuels (66%), of which the Tuning electrospinning parameters also allows researchers and
majority is polyester. 27% of the market is represented by cotton and practitioners to obtain very homogeneous membranes characterized
only 6% by artificial fibers derived from the chemical transformation by structural integrity and reduced number of defects, such as “beads-
of cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer on Earth (Chen et al., on-a-string” or fusions. The structural integrity of the mat can be
2021). Fibers, yarns and textiles derived from cellulose could represent observed through high-resolution imaging such as Scanning Electron
a valid alternative to the use of synthetics, which are instead derived Microscopy (SEM), of which an example is reported in Figure 1. In
from fossil polymers, but the demand for natural cellulose has nowa- addition, the integrity can be quantified through the Coefficient of
days outweighed the supply. Even if cellulose can be considered a variation (CV%) of the fiber diameter (where lower percentages indi-
renewable resource, the main issue related to its use derives in fact cate higher uniformity), the bead density, and the fiber diameter dis-
from its main source, which is virgin wood. An increase of its demand tribution (Caloian et al., 2023; Kny et al., 2018).
can result in intensified deforestation and related consequences. For Especially for specific applications such as filtering, the high and
this reason, to be considered as a sustainable alternative to fossil poly- adjustable porosity of electrospun membranes is another property of
mers, cellulose should be extracted by other sources which would not strong interest, particularly if compared to traditional nonwovens
involve additional exploitation of soil and natural resources. In this used in the field, which tend to be unable to capture submicron par-
sense, agro-industrial waste and byproducts of agricultural processes ticles (Horzum et al., 2019). In contrast, electrospun mats typically
can be valid options. possess an interconnected network with porosity exceeding 80% or
The extraction and derivation processes required by cellulose can 90%. This allows for high filtration efficiency and excellent gas perme-
present many challenges, mainly due to the chemical structure of the ability compared to impermeable films or bulk polymer alternatives
polymer itself (Jönsson et al., 2013). Conventional uses of cellulose (Baji et al., 2020; Horzum et al., 2019). Such property is quantifiable
have taken advantage of such molecular structure, which provides through the Total porosity (%), the Average/Mean pore size (μm or
unique characteristics such as flexibility, high mechanical perfor- nm), and the Pore volume (cm3/g) (Baji et al., 2020; Kny et al., 2018).
mances and good moisture management (Björquist et al., 2018; Haule Electrospun nanofiber mats can present as well enhanced
et al., 2016). However, some requirements expected for the next gen- mechanical performances compared to microfibrous counterparts,
eration of cellulose-based products cannot be achieved with tradi- often result of the unique structural ordering, molecular orientation,
tional cellulosic materials and processes. To this end, a lot of research and high surface area-to-volume ratio inherent to the process
has focused on producing nanoscale celluloses aiming to achieve (Bonakdar et al., 2024; Mitchell, 2015; Xue et al., 2019), which can be
advanced materials with new potential across various fields, such as further implemented thanks to secondary treatments such as thermal
pharmaceuticals, packaging, cosmetics, electronics, food, automotive, and hot drawing (Li et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2021) depending on the
aerospace and construction (Klemm et al., 2011; Rajinipriya et intended application.
al., 2018). Other techniques which allow to generate nano and micro
In terms of cellulosic fiber production, one of the most promising fibers—such as drawing, phase separation, or template synthesis—
approaches is electrospinning, an electrostatic spinning process that offer very limited control over internal fiber structure. Electrospinning,
uses a high-voltage electric field to create fibers from a liquid poly- instead, presents a unique ability to generate sophisticated morpholo-
meric fluid, which can be a chemical solution, an emulsion or a melt gies such as core-shell, hollow, multi-channel, helical, and porous
(Bonakdar et al., 2024; Frenot et al., 2007; Mitchell, 2015; Sharples et fibers (Horzum et al., 2019; Kny et al., 2018; Stramarkou et al., 2024;
al., 2025). Wan et al., 2022). The topography of the mat at the macroscopic level
Although its basic principles were established more than a century can also be tuned adjusting the setup parameters and controlling the
ago, electrospinning has been substantially revived in recent decades. deposition of the fibers onto the collector.
Early setups were patented in the 1930s but did not progress further Compared to those other techniques, electrospinning is thus often
because of technical limitations. The technique resurfaced in the viewed as a relatively more versatile technique, allowing control over
1960s, yet its mechanisms were clarified and its theories consolidated morphology, size, and porosity of fibers as well as density of the overall
mainly in the 1990s, particularly through the work by Reneker and nanofiber mat (Horzum et al., 2019). These features have made elec-
collegues is mentioned by the source (Bonakdar et al, 2024) as seminal trospinning attractive across domains, ranging from filtration and
work in the field of study, who demonstrated its ability to produce biomedical devices to energy storage.
nanoscale materials and highlighted the value of the resulting organic In the textile field, the electrospinning properties are increasingly
nanofibers, marking a decisive turning point and revealing its poten- discussed not only in terms of performance gains, but also in relation
tial for a wide range of applications. to sustainability, particularly when it is applied to bio-based or waste-
Although chemical fiber manufacturing can be achieved through derived polymers. Moreover, the technique has a potential of growth
different procedures, including the most common and widely spread for the large scale production, due to the technological transformation
wet spinning, electrospinning has been mainly used to produce nano- which is undergoing (Sharma et al., 2019; Xue et al., 2019).
fibrous membranes which present features that cannot be found by Even though, so far, the attempts made of processing cellulose
using other common fiber manufacturing technologies. by electrospinning have involved the use of environmentally aggres-
Among those, electrospun mats present a fiber diameter which sive chemical processes, improvements of the method could lead to
generally ranges between 10 nm and 10 μm (Bonakdar et al., 2024) a sustainable way of cellulose-based fiber production from recycled
which allows them to be extremely lightweight if compared to textiles and vegetable waste (da Araldi Silva et al., 2021). Recently,

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FIGURE 1
SEM images at two different magnifications of electrospun CMC: PEO nanofibers. (a,b) 4% CMC A, 4% PEO; (c,d) 4% CMC B, 4% PEO; (e,f) 4% CMC C,
4% PEO. (Reproduced with permission from Frenot et al. (2007), © John Wiley & Sons, Inc., License no. 6235451076249).

the electrospinning of natural polymers has been assuming a grow- A lot of challenges and related limitations still need to be over-
ing role as a greener and less impacting alternative compared to come (Kerwald et al., 2022).
fossil-derived polymers (Kakoria et al., 2018; Tebyetekerwa and Although apparently straightforward, in fact, electrospinning is a
Ramakrishna, 2020). Sharples et al. (2025) highlighted the potential quite intricate process that depends on a multitude of chemical, pro-
of electrospinning as a viable solution for the use of recycled poly- cess and technical parameters. That is why, at present, the technique
mers from industrial and textile waste and of biodegradable poly- is still not competitive to produce materials on a large scale, especially
mers, including celluloses. These possibilities, together with the if of low added value. Anyway, the use of electrospinning can acquire
lightness of the membranes generated, position such technology as importance for obtaining innovative materials or improving the per-
a potentially efficient method to obtain textiles from waste. formance and properties of already known materials (Greiner and
However, Malara (2024) conducted an LCA analysis to understand Wendorff, 2007).
how spinning parameters can highly influence the environmental The challenge of obtaining electrospun fibers, yarns and textiles
impact of such technology, demonstrating that high voltages and from greener sources and procedures requires an interdisciplinary
low-polymer concentrations can result in higher global warming answer derived from the integration of different fundamental skills
potential (GWP). related to green chemistry, process engineering and textile design. In

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such perspective, even if textile designers need to be supported by pro- The traditional electrospinning setup, schematically repre-
fessionals coming from different domains such as chemistry experts sented in Figure 2, involves the use of a high-voltage power supply.
and textile engineers, it is fundamental for them to understand which A polymer solution or melt is delivered at a constant, controllable
are the characteristics, the opportunities and the limits presented by and relatively slow rate through a syringe pump which ends with a
such technology in order to be able to consider its integration into their capillary metallic tube. To this syringe is connected the positive
textile design practices as a potentially sustainable textile process. pole of the electric power supply. The negative pole is instead con-
nected to a collector. This array creates the electrostatic field which
characterizes the electrodynamic process of electrospinning. When
ejected, the polymeric solution droplet deforms into a ‘Taylor cone’
2 Methodology due to the electrostatic field and a fine jet is ejected from its tip
(Bonakdar et al., 2024). The jet undergoes a complex whipping or
This paper consists of a qualitative and non-systematic narra- bending instability, which stretches and elongates the jet. This
tive literature review (Grant and Booth, 2009). Supported by motion, coupled with the rapid evaporation of the solvent, thins
books and book chapters that provided us a general understand- the jet until the polymer solidifies in a “cloud” of fine fibers, also
ing of the electrospinning technique (Bonakdar et al., 2024; called “plume,” which then deposit on the collector (Mitchell,
Horzum et al., 2019; Kny et al., 2018; Mitchell, 2015), multiple 2015). The collector can be a simple plate, for random deposition,
searches have been launched through the use of Scopus as search or a rotating cylinder, which gives an orientation to the fibers
engine, combining the terms “electrospinning” and “electrospun” which deposit on it.
with different sets of keywords. For the topic of cellulose and The electrospinning process is mainly controlled by three catego-
agro-industrial waste, keywords used were: “cellulose,” “nanocel- ries of parameters—solution properties, processing conditions, and
lulose,” “agricultural waste,” and “agro-industrial.” To connect ambient variables—which together determine fiber diameter, surface
textile-related terms, the keywords used were: “mat*,” “mem- morphology, and mat structure.
brane*,” “nonwoven*,” “yarn*,” “continuous fiber*/fibre*,” “coat*,” Solution properties (e.g., concentration, viscosity, molecular
“cloth*,” “apparel,” “textile*” and “fabric*.” To guarantee relevancy, weight, conductivity, surface tension, solvent choice) influence jet sta-
we considered the timespan of the last two decades, excluding bility and fiber formation, affecting smoothness and uniformity.
documents prior to 2005. The selection criteria among the results Processing conditions (e.g., applied voltage, flow rate, tip-to-collector
of the combined searches were the coherency with the intended distance, collector design) govern the stretching, drying, and align-
scope, the presence of explicit references to electrospinning and ment of fibers. Ambient factors (temperature and humidity) further
the implicit or explicit references to textile design. Even though modify viscosity, evaporation, and surface texture.
the sources analysed mainly come from fields such as material Fine-tuning these interdependent parameters enables precise
engineering, chemistry and related ones, the review draws from control over nanofiber characteristics (Bonakdar et al., 2024; Suresh
technical considerations and previous analyses of opportunities et al., 2020).
and limits to investigate the topic with a textile-design-oriented The injection rate of electrospinning, which can sensitively vary
perspective. For such reason, we also propose two approaches to depending on such parameters, generally ranges between 0.1 and
engage in creative experimentation with such technology. 1.0 mL per hour at typical lab scale (Mitchell, 2015). This very low
production rate is considered the major obstacle for large-scale indus-
trial production.
To overcome this limitation, research has focused on developing
3 Electrospinning through the lens of more efficient methods, especially in the pharmaceutical and biomedical
textiles fields: multi-needle systems and needless systems (Bonakdar et al., 2024).
Multi-needle electrospinning multiplies the number of nozzles
Although electrospinning is often seen as a direct spinning method simultaneously ejecting the solution through different one and two-
for the generation of fibers, it is important to understand the type of dimensional possible arrangements, exemplified in Figure 3. This
outcomes it can produce. In fact, even if the fibers generated can have a allows to increase the productivity and for the simultaneous cre-
varying thickness at the scale of nanometres, their length and agglom- ation of nanofibers with different properties. Such method, though,
eration typologies have nowadays significantly expanded. suffers from the interaction of the different electrostatic fields and
Electrospinning is thus not limited anymore to nanofiber mats produc- issues related to needle clogging, which limit its widespread
tion, even though this remains the main approach, but recent experi- application.
mentations led to new type of products. In what follows, we examine Needleless electrospinning is considered the most effective and
how this technique can be re-read “through the lens of textiles” by focus- practically usable method to overcome this limitation and obtain a
ing on three specific output types—nonwovens, nanofiber yarns and mass production of nanofibers, as it eliminates needle clogging issues
coatings onto fabrics and yarns—outlining the main features and limita- inherent to needle-based systems and offers potential for higher pro-
tions of each and exploring their viability for cellulosic fiber production. duction rates and scalability. Many needleless systems employ rotating
bodies which continually supply the solution to the surface, where
3.1 Nonwovens multiple polymer droplets form and launch individual jets, enabling a
continuous and uninterrupted process. Others involve stationary spin-
The most conventional use of the electrospinning process is the nerets which use external sources of force such as a magnetic force,
one that involves the direct deposition of nano-scale fibers onto a col- high-pressure gas flow, and gravity to start the ejection rather than
lector to create nonwoven membranes with tuneable features. generating Taylor cones.

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FIGURE 2
Conventional setup of the electrospinning process, which involves the use of a syringe pump with positive power supply and a plane collector with
negative power supply (illustration by the author).

Multi-needle and needless systems, though, usually require higher the fluidity of a water bath allows fibers to be pulled and
voltage, resulting in increased energy consumption and potentially an realigned without the high tension that would normally cause
overall higher impact of the process. them to break due to adhesion to a stiff surface. As fibers are
drawn out of the water by a mechanical roller or guide bar,
3.2 Nanofiber yarns (NYs) surface tension forces pull the aligned fibers together into a
cohesive bundle (Baji et al., 2020; Zainuddin et al., 2022). This
From a textile-design point of view, the traditional electrospin- kind of setup is represented in Figure 4. The liquid bath can
ning setup and its previously described variations necessarily result be both water or an aqueous dispersion of other materials,
in the deposition of the nanofibers into nonwoven mats, which can which provides the flexibility to introduce new features. Li
be limiting in terms of applications and combination with other tex- et al. (2019), for example, developed a bath with ‘multi-walled
tile techniques. To face this, recent developments of the electrospin- carbon nanotubes’ in order to achieve electrically conductive
ning technology have involved several reconfigurations of the setup NYs through the deposition of such particles around the yarn.
to allow the possibility of obtaining nanofiber yarns (NYs)
(Zainuddin et al., 2022). B As summarized by Zainuddin et al. (2022), many researchers
described the obtainment of NYs through conjugate setups
A The main process involves the modification of the conven- (Wu et al., 2016, 2021, 2022; Zainuddin et al., 2022), among
tional setup to obtain linear nanofiber yarns or linear non- which the most successful setup is schematized in Figure 5. In
plied assemblies. Compared to conventional setups, this kind this process, a polymer solution is fed through two different
of process involves spinning into a liquid bath, collecting the and opposite spinnerets. Each of these spinnerets are individu-
fibers onto a cylindric collector around which the resulting ally connected to a high-voltage power supply, one with the
linear assembly of nanofibers is wrapped in a bobbin-like positive and one with the negative one. The jets carrying oppo-
style. The use of a liquid bath changes the physics of the fiber site charges are electrostatically attracted to each other, which
assembly: unlike the direct deposition onto a solid collector, partially cancels out the chaotic whipping motion caused by

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FIGURE 3
Examples of possible one- and two-dimensional arrangements of multi-needle systems, as reported by Bonakdar et al. (2024): (a) linear 1D arrangement;
(b) square 2D arrangement; (c) elliptical 2D arrangement; (d) triangular 2D arrangement. (illustration by the author).

bending instabilities in the traditional setup. In the most effec- attract each other mid-air. This forms a “virtual counter-elec-
tive conjugated setup, the fibers are spun around a rotating trode” composed of the emitted fibers themselves, eliminating
metal funnel into a nonwoven cone and simultaneously pulled the need for a physical, electrically active collector. These alter-
down using an insulating rod. Because the jets neutralize each nating charges cause the fibers to recombine into a compact,
other’s charges upon contact, they can be more easily bundled smoke-like aerogel or “plume.” This plume is driven away by
into a stable “spinning triangle cone” between the nozzles and an electric wind, which prevents the newly created nanofibers
a neutral collector point. The rotation of the metal funnel helps from being attracted back to the spinning-electrode when its
in twisting of the fiber bundle, a necessary implementation to polarity flips. The nanofibrous plume is a highly ductile and
previous types of conjugated setups, and the resulting yarn is compact aerogel which can be readily manipulated. Thus, the
wound around a yarn winder. This setup effectively doubles the researchers demonstrated a promising application by twisting
material throughput, facilitating faster yarn production. Multi- it through a circular brush attached to a rotary tool in order to
jet variations of this setup have also been explored in order to successfully produce continuous nanofibrous yarns of a pre-
increase the production rate. determined density (Pokorny et al., 2014).
C Pokorny et al. (2014) developed an alternating-current (AC) D Others (Yang et al., 2017) managed to obtain NYs cutting elec-
needleless and collectorless electrospinning method. The AC trospun mats into ribbons and twisting them into single-ply
method uses a rapid alternation of polarity (every 10 ms) to yarns. Subsequently, the single-ply yarns were twisted into two-
create groups of nanofibers with alternating charges that ply and three-ply yarns, using a custom-made twisting device.

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FIGURE 4
Setup of the electrospinning process used to develop nanofiber yarns (NYs) using a liquid bath (illustration by the author).

FIGURE 5
Conjugate setup of the electrospinning process, used to develop nanofiber yarns (NYs) with a rotating funnel and an insulating rod (illustration by the
author).

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Researches also demonstrated successful uses of electrospun NYs nanofibrous plume—which in the previous study was twisted on
into traditional textile processes, even though their individual use itself—and wound it around a classic yarn as a coating (Valtera et al.,
presents many challenges. 2019). The yarn was then successfully knitted with a 18-gauge knitting
Li et al. (2019) focused on improving the tensile strength of their machine into a single jersey fabric.
NYs thanks to thermal annealing and drawing processes, a quite
common procedure with synthetic yarns. 3.4 Electrospinning for cellulosic fiber
Wu et al. (2016) successfully managed to use NYs in weaving and production
knitting processes combining them with other more stable yarns, as
by themselves they tended to adhere to the metal parts of the machine, The previous examples show how electrospinning outcomes can
causing high breaking rates: in weaving, they used them as the warp be re-configured as nonwovens, yarns or coatings, each suggesting
of woven fabrics, while in knitting they plied them with a more stable different possible routes for textile integration. Beyond form and
microfilament yarn. Their only successful individual use was braiding structure, however, the sustainability potential of electrospinning also
four groups of NYs together. depends critically on the origin and processing of the polymers used.
Yang et al. (2017), instead, managed to weave them as they were This section therefore concentrates on electrospinning for cellulosic
obtained cutting electrospun mats into more stable ribbons and stabi- fiber production, with a particular focus on cellulose derived from
lized through individual twisting and subsequent double and agro-industrial residues and textile waste.
triple plying. Researchers have increasingly focused on revalorizing agricultural
The use of electrospinning to produce nanofiber yarns is still and residues—such as rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, corn cobs and fruit
experimental field which needs further implementation to allow a peels—to extract cellulose and other biopolymers for nanofiber manu-
wide acceptance and their replicability at an industrial scale. Current facturing. Agricultural waste is mainly composed of cellulose, hemi-
exploration remain limited to the use of synthetic polymers and the celluloses and lignin, and the hierarchical structure of cellulose—with
medicine and tissue engineering fields appear to be the most promis- alternating crystalline and amorphous regions—provides a unique
ing ones (Zainuddin et al., 2022). combination of desirable properties, including biodegradability, bio-
compatibility and renewability (Sharma et al., 2024; Sharples et al.,
3.3 Coatings onto fabrics and yarns 2025). In some cases, such as Mottola et al. (2024) and He et al. (2025),
agricultural waste (sugarcane bagasse) has been used to obtain func-
In parallel, a more application-oriented line of research has tional fillers that are subsequently incorporated into electrospun
explored using electrospun fibers not as standalone yarns, but as coat- membranes based on commercially available bio-based polymers like
ings on existing fabrics and yarns, which can be easier to integrate into cellulose acetate (CA) or polylactic acid (PLA). More frequently, how-
current textile manufacturing. ever, studies aim to use cellulose extracted from waste directly as (or
Baji et al. (2020) already evidenced how emerging developments converted into) the main matrix material of the electrospun
of the electrospinning technique allowed for the direct modification membrane.
of existing fabrics to provide advanced functionalities without the As discussed above, the main challenge in electrospinning cellu-
drawbacks of traditional thick-film coatings. Electrospun fibers can in lose lies in its very low solubility in common organic solvents, due to
fact be deposited directly onto a textile substrate to substitute the strong intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding (Bonakdar et al.,
functional layer required by traditional composite fabrics—which are 2024; Tang et al., 2024; Vatanpour et al., 2022). Recently, ionic liquids
usually manufactured by laminating different textiles together— (ILs) have received considerable attention as “green” solvent systems
potentially reducing the number of manufacturing steps. for dissolving pure cellulose thanks to their thermal and chemical sta-
Researchers engaged in combinations of electrospinning (to bility and the potential for recycling, although their overall environ-
deposit fibers) and electro-spraying (to deposit droplets/particles) to mental impact remains insufficiently assessed (da Araldi Silva et al.,
coat and modify the surface of different types of textiles, making them 2021; Bonakdar et al., 2024). A widely adopted alternative strategy to
electrically conductive or antibacterial (Baji et al., 2020). improve spinnability is to convert cellulose into more soluble deriva-
Thenuwara et al. (2020), instead, developed cellulose-based con- tives such as CA, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) or hydroxypropyl-
ductive nanofibers for electronic textiles by incorporating carbon methylcellulose (HPMC). CA is particularly favoured because it
black nanoparticles in a cellulose acetate solution to be electrospun dissolves in relatively benign solvents like acetone and acetic acid,
onto a mercerized cotton woven fabric. This exploration allowed to enabling more accessible processing routes (Horzum et al., 2019;
provide conductive properties while maintaining flexibility, lightness Vatanpour et al., 2022).
and drape in the fabric. To date, electrospun cellulose and cellulose derivatives appear to
Coating can be performed not only onto two-dimensional textiles, be used almost exclusively in the form of nonwoven mats. Cellulose-
but also along yarns that can be subsequently processed through tra- based nonwovens have been extensively studied for water filtration
ditional weaving, knitting and braiding processes. and pollutant adsorption, where their high surface area and tuneable
You et al. (2018) electrospun a coating layer of polyurethane with porosity enable the removal of heavy metals, organic dyes and micro-
graphene onto the surface of Nichel-coated cotton yarns. The resulting bial contaminants (Sharma et al., 2024; Tang et al., 2024; Vatanpour et
structure, a core-spun yarn, featured the Ni-coated cotton yarn serv- al., 2022). Various types of straw-based waste have been explored as
ing as the conductive electrode and the nanofiber coating acting as the cellulose sources for these applications (Tang et al., 2024). Some rel-
dielectric layer (You et al., 2018). evant examples have been summarized in Table 1.
Drawing from the same alternate-current (AC) needleless and col- Beyond agro-industrial waste, authors have considered post-con-
lectorless electrospinning method developed (Pokorny et al., 2014), sumer textiles as an alternative cellulose feedstock. Suen et al. (2023)
Valtera et al. (2019) successfully managed to use the aerogel-like discussed how discarded cellulosic fibers can be converted into

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TABLE 1 Examples of uses of bio-based polymers derived from agro-industrial waste in

electrospinning. composite structures, which can be considered analogous to thin coat-
ings rather than standalone nonwovens.
Study Waste Cellulose Application In electronic-textile applications, a few examples demonstrate
source type or how cellulosic electrospun membranes can function as coating layers.
derivative Thenuwara et al. (2020), for instance, electrospun cellulose-based con-
Mo et al. (2022) Rice straw Cellulose acetate Nonwoven ductive nanofibers onto mercerized cotton, but the nanofibrous mat
(CA) membrane for CO2 required a polyurethane (PU) intermediate layer and a post thermal
capture and dye treatment to ensure adequate adhesion and durability. Thus, further
removal in water
research is needed to assess viability of cellulose-based coatings onto
treatment
different textile materials.
Nevertheless, as Stramarkou et al. (2024) pointed out, the
Dong et al. Rice straw Cellulose acetate Nonwoven
drive toward high value-added smart and protective textiles posi-
(2025) (CA) membrane as
tions electrospinning as a pivotal enabling technology thanks to
precursor for
its tunability and ability to incorporate functional agents directly
flexible porous 3D
into the fiber matrix. Into such context, several studies they
biochar review highlight the synergy between electrospinning and bio-
Baharipour et Sugarcane Pure cellulose Nonwoven based polymers such as PLA and CA, which are increasingly
al. (2025) bagasse membrane as green favoured to reduce non-biodegradable waste. Typical examples
nano-catalyst for include the encapsulation of phase-change materials (PCMs),
pharmaceutical such as PEG, within “green” polymer shells (e.g., CA or PCL) via
synthesis coaxial electrospinning to create energy-storing layers for smart
Moreno et al. Potato stems Carboxymethyl- Nonwoven
clothing. As with all polymer blends, however, identifying the
optimal ratio is crucial, since excessive concentrations of specific
(2025) cellulose (CMC) membrane as
components can cause fiber coalescence, loss of porosity and
reinforcement of
structural collapse.
the tensile
Overall, current work on waste-derived and bio-based polymers
properties of
remains concentrated in nonwoven membranes, with only isolated
potato starch
demonstrations of yarns and coatings and limited attention to durabil-
membranes
ity, scalability and end-of-life. This imbalance reinforces the need for
Esmaeilzadeh et Rice stalks Pure cellulose Nonwoven design-oriented research that treats electrospinning not only as a
al. (2015) membrane through materials or process problem, but also as a textile-construction and
nozzleless product-level question.
electrospinning to
obtain porous and
robust membranes
for air filtration 4 Approaches for textile design
Building on that, this section proposes two exploratory approaches
derivatives such as CA and then electrospun into nanofibers for high- that explicitly take textile construction and product scenarios as start-
performance applications in water remediation, biomedical products ing points for electrospinning experimentation.
and smart textiles. Nonetheless, despite their potential, these upcy- Electrospinning emerges as a fiber manufacturing technology
cling strategies still face barriers to industrial deployment, including with a lot of potential for experimentation and future developments.
low electrospinning throughput and the need for more efficient, auto- Researchers who work and study this technology mainly come
mated sorting systems to guarantee feedstock purity. from chemistry and engineering related fields. Overall, they tend to
By contrast, examples in which cellulose or other biogenic poly- work with electrospinning with process-driven or material-driven
mers derived from waste are electrospun into continuous nanofiber perspectives.
yarns (NYs) remain extremely rare. Most studies on NYs still rely on Process-driven approaches tend to focus on implementing the
synthetic polymers such as PAN, PCL or Nylon, whose rheological electrospinning process by intervening on the setup to improve pro-
and mechanical properties favour conversion into yarns and integra- ductivity, scalability or versatility. A material-driven approach, instead,
tion into conventional textile processes (Baji et al., 2020; Valtera et al., is particularly useful if the main aim is to work on obtaining specific
2019). As Zainuddin et al. (2022) noted, future studies in the field of material properties or in exploring a different textile technique with
continuous yarn electrospinning should compare synthetic polymers already explored materials. Again, a good example is that of
with other polymers, such as bio-based ones, within established NYs Thenuwara et al. (2020), in which the development of a conductive
electrospinning setups to assess process scalability and performance nanofiber coating onto a woven fabric allowed to achieve electrical
trade-offs. conductivity without compromising comfort properties like flexibility
A similar scarcity is observed for textile coatings based on waste- and air permeability, a common drawback of conventional methods
derived cellulosic polymers, even though in packaging research elec- like metallic hard wires or conductive coatings (Thenuwara et
trospun membranes are frequently used as functional interlayers in al., 2020).

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Many studies combine both the approaches, but such distinction In developing functional textiles, designing areas with varying
can be a useful analytical lens, rather than a strict classification, to thickness of the deposited nanofiber layer allows for localized optimi-
envision future developments. zation of performance characteristics, such as protective capacity and
Being electrospinning a process to obtain fibers starting from sensory function, (Baji et al., 2020; Stramarkou et al., 2024) as well as
polymeric solutions or melts, a high level of understanding of material potentially allowing for more tailored aesthetic improvements from a
sciences and chemistry cannot be overcome. Nevertheless, starting design point of view. Such approach is visualized in Figure 6A. Focusing
from literature findings and a general understanding of the technical on differentiating the thickness of the nonwoven membrane or coating
potential of electrospinning, we envision a shift of perspective towards would be particularly beneficial for the customization of protection
this technology where both process-driven and material-driven levels in protective clothing, sportswear and accessories such as foot-
approaches are more organically integrated in an interdisciplinary way wear. Here, this localized approach can allow for optimized thermal
through the guide of textile design practices. Thus, we propose two insulation, UV protection or barriers against chemical/biological
approaches for textile designers to engage in the experimentation of agents where needed, and similar approaches have also been collected
electrospinning, while speculating on possible fields of application of by Baji et al. (2020). For water-resistant materials, the homogeneity
the results. and thickness of the deposited film greatly influence the performance.
Augmenting the thickness can create a barrier against particles and
4.1 Layering approach liquid penetration for certain areas of the membrane or of the coated
textile, while maintaining the typical electrospun breathable porous
In the field of nonwoven membranes of nanofibers and coatings, structure across the remaining areas of the surface (Stramarkou et
an interesting approach is that of focusing on obtaining varied thick- al., 2024).
ness of the nonwoven mat studying the translation of the syringe However, continuous variation in thickness at garment scale
pump or spinnerets during the spinning process. would require either long spinning times or complex motion control
In contemporary electrospinning machines, the single syringe of the nozzles, with the risk of further worsening the low throughput
pump or the multi-nozzle systems are usually motorized in order typically reported for lab-scale electrospinning. In protective clothing
to be able to translate in parallel to the collector plate following the research, the use of electrospun layers is often limited to relatively
X and Y axis. There are CNC and programmable electrospinning small functional zones or laminated panels rather than fully electros-
setups—most notably in the field of melt electrospinning writing pun garments, precisely to balance performance gains with manufac-
(MEW) and near-field electrospinning (NFES)—where the move- turability and cost. Thus, such approach would be feasible to integrate
ment of the nozzle or the collector is software-controlled to pro- highly functional components of very-high added value into existing
duce precisely patterned layers and varied thicknesses. In manufacturing processes, instead of being interpreted as an alternative
Near-Field Electrospinning (NFES), the distance between the to them.
needle and the collector is sensitively reduced to suppress the cha-
otic whipping motion of the jet. This allows the jet to be controlled B Focus on material layering
like a printer head, enabling the “direct writing” of highly aligned
and complex microarchitectures. These setups often utilize soft- With the same approach, electrospinning can be tailored to obtain
ware-controlled X–Y moving stages or translatable nozzles to multifunctional nonwovens and coating, as it can be performed in
deposit straight fibers in predesigned patterns. multiple or subsequent phases by layering the deposition of nanofibers
But whether such additive manufacturing approaches can be of different materials or tailoring a solution with different compo-
applied to solution electrospinning—and thus cellulosic polymers—is nents. Such approach is represented in Figure 6B.
not clear, due to the inherently randomized nature of the jet and fiber In such perspective, the fields of electronic skins and sensors
deposition of this kind of electrospinning. Furthermore, repulsive could strongly benefit from this approach. Tailoring the thickness of
charge in solution electrospinning largely limits the amount of fibrous electrospun coatings is relevant for manufacturing wearable sensors
layers which can be obtained (Mitchell, 2015). (e-skin). Specifically, varying the thickness of the nanofiber dielectric
Nevertheless, even without full “writing” capabilities, program- layer (as part of a capacitive sensor unit) is critical because the final
mable axis movement is used to control the macroscopic structure of device sensitivity and response rely on the electrode distance and
cellulosic mats through programmed lateral nozzle movement (or volume change caused by compression deformation (Baji et al., 2020).
scanning nozzle) at controlled speeds to ensure the production of uni- Despite that, multi-materials also raise questions about durability
form nanofiber mats across a larger area (Yang et al., 2017). and repairability: repeated bending, laundering or abrasion may
Even though homogeneity is usually a desired and meticulously delaminate layers with mismatched mechanical properties, while
monitored characteristic, on the opposite it is possible to create nonwo- complex blends can complicate recycling and end-of-life treatments,
ven mats with a layering approach by adjusting processing parameters especially when bio-based polymers are combined with conductive
such as feed rate, axis translation and deposition time onto specific areas. fillers, metal coatings or non-biodegradable substrates.
Computer-controlled translation can also move the collector
along a radial direction to avoid fiber overlapping, which allows for C Focus on colour layering: a theoretical textile design horizon
the creation of structures with varied thicknesses and mechanical
properties (Kny et al., 2018). Electrospinning involves the use of polymer solution or melts,
We envision potential of this approach for three different scenar- which can usually be pre-coloured before the spinning process
ios, which are visualized in Figure 6. through the addition of both chemical or natural dyes into the solu-
tion or melt. For such reason, from a theoretical textile design per-
A Focus on differentiated thickness spective, another interesting approach to the layering would be that of

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Dani et al. 10.3389/frsus.2026.1773409

FIGURE 6
Three different layering approaches for nonwoven electrospinning proposed by the authors (illustration by the author).

performing subsequent spinning phases using polymer solutions with complex, multilayered textiles for technical clothing and wearable
different colours. Depending on the flow rate and time set, as well as technologies, while also demanding new criteria for evaluating dura-
the programming of the transitional movement of the nozzles or the bility, reparability and end-of-life scenarios compared to more con-
collector, the effects could be various. We imagine that results could ventional coated or laminated fabrics.
be like fabrics realized using yarns coloured with the so called In addition, since the solution jet is driven by complex electro-
‘melange’ technique, which involves the mixing and spinning of fibers and hydro-dynamics, applying additive manufacturing principles is
previously dyed with different colours. This technique is used to “up for discussion” because it is far less predictable than a polymer
reduce the number of dyeing baths and/or colour recipes to be pre- melt jet (Mitchell, 2015) and requires further reflection.
pared, especially in the treatment of natural fibers such as cotton, wool While the layering approach operates primarily on 2D substrates,
and cashmere. Doing so, the final colour yarn does not result in a solid it illustrates how textile design explorations could use motion control,
colour, but in a streaked blend of two or three colours, which is per- spatial mapping and material combinations to translate process
ceived differently depending on the distance from which it is seen. parameters into structured functionality and novel aesthetic uses of
With the same logic, we speculate that a similar result could be electrospinning.
obtained by layering polymers of different colours—as represented in
Figure 6C—allowing for more aesthetic explorations and potential 4.2 3D approach
integrations into markets such as fashion and interior design, even
though this interpretation is not yet documented in the literature and Another complementary research direction which started to
the low productivity of the technology remains a major constraint. emerge from recent experimentations is that of shifting from the usual
Thus, research on differentiated thickness and layered composi- deposition onto 2D surfaces to the direct electrospinning onto 3D
tions could shift electrospinning beyond simple 2D mats towards objects and pre-made 2D shapes.

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Researchers of the Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond recyclability. The proposed layering and 3D approaches illustrate
(USA) (Caloian et al., 2023), for example, explored direct methods of how textile design can strategically exploit novel approaches to
electrospinning onto 2D and 3D shaped meshes of conductive wire, engineer differentiated thickness, material layering and localized
taking advantage of the electrostatic forces of the process to deposit functionality, while also potentially opening new aesthetic and
the electrospun fibers mainly onto the given shape and mimicking the formal languages for fashion, technical clothing and interior
mesh distribution. The 3D surface patterns obtained also demon- applications.
strated interesting mechanical and bending properties with an At the same time, our analysis highlights several critical con-
improved handle. straints that currently limit electrospinning’s contribution to more
Shapes obtained were letters, a face mask with ear loops and nose sustainable textile production. Even though it can enable the use of
bridge and aprons. bio-based and waste-derived polymers, many electrospinning routes
While these results demonstrate the feasibility of single-step fab- still depend on hazardous organic solvents, shifting environmental
rication of functional 2D and 3D shapes, the process still requires burdens upstream to solvent production and management. In such
specially shaped conductive collectors and remains limited by the perspective, the co-development of greener solvent systems remains
intrinsic low productivity of electrospinning. Moreover, the mechani- a major issue of which the feasibility still needs to be proven at an
cal performance of the resulting membranes is strongly linked to mesh industrial scale. Energy consumption can be high, particularly in
geometry and fiber alignment, which may be challenging to control multi-needle and needleless setups, designed to increase throughput,
consistently in larger, more complex forms. and environmental assessments show that high voltages can signifi-
Researchers envisioned potential applications in wound care and cantly worsen global warming potential. In this sense, electrospin-
surgical meshes, but—considering the additive-manufacturing ning should not be framed as intrinsically “sustainable,” but as an
approach of the exploration which allows to obtain a textured shaped enabling process whose actual contribution to sustainability is
membrane in one single spinning process—we imagine that further potential and depends on the combined design of formulations, pro-
experimentations could be promising to obtain three-dimensional cesses, product architectures and life-cycle scenarios. Durability,
patterns with irregular textures for various applications. washability and repairability of electrospun layers, yarns and 3D
For example, technical clothing and footwear could benefit from membranes appear under-reported, making it difficult to justify
further exploration of this process to obtain highly engineered com- their use in long-lived textile products, while the fine-scale layering
ponents with properties non obtainable through traditional textiles. and complex blends that make electrospinning attractive for perfor-
However, in those fields, the approach is suitable for high-value com- mance and aesthetics also risk complicating separation and recycling
ponents, such as localized pads, inserts and reinforcements for niche at end-of-life.
applications, rather than full garments or accessories. In fact, the need In conclusion, we suggest directions for future developments
for conductive collectors shaped like the final product, coupled with which require coordinated involvement of chemistry, engineering
strict control of gap distances and high voltages, could make the inte- and textile design capable of embedding life-cycle thinking. First,
gration into existing manufacturing lines technically and economi- the co-design of greener formulations and solvent systems is needed
cally demanding. to ensure that potential sustainability benefits of waste-derived and
Taken together, the two exploratory approaches of layering and bio-based polymers are not offset by toxic chemistries or high energy
3D deposition envision how textile design can reframe electrospin- demand. Second, process innovations aimed at increasing through-
ning, while also making visible the constraints that must be addressed put—such as needleless or 3D direct-on-form electrospinning—
for any broader implementation. should be further assessed to quantify trade-offs between
productivity and environmental impact. Third, durability, washabil-
ity, comfort and recyclability of electrospun layers, yarns and coat-
ings should be gradually embedded in test protocols. Finally,
5 Conclusion design-led explorations at component scale, such as localized protec-
tive panels, shaped inserts, sensor patches, could help identify those
From this review, electrospinning emerges as a versatile yet tech- niche applications where electrospinning offers a measurable advan-
nically demanding technology that sits at the intersection of green tage, providing a realistic pathway from laboratory experimentation
chemistry, process engineering and textile design. It allows to produce to responsible commercial implementation and clarifying when, and
extremely lightweight structures and highly tuneable morphologies under which conditions, electrospinning can contribute to more
that are difficult to achieve with conventional spinning and coating sustainable textile futures.
techniques. Within such perspective, textile designers should not be seen as
From a textile-oriented point of view, the electrospinning tech- merely end-users of an innovative technology, but actively involved
nology can no longer be framed only as a nanofiber production agents in defining briefs, applications and experimentation protocols
method. Rather, it should be understood as a family of textile out- that can responsibly push electrospinning toward new fields of
comes, namely nonwovens, nanofiber yarns and functional coat- application.
ings, with distinct opportunities and constraints for integration
into existing manufacturing. Nanofibrous membranes offer high
surface area, tuneable porosity and low mass, but pose challenges
in mechanical robustness and throughput; nanofiber yarns prom- Author contributions
ise compatibility with weaving and knitting but remain experimen-
tally fragile and difficult to scale; and coatings can add localized DD: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Resources,
functionality at the expense of added complexity in adhesion and Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

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Dani et al. 10.3389/frsus.2026.1773409

GC: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Department of Environmental, Biological and
review & editing. CM: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies).
Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review
& editing. AZ: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing –
review & editing.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the
Funding absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for
this work and/or its publication. The paper is part of the results of
the GreenTEX project - funded by PRIN 2022 (‘Progetti di
Rilevante Interesse Nazionale’, program of the Italian Ministry of Generative AI statement
University and Research) - coordinated by the University of
Genova, Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the
(DCCI, UniGe – Principal Investigator prof. Silvia Vicini) in part- creation of this manuscript.
nership with Politecnico di Milano, Department of Architecture, Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this
Built Environment and Construction Engineering (DABC, PoliMi article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial
– Substitute Principal Investigator prof. Carol Monticelli) and intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy,
Department of Design. including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any
issues, please contact us.

Acknowledgments
Publisher’s note
The authors have autonomously written this paper, but they
acknowledge the strong contribution of the wide and synergic net- All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
work of academics within the GreenTEX project: Silvia Vicini, Maila and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
Castellano and Marina Alloisio and researchers Adrianna Bardelli and or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
Asmita Chavan (University of Genova, Department of Chemistry and that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
Industrial Chemistry) and Severina Pacifico (University of Campania manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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