Trans. Inst.

Indian Geographers
Vol. 8, No. I January 1986

AGRICULTURE IN THE VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC INDIA

V. S. Datye, Pune

ABSTRACT : Vedic literature provides a wealth of information of agriculture

practised by the Aryans. An attempt is made here to trace the evolution of
agriculture in the Vedic and Later Vedic period. The early Aryan settlers cleared
the land for cultivation by burning and cutting the trees. The Aryans
had a notion about types of land based on fertility and quality. The land was
laid out in fields. They were aware of the influence of climate on agriculture
and used different methods for irrigating the fields. They also used manures and
followed crop rotation system. In Rigvedic period, barley was the staple crop;
while rice and wheat are not mentioned. Cotton is conspicuous by its absence,
though the Later Vedic literature mentions several different kinds of crops.

The Indian subcontinent is the home of when the Aryanization of India took place.
one of the greatest ancient civilizations. The The second class of work are the Brahmanas,
progress of civilization and the history of Aranyakas, Upanishads and Sutras, compo-
agriculture are interwoven in ancient India. sed in the succeeding period called the
Even today agriculture plays a dominant role Brahmana period. The Rigveda is the most
in the Indian economy. It is, therefore, ancient work in the whole range of Indian
to study the history of agricul-
pertinent literature. It contains many references to
ture from a geographical view point. An agriculture. It is a collection of 1028 hymns,
attempt is made here to study the agricul- divided into ten mandalas or books, believed
ture in the Vedic and Later Vedic period to be composed between 1200 B. C. and
in order to highlight some salient features, as 1500 B. C. Of the three later Vedas, Sama-
the foundations of civifization of India was veda is of great importance to the history of
laid by the Aryans. Indian music. The Yajurveda supplies the
formulas and rituals for the whole sacrificial
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ceremony. The Yajurveda introduces us
to a new geographical area and a new epoch
Information on the tYPes of land, of religious and social life in India. The
reclamation of land, ownership of land, Atharvaveda contains charms and spells
fields and lay-outs, seasons, crops grown, to ward off evils and diseases (Bhargava,
implements used and irrigation is available 1956). The Later Vedic literature (1000 B.C.
from the Vedic and Later Vedic literature. to 600 B. C.) is the main source of informa-
tion on the life and culture of the Aryans.
The Vedic literature is formed of two We learn a great deal about the agriculture
classes. The first are the four Vedas called and animal husbandry of the period besides
Samhitas which actually belong to a period other social systeris.
 6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF INDIAN GEOGRAPHERS

VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC ARYANS oxen, horses and metals. The invasion of
India by the Aryans was not a single action.
The home of the Aryans has been a It extended over centuries and wave after
subject of great controversy, some scholars wave of the Aryans came and poured into
believe it to be in south Russian steppe India. It seems that about 1100 B. C., a
region. About 1800-1600 B. C. they left large wave of iron using Aryans entered
their home lands and dispersed east and India. They entered western U. P. about
west. The Aryan conquest of the Harappan 1000 B. C. From about 1000 B. C., the use
Towns is mentioned in the Rigveda. God of iron spread from Baluchistan, Gandhara
Indra is described as Purandara or the to eastern Punjab, western U. P. and
destroyer of fortresses. Aryans met with a Rajasthan. It reached eastern U. P. and
stubborn resistence from black skinned, Bihar in the seventh century B. C. The
flat-faced, snubnosed Indus valley (Fig. 1) P. G. ware is also associated with later
people of short stature whom they called Aryans (Randhawa, 1980).
Dasyua or Dasa. These people knew agri-
culture. The best evidence of agriculture AGRICULTURE
in the Harappan areas is in granaries. They
used plough and cultivated bread wheat Though initially animal husbandry was
(Triticum aestivum) T. Saphaerococcum, more important than cultivation of crops,
barley (Hordeum Vulgare and H. Lexasti- Aryans realised that without thriving agri
chum), seasamum, gram, peas, melons, date- cultural base they cannot defeat the Asuras
palm and species of Brassica (rape). Cotton (Indus valley people). A son who would
was also cultivated. According to Wheeler own agricultural fields was also desired.
(1968), one of the major factors of the Even the gamblers were advised not to play
decline and fall of Harappan culture was the dice but to pursue agriculture and acquire
widespread deforestation to meet the wealth. However, the upper strata of the
demand of firewood for baking millions of society considered agriculture as an inferior
bricks. Piggott (1950) suggested eastward occupation. The tiller of the land was
shifts of the edge of south-west monsoon as looked upon as a dull, stupid individual
the cause of increasing aridity. Final because he was neither wise nor learned.
blow was dealt by the Aryans who massacr- Even his speech exhibited low level of
ed the inhabitants (Chaudhary, 1979). culture (RV, 10.34.7). Agriculture required
physical labour which was considered as a
The extent of the area occupied by handicap to gaining the Vedic knowledge.
the Aryans as mentioned in the Rigveda But very soon this notion came to an end
is eastern Afganistan and N. W. F. P. Within (Roy, 1984).
this territory, called as Saptasindhu or land
of seven rivers Sindhu (Indus) was the The Aryan settlers cleared the forests
westernmost river and Sarasvati (Saptathi) and brought the land under cultivation.
the eastern most. The other five rivers were Fire was an efficient agent and there are
the Vitasta (Jhelum), the'Asikni (Chenab), references of vast areas being burnt in
the Parushni (Ravi),'the Vipas (Bias) and Satapatha Brahmana (SB, [Link]-14) and
the Sutadri (Sutlej) (Fig. 2). Taittiriya Samhita (TS,5.a.5). Early Aryans
were bronze age people and they used axes
The Vedic Aryans were primarily made of bronze and copper to clear the
pastoral. They considered animals, metals forests. After clearing the forests they
and manpower as the main forms of property. demarcated the area and established their
Cows were very useful in their economic claim over it. Shifting cultivation was
life and horses were required on battle practised because of loss of fertility due to
fields so the people prayed to the gods for continuous cropping. To prevent regenera-
obtaining brave sons, large number of cows, tion of forest, animals were grazed in it.
 AGRICULTURE IN THE VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC INDIA 7

TYPES AND OWNERSHIP OF LAND During the later Vedic period the
King also was concerned with the promotion
Land was classified into two main of agriculture. He granted lands (not on
categories viz. Ksetra - settlement and ownership but with certain privileges) to
Vona - forest. Urvara was the fertile land his own associates and favourite ones.
and Arnurvaro was the barren land. Differ- During the post Vedic period the Dharma
ent aspects of land are also described. In Sutras state that the document offering such
addition to the surface features, reference grant of land should be written on a piece
is made to the different kinds of soils such of cloth or a copper plate. There were land
as Sarkara (Salty), Aikata (Sandy) and disputes and divisions among the family
Asman (stony) (VI, 1.182). Ksetra was members. Land grabbing was a practice and
used in the sense of farmland which was Rudra was regarded as the lord of land
carefully measured and protected (AV, grabbers. Aitareya Brahmana informs that
l.l 10.5). Khila denotes waste land. mainly Vaisyas were cultivators of land
Suyava signified a pasture. Gavyuti or (AB, 7.22.3). The Jatakas and some of the
garvq was the grass land for cattle grazing. older Dharma Sutras clearly differentiate
between the private land and the crown
Like the Harappans, the Vedic Aryans
land. The Vedic texts mention that gener-
also had conceived the idea ofthe goddess of
ally the head of the family (grahapati)
fertility in the form of the mother earth.
was considered the owner of the family
Fertile and productive lands were prayed for property (including land), but the major
thus "Land rich with milk and wet with male members had their share in it.
honey and ghee" (YV, 189.20); "May
Yagna give me clayey soils, stony soils, During the early period probably the
hilly soils on hills and mountain slopes, size of holding depended on the requirement
land yielding both cultivated crops and wild
of the family and capability to reclaim
ploduce."
forest land. The Brahmana texts throw
Ownership of land is a much discussed considertrble light on the grades of land
and disputed issue (M;fne, 1890; Bopkin, holdings; grahasthas were ordinary land
1901). The king was considered as the holders and Maha grahasthas were the big
owner of entire land in his kingdom, but the land holders (Singh, 1967).
individuals and joint families also owned it.
It is thought that the ownership of land by The arable land was divided into fields.
King denoted only the exercise of political Land was properly measured and fields of
power by him. During the early Vedic definite sizes laid out. Measuring rods of
period tax lke bhaga (kings share in agri- presumably standard lengths were used for
cultural produce) did not exist. The king measuring fields. Fields were fenced around.
realised bali wtuch was a voluntary tax. The country side was traversed by good
Rigvedic hymns frequently refer to the roads, on to which fields abutted - presum-
offerings of gold, cows, horses, chariot, ably farm roads - a much needed facility
female slaves as gift to priests but not agri- is provided (Aiyer, 1949). Much import-
cultural land. There are ample evidences to ance was attached to good roads and the gift
prove that the cultivators right over agri- of such roads was often prayed for. Good
cultural land was recognised. The Rigveda quality fields and bad fields are mentioned,
refers to one's own field being as essential thus : "Like a pleasant field given to a
as one's hair ori the head as a personal begger" (RV, X.34.6) i.e. a field ought to
possession. The terms like Ksetrapati be in possession of one who'can make
(owner of land) and Ksetraparni (wife of proper use of it. Barren fields are referred
the owner) [Link] the individual ownership to and compared to bald head.
of settlement even if it was on temporary
basis.
 8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF INDIAN GEOGRAPHERS

AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS AND the rainwaters, the cultivators depended

IMPLEMENTS upon flood-irrigation. Artificial means of
irrigation like wells, tanks, ponds, canals
The Vedic texts throw considerable and lakes are also mentioned in the Vedic
light on the gradual process of agricultural iiterature (AV, 1.6.4).
operations. The implements such as spade,
picks, plough and sickle were made of wood
and copper and rarely ofiron. Abhiri (a tool THE CROPS GROWN
like spade) was used for levelling the piece
of land as well as for digging holes. Plough Importance of climate and seasons was
(langala) was used but its origin and use is a realised and the growth of crops in relation
debatable topic. The plough was fitted with to different seasons was noticed. The year
a plough share made of copper or iron. The was divided into six se?So[s; Vasanta,
first ploughing of the season was inaugurated Grishma, Varsha, Sarad, Hemant and Shishir.
amidst rituals. In order to maintain soil The solar and lunar years were distinguished
fertility manure (purisam) was used. The and the intercalcary month required to keep
Vedic Aryans were well acquainted with the the later in step with the former was adopted.
utility of cowdung. After this followed
sowing, this was an auspicious occasion and After agriculture was established,
prayers were offered to the gods. There attention was directed towards the cultiva-
were several methods of sowing such as tion of grain because the task of feeding the
scattering the seeds in the fields or pouring population and animals was not easy.
them along the furrow (TS, 5-2. 5-5). Hunger has been regarded as the real enemy
Continuous cropping was the usual practice of the people. The grain could be stored
but crop rotation and use of fallow was also for a longer time and could sustain popula-
known. The crops were harvested with tion against crop failure. The early Vedic
sickless. The harvested crop was collected Aryans had realised the importance of
and bundles were made out of it, which were cereals as the chief means of existence.
carried to the thrashing floor. Oxen were Dhanya was a common term used to denote
used for separating grain from stems by the grains. In the Rigveda the only cereal
treading them. Then with the help of win- mentioned is Yava (barley). Other grains
nowing basket grains were separated from were also cultivated. Archaeological excava-
chaff. Finally the grains were measured, tions have brought to light cereals other than
if necessary, and were stored in houses. barley from the levels which are assignable
Mostly people of the Vedic age stored grain to the Rigvedic period. In the later Vedic
n Sthivi. The Satapatha Brahmana informs texts eleven varieties of cultivated grains
that besides earthern jars, grains were stored have been systematically enumerated. The
in leather bags as well as in jar made of wood. cultivated cereals (gramadhanya) and wild
ones (aranyadhanya) were both considered
IRRIGATION as bestowing vital strength on the sacrificer.
(Misradhanya) denoted mixed cerals which
The Aryans were aware of the vital were produced by mixing and sowing seeds
role played by water in their life. The of more than one variety of corn.
Rigveda informs that the peasants depended
mainly upon rain for irrigating their fields. BARLEY (YAVA)
They prayed to
Parjanya and Indra for
pouring adequate rain waters for the produc- Barley is mentioned in Rigveda and it
tion of sufficient grains. Excess of rain as was the staple food of Aryans. It has been
well as inadequate rain both were harmful doubted whether it denoted cultivated real
to the plants, so prayers were offered for barley or was a genetic term to mean all
timely and adequate rain waters. Besides vegetation. Aiyer (1949) thinks that it is
 AGRICULTURE IN THE VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC INDIA 9

quite probable that wheat (spelt wheat) staple food of Asuras. In the later Samhitas
was also intended by the term barley. and the Brahmana texts godhuma has been
Some of the later Vedic texts refer to frequently referred to. The later Vedic
yava as grass to be fed to animals. From Aryans popularised wheat cultivations in the
the later Samtr-itas onward, yava has been Gangetic valley. The Indus valley people
used in the strict sense of barley again. cultivated wheat (club wheat).
The varieties of barley Govidhuka (coarse),
and Upovaka are mentioned. Also two- COTTON
rowed and six-rowed varieties are men-
tioned. Remains of six-rowed barley have A crop very consiicuous by its
been discovered from Harappa and another absence is cotton. The Indus valley people
yariety from Mohenjodaro. From Kaliban- knew and cultivated cotton. But after that
gen (Rajasthan and Atranjikhera (Upper it seems to have disappeared. Even Rigveda
Gangetic basin) also barley grains have been refers to the Indus valley as the land of wool.
unearthed (Fig. l). It seems that vast Weaving was known and an elaborate refer-
regions of north India were suitable for its to
ence garments, both stitched and un-
production.
stitched is contained in the hymns relating
to marriage ceremony. But these must be
woollen or silk garments.
RICE (PADDY, VzuHI)

SUGARCANE
Rice is not mentioned in Rigveda,
therefore some scholars think that the early
Sugarcane was grown and perhaps
Vedic Aryans did not cultivate rice. It is
crushed and gur or jaggery made, although
mentioned in Atharvaveda. The later
there is no specific mention made of sugar or
Samhitas, the Brahmana and Upanisad texts
gur, honey being the article used for sweetn-
frequently refer to vrihi both for domestic
ing.
and sacrificaluse. The later Vedic texts
refer to several varieties of rice grown in
different parts of northern India. Archaeo- SEASAMUM
logical evidences confirm that rice was
produced in northern India during the The Rigveda refers to it, but in the
neolithic and chalcolithic periods. It was later Samhitas and the Brahmana texts, it
thought that Harappans did not know rice, has been mentioned in several contexts.
but rice husk has been discovered at Ranga- The Indus valley people cultivated seasamum.
pur. The excavations at Ahar (Fig. l) also It grains were commonly used in sacrifices.
proved paddy cultivations in Rajasthan,
which then might have been a humid region.
VEGETABLES
Botanists think that rice originated in
South East Asia and spreqd in India from
Many fruits, flowers, vegetables, roots
east to west but Agarwala (1971) holds the
and medicinal herbs were also cultivated.
view that the cultivation of rice started at
Cucumber and bottle gourd are specifically
Lothal and Rangapur and then spread to
mentioned. Grapes were probably cultiva-
east.
ted, the methods of prunning understood,
the art of fermenting the juice into wine
WHEAT (GODHTTMA)
also known and practised.

In Rigveda wheat is not mentioned

though the early Aryans were settled in PULSE CROPS
today'swheat producing areas. Perhaps they
liked barley more and considered wheat as Urada (Maso) is mentioned in the
l0 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF INDIAN GEOGRAPHERS

Vedic texts. Grm (Khalra) is also men-

tioned in Atharvaveda. Besides these crops, INDIA
Harappan Sites
some millets (Artu) and other vegetable
c.2r00-1500 B.c.
fibtes have also been mentioned.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion. one can say that the

bronze age Aryans who defeated the Indus A
Valley People realised the importance of Kol imbo ngon
Atro
agriculture soon. The need to feed the niodoro
population resulted in reclamation of land
and continuous cropping. Aryans had a
notion about the different types of land r Ahor
based on quality and fertility. The land
was properly measured and laid out in fields. ol
N
The agricultural operations were closely
related to the environmental factors. The S om nol
t
T
implements used were of wood and copper
!0 0 r00 ,00 ,00 xH
in early period. Aryans used manures and @ Horagpon Sites
followed crop rotation system in order to
increase productivity. They realised the [Link].:scaw^nIzaE8c, al5ton,cAL alL^! of soulH AStA
Fi9.l
significance of water in agriculture and
besides rain and river water, they also used
artificial sources like tank, wells, ponds,
canals and lakes for irrigation. They cultiva-
INDIA
ted many crops, barley being the staple Vedic and Later Vedic
crop in Rigvedic period. Cotton is con-
spicuous by its absence. fuce and wheat eo
[Link] vedic- Bhoroto
Loler
also are not mentioned in Rigveda, but in
Vcdic - ?[Link]

later Vedic literature they are mentioned.

The Vedic and Later Vedic literature provides
many direct and indirect reference to agri
culture from which inferences are drawn.
The author feels that there is a need to look
into various other sources including the
archaeological excavations and interpret the
results from geogaphical point of view.
Vidorbho lo o ro0 ld i6 xx
l4

zt
t0uact: tcxw^rraataa,xrSrorrc^r ^rr^3 ot toulr
^3r^
Fi9.2

ABBREVIATIONS

AB Aitareya Brahmana TS Taittiriya Samhita

AV Atharv Veda VI Vedic Index
RV Rigveda w Yajuweda
SB Satapatha Brahmana
 AGRICULTURE IN THE VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC INDIA 1l

REFERENCES

Agarwala, D. P. (1971). The Copper Bronze Age in India, pp. 4O-lO7 .

Aiyer, A. K. Y. N. (1949). Agriculture and Allted Arts tn Vedic Indtq.

Bhargava, P. L. ( I 95 6). India in the Vedic Age , p. 9.

Bopkins, E. W. (1901) . India Old and New, New York, p,218.

Chaudhury, N. C. (1979) . Mohenio-Daro and the Ciuilization of Ancient India with Reference
to Agiculrure, Delhi.

Maine (1980). Village Communities of the East and West, London, p. 105.

Majumdar, G. P. (1951). Origin and Development of the Science of Agriculture in Ancient

lndia, Proceedings of All India Oiental Conference, Pt. III, pp. I I 3 - 1 I 6.

Om Prakash (1961). Food and Dinks in Ancient India,Delli.

Piggott, S. ( 1 950). Prehistoric India, London.

Randhawa, M. S. (1980). A History of Agriculture in India, Vol. I, ICAR, New Delhi.

Roy, B. P. (1984). The Later Vedic Economy,pp. ll7-167.

Singh, M. M. ( I 969). L ife in North E astern India in Pre-Maury an Times, Varanasi.

Wheeler, M. (1968). The Indus Civilization, Cambridge, pp.32-35.

ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR

Dr. V. S. Datye
Lecturer
Department of Geography
University of Poona
Pune - 411 007