1.

Introduction
By the time students start studying research methods and begin carrying our research,
many of them form a negative attitude, often based on peers’ opinion, who have had an
unpleasant experience with research course. They approach the subject with the belief that the
subject takes a lot of time and effort, and is full of statistics and difficult terminologies. The goal
of this course is to introduce you to scientific research, to explain what it is, why and how it is
done, so that you can have a proper understanding of what research is and develop a positive
attitude towards it.

1.1 Pursuit of Knowledge

Knowledge is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as: (1) Expertise, and skills
acquired by a person through education or experience. A person can possess the theoretical or
practical understanding of the subject; (2) Knowledge is that what is known in a particular field
or in total; facts and information; (3) Knowledge is that about which we are absolutely certain or
sure.
The pertinent question that remains in the minds of many is; how do we acquire reliable
and valid knowledge? Throughout history human beings have sought for explanation about
phenomena. In this lesson we will focus on four main methods of acquiring knowledge that are
widely recognized.

1.2 Sources of Knowledge

1) Research is one of the important sources of knowledge because it is objective and
involves systematic procedures. Pure objectivity in any research is virtually impossible because
of subjective nature of a researcher and error involved in procedures.
2) Experience is a common mode of obtaining knowledge. For example, a farmer, after
growing beans for several years comes to conclusion that beans do best during the season of
short rains. This conclusion is drawn from comparison of the number of sucks harvested from
one acre during the short rains and the long rains.
3) Tradition is another source of knowledge. All human being inherit a culture developed
by long-term reflection of an adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values. The socio-
cultural system embodies accepted knowledge of how things are or should be. Transmitters of

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cultural knowledge in the society include parents, peers, adults, teachers, and clergy. Most of us
accept these ‘social truths’ without necessarily testing them.
4) Authority is another source of knowledge. This take the form of an expert in specialized
area, giving his/her opinion on a given issue. For example, we are likely to accept the fact that
HIV/AIDS is not transmitted through handshakes if the person stating the fact is qualified doctor
rather than an accountant.
5) Intuition is yet another source of knowledge. Intuition is the perception, or explanation,
or insight into phenomena by instinct. In other words, some people have ability to gain new
knowledge without conscious reasoning or empirical investigation. However, throughout history,
intuition has remained a mystery.

6) Reasoning is also considered as a way of acquiring knowledge. Through mental

processes in a logical way we can acquiring knowledge about our world. It is ability found in
humans, that is able to generate conclusions founded on assumptions or premises that are based
on logical thinking. Here we discuss two categories of reasoning: namely deductive reasoning
and inductive reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning involves the use of general knowledge about things that are
generally true in order to think about and understand specific situations or problem. It is a
thinking process in which one proceeds from the more general to them more specific knowledge
through logic argument such as: What is true to all, then it is true to individual.

Think Top-down
Major premise
Minor premise
Conclusion

Examples:
Major premise 1: All birds have wings
Minor premise 2: An ostrich has wings
Conclusion 3: Therefore, an ostrich is a bird

Major premise 1: All persons are mortal

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 Minor premise 2: The president of Kenya is a person
Conclusion 3: Therefore, the president of Kenya is mortal
A premise is a proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion
is drawn. A premise may be either the major or the minor proposition of a syllogism—an
argument in which two premises are made and a logical conclusion is drawn from them—in a
deductive argument. The reasoning in these arguments is valid, because there is no way in which
the premises, 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion, 3, be false. However, in order to arrive at
true conclusions, you must begin with true premises. Deductive reasoning can organize what
people already know and can point out new relationships as we proceed from the general to the
specific. In research methodology we shall link theory (premise 1, - general knowledge) with
observation (premise 2, - specific knowledge).
Inductive Reasoning
In contrast to deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning works the other way round,
moving from specific observations to broader generalization. It is a thinking process in which
one proceeds from the specific to more general logic argument such as: What is true to
individuals, then it could be true to all.

Conclusion
Minor premise
Major premise
Think to-up

Examples:
Major premise 1: Until now, the sun rises in the east every morning
Minor premise 2: Today, the sun rose in the east again
Conclusion 3: The sun will also rise in the east tomorrow

Major premise 1: Until now, it is observed that high grades make students happy
Minor premise 2: Today, I saw a happy student who scored high mark in mats
Conclusion 3: The students will also be happy tomorrow when they score high
marks

In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observation and determine patterns and
regularities, formulate some tentative hypothesis that we can explore, and finally end up with
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developing general conclusions. We use inductive reasoning all of the time. However, we must
recognize its limits. Most inductive reasoning is not based upon exhaustive evidence but upon
partial observation, thus, the conclusion is only a guess.

1.3 Theory of Knowledge

Many different theories have attempted to define how knowledge is created. Theories of
knowledge attempt to explain how new knowledge is developed. It is the reasoning behind
creating and discovering new knowledge. Two of the most important and widely accepted of
such theories are Karl Popper’s falsifiability and Thomas Kuhns’s structure of scientific
revolution.

1.3.1 Karl Popper’s Falsifiability

Karl Popper was one of the greatest scientific philosophers of the 20 th century. His theory
of falsifiability is a fascinating explanation of the growth of knowledge that can apply to our
daily lives and can influence the way we think and act. Popper observed that many grand
theories claiming to explain everything about the world often err. What theory could be applied
to absolutely everything that exists? Slowly, he realized, it was his systematic attempts to prove
things wrong that advanced scientific knowledge. Let’s illustrate this point with a simple
example. If we “know” (theory) that coffee in the evening can keep us awake in our usual
bedtime, we may refrain from drinking coffee when we plan to go to sleep the usual time. On
other occasions, we may want to drink one cup of coffee so that we can stale later to finish our
preparation for the exam of tomorrow. We take this knowledge for granted (theory) and apply on
daily basis.

One afternoon, we find that we are extremely tired. In fact, we are so tired that we could
to sleep at 5:00 pm and not wake up till the next morning. However, we do not want to go to
sleep yet, so we get a cup of strong coffee even though it is late in the afternoon. According to
the old theory our plan of going earlier to bed and have a sound sleep should be ruined by having
coffee so close to bedtime. However, this time, the caffeine in our body does not work as we had
predicted from empirical evidence. Instead, of energizing us and keeping us awake, it actually
put us into a deep and dreamy sleep. We wake up 3 hours later, surprised that the coffee did not
work. In Popper’s terms, we have falsified an established theory. We have proven it wrong. By
proving it wrong, we have added a new piece of knowledge to our already known theory. Now,
instead of claiming that caffeine always energizes our body, we are claiming that sometimes,

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depending on how the body reacts to it, caffeine can have the opposite effect and put us in a deep
sleep. We falsified an established theory and built a new theory on this knowledge. Falsifying a
theory is our attempt to disapprove an established theory, which is how we construct more
advanced knowledge. Popper believed that in order to construct new knowledge, our goal should
be to falsify the established theories. Popper brought to us a simple but important understanding
of how knowledge is built, and this is how our everyday knowledge is constructed as well. We
accept something as true until the moment we falsify it. Once we manage to prove it wrong, we
built a better understanding on the particular theory or piece of knowledge.

1.3.2 Thomas Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolution

Thomas Kuhn defined knowledge as a summary of general truths and laws about the
world that are scientifically proven. But his special interest was in how the science develop
further, beyond the general rules, general laws, and paradigms we have accepted as truths. Most
scientists call the commonly accepted scientific ‘laws’ as normal science. Normal science does
not aim to explore new ideas, to build on scientific knowledge, to experiment, or to risk. Normal
science is safe. It is doing what we have been doing for ages; relying on existing knowledge and
not testing it. The example of the existing knowledge is cooking recipes. If one ingredient is
missing, the cook believes that the whole dish is ruined.

Normal science is made of accepted paradigms. A paradigm is an unchangeable pattern

that we use over and over again. There are specific rules and regulations governing the paradigm
that are widely accepted from the specific scientific community. Scientists who subscribe to
normal science, according to Kuhn, will not discover anything new, just like “experienced”
cooks use the ingredients to assure the desired outcome (a delicious dish). They are invested in
reproducing the same normal science over and over again.

However, now and then, we encounter anomalies, or things that do not fit into paradigms
of normal science. When these anomalies occur, our understanding of normal science shatters.
An anomaly is something that happens once or twice that does not fit into our commonly
accepted patterns. When these anomalies start to occur left and right, they are no longer
anomalies, but a crisis. A crisis is further defined as the accumulation of many anomalies against
accepted truth of normal science. We encounter a crisis when the normal science does not seem
to fit with reality any longer. An example of anomalies which occurred in the field of education
is Covid-10 pandemic. Until the end of 2019 the normal science of education was built on

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learning institutions, classrooms, blackboards, school bells and so on. From the beginning of
2020 the anomalies began creeping into the field of education; social distancing, wearing masks,
closure of learning institutes and so on. Those anomalies put in crisis the students, the teachers,
and learning institutions. The normal science of education was shattered.

When anomalies accumulate, we start questioning what we have accepted as truth, or

normal science. Kuhn believed that in order to change established paradigms, we must undergo
some form of crisis. Crisis can lead to a revolution of science. The revolution replaces the old
paradigm with a new paradigm. This is when we see a paradigm shift. So a paradigm shift
happens when the widely accepted paradigm encounters many anomalies that lead to crisis, then
a revolution, and finally settle into a new paradigm. In reference to the Covid-19 pandemic and
the normal science of education the digital forms of education were introduced. In Tangaza
University College, the new academic year (2020-2021) was inaugurated in digital platform.
From August 2020 all Tangaza students participate in teaching process via digital platforms such
as MOODLE, KENET, ZOOM and others. Thus, in the field of education the revolution
happened; in words of Kuhn, this is the paradigm shift. The “old” normal science was replaced
with “new” normal science. This new normal science will continue until it begins to encounter
anomalies and eventually it will result a crisis. Then, the revolution will again happen and a new
form science will emerge.

1.4 Science

Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642), who was Italian astronomer, physicist, mathematician and
philosopher is considered as the father of science. In recent times Grayling (2009, Science
Council) commended the definition of science as follows:
“Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the
natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence”
Keywords:
(1) “pursuit and application of knowledge” – science is concerned with obtaining reliable
knowledge and applying it to life situations

(2) “understanding of natural and social world – science facilitates a better

comprehension of surrounding us world and behaviors of human beings

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 (3) “based on evidence” – science is empirical. This means that scientific activities are
based on observation with 5 senses (touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste), data recording, data
analysis, formulating tentative hypothesis, and replication of the experiment.
Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural
sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, and physics), the social sciences (e.g. economics, psychology,
sociology, anthropology), and the formal sciences (e.g. logic, mathematics, statistics, and
theoretical computer science).
1.5 Characteristics of Science
1.5.1 Empiricism
Science relies on empirical evidence – data that are perceivable through the senses. When
I certain reality than I can claim this as a fact (for me). However, when another person observes
the same reality and claims the same fact, then this reality becomes a verifiable, testable, and
confirmable reality perceived by common experience.
1.5.2 Objectivity
Scientific knowledge is objective. Objectivity simple means the ability to see and accept
facts as they are, not as one might wish them to be. To be objective, one has to guard against his
own biases, beliefs, wishes, values and preferences. Objectivity demands that one must set aside
all sorts of the subjective considerations and prejudices.
1.5.3 Verifiability
Science rests upon sense data, i.e., data gathered through our senses—eye, ear, nose,
tongue and touch. Scientific knowledge is based on verifiable evidence (concrete factual
observations) so that other observers can observe, weigh or measure the same phenomena and

check out observation for accuracy . Questions pertaining to the existence of soul, heaven or hell
are not scientific questions because they cannot be treated factually. The evidence regarding their
existence cannot be gathered through our senses.
1.5.4 Ethical Neutrality
Science is ethically neutral. It only seeks knowledge. How this knowledge is to be used,
is determined by societal values. Knowledge can be put to differing uses. Knowledge about
atomic energy can be used to cure diseases or to wage atomic warfare. Ethical neutrality does not
mean that the scientist has no values. It here only means that he must not allow his values to
distort the design and conduct of his research. Thus, scientific knowledge is value-neutral or
value- free.

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 1.5.5 Systematic Exploration
A scientific research adopts a certain sequential procedure, an organized plan or design of
research for collecting and analysis of facts about the problem under study. Generally, this plan
includes a few scientific steps—formulation of hypothesis, collection of facts, analysis of facts
(classification, coding and tabulation) and scientific generalization and predication.

1.5.6 Reliability
Scientific knowledge must occur under the prescribed circumstances not once but
repeatedly. It is reproducible under the circumstances stated anywhere and anytime. Conclusions
based on casual recollections are not very reliable.
1.5.7 Precision
Scientific knowledge is precise. It is not vague like some popular writings. Tennyson
wrote, “Every moment dies a man; every moment one is born”, this is good literature but not
science. To be a good science, it should be written as: “In India, according to the 2001 census,
every 10th second, on the average, dies a man; every 4th second, on the average, an infant is
born.” Precision requires giving exact number or measurement. Instead of saying “most of the
people are against love marriages,” a scientific researcher says, “Ninety per cent people are
against love marriages”.
1.5.8 Accuracy
Scientific knowledge is accurate. A physician, like a common man, will not say that the
patient has slight temperature or having very high temperature but after measuring with the help
of thermometer, he will pronounce that the patient is having 36.6 C temperature. Accuracy
simply means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things in exact words as they are
without jumping to unwarranted conclusions.
1.5.9 Accumulation
Science is cumulative because it builds up on itself; a new knowledge adds to the old, and
in this way the knowledge grows. In order to build up on the previous knowledge we need to
carry out the literature review. The purpose of literature review is to find out the “old”
knowledge so that we do not aim at inventing the gunpowder once again.
1.5.10 Abstraction

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 Abstraction in its main sense is a conceptual process where general rules and concepts are
derived from the research results. Scientific knowledge is a matter of conceptual practices where
the scientists “create” or “amend” the existing theory. The process of abstraction removes some
characteristics of the outcome to the research and reduces them to a set of essential
characteristics which contribute to theory development.

1.5.11 Predictability

Scientists do not merely describe the phenomena being studied, but also attempt to

explain and predict as well. It is typical of social sciences that they have a far lower predictability

compared to natural sciences. The most obvious reasons are the complexity of the subject matter

and inadequacy at control etc.

1.6 Scientific explanation
Hempel (1966), the author of Philosophy of natural science made an important
distinction between deductive (to-down) and inductive (bottom-up) methods of scientific
explanation. Inductive and deductive reasoning both strive to construct a valid argument.
Therefore, inductive reasoning moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion,
while deductive reasoning moves from generalized principles that are known to be true to a true
and specific conclusion.
 Deductive Explanation (top-down)
Deductive reasoning works from more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally
called a “top-down” approach.

Theory

Hypothesis

Observation

Confirmation
Figure 1.1 Deductive Explanation of Knowledge
We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow
that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we

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collect observations to address hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test hypotheses
with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of original theories.
 Inductive Explanation (bottom-up)
Inductive reasoning works the other way round, moving from specific observations to
broader generalizations and theories.

Theory

Tentative
Hypothesis

Pattern

Observation Figure 1.2 Inductive Explanation of Knowledge

Informally, we sometimes call this “bottom up” approach. In inductive reasoning, we

begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities,
formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some
general conclusions.

1.7 Basic Terms in Research

Phenomenon (plural, phenomena): is understood as that which strikes one as strange,
unusual, or unaccountable; an extraordinary or very remarkable person, thing, or occurrence; as,
a weather phenomenon. In scientific usage, a phenomenon is any event that is observable.
According to the Dictionary of Visual Discourse, "In ordinary language
'phenomenon/phenomena' refer to any occurrence worthy of note and investigation, typically an
unexpected or unusual event, person or fact that is of special significance. Examples of
phenomena: “mass failure in secondary schools,” or “hysteria among secondary school
students,” or “come-and-stay as a form of marriage.”

Idea: An idea is an inspiration or a spark that comes intuitively from one’s subconscious as a
result of interaction with the environment. In colloquial language we could say that idea is ad
hoc inclining in our head about something we like or want to do. For example; freedom of

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expression may be constructed instantly in our head as a part of our arguing process. In another
instance we may have idea; “Let’s go for pizza.” A concept is more or less the final form of an
idea, which has gone through the process of fine-tuning and pruning of its raw edges.

Concept: Is defined as a general notion that occur in the mind, in speech, or in thought. It is
understood to be the fundamental building blocks of thoughts and beliefs. It plays an important
role in all aspects of thinking. Let’s us say I am looking for house for my family. I imagine that a
good place for them should include 3-4 bedrooms in one-store house, a large living room, a
garage, outside a small garden; the house should be close to school and church. That is my home
concept. The details can change, but the concept can help me eliminate those houses in the
market that don't fit my general concept. In research we frequently operate on concepts such as
poverty, community, mental health, happiness, religion, politics etc.

Theory: It is a set of concepts or constructs and the interrelations that are assumed to exist
among those concepts. Social sciences agree that one of the most important functions of
empirical research is to contribute to the development of a new theory and refinement of the
existing theory. A credible theory provides the conceptual foundations for reliable knowledge;
theories help us explain and predict phenomenon of interest to us and, in consequence, assist us
in making intelligent practical decisions.

Population: It is generally a large collection of individuals or objects having common

observable characteristics. Since the research is done for the benefit of the entire population the
researcher stipulates the population in the topic under research. If the topic includes indication
“public secondary schools” and the location of research is also indicated, Nyeri County, thus, the
population of the study is all public secondary schools in Nyeri County.

Sample: Due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test every individual in
the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. This is the reason why
researchers rely on sampling techniques. Using sampling techniques, the researchers select
smaller number of members from accessible population. This subgroup is carefully selected so as
to be representative of the whole population with the relevant characteristics.

Sampling: It is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that
individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected. The purpose of
sampling is to secure a representative group which will enable the researcher to gain information
about population. There are various methods that are used to get a sample from a population.
These methods are referred to as sampling techniques.

Variable: It is a value that vary from case to case. Whenever we want to express measurable
characteristics of the subject under research we use variables. Some variables are expressed
quantitatively. For example, age is expressed in years, height is expressed in centimeters and
weight is expressed in kilograms. These are termed as numeric variables. Other variables are
expressed in categories. For example, occupation may be expressed as farmer, teacher or nurse.
Gender is expressed ad male or female and color as green or yellow. These are termed as
categorical variables.

Parameter: Like, a variable, a parameter is a characteristic that is measurable and can assume
different values in the population. The difference between a variable and a parameter is that a

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parameter refers to a population characteristic while a variable is related to a characteristic of a
sample drawn from the population characteristic while a variable is related to a characteristic of a
sample drawn from the population. An example of a parameter is Kenya’s per capita income, i.e.
average income per person in Kenya.

Conceptual Definition of Variables: This is a way of specifying precisely what we mean

when we use a particular term to refer to a variable. Researcher cannot study a variable without
first agreeing on a working definition of the variable. For example, the “financial management”
belongs to conceptual variables and as such requires working definition. One of definitions could
be: Financial management within household is the process involved in administering income
within a family. For the purposes of scientific inquiry, the researcher should always clearly
specify the working definition of the main variables in the study. In academic paper, create
conceptual definitions using your own words (not copied from Encyclopedia). Once we define
our concept, then we can think how to measure it.

Operational Definition of Variables: It refers to the measurement of a variable. It is the

description of the operation that will be used in measuring the variable. Operational definition of
a variable may be stated quantitatively or categorically. For example: operational definition of
the variable “age” can be stated in the number of years. The operational definition of the variable
“type of instruction” may be stated categorically as; lecture, group discussion, individual tutoring
or independent study.

Definition of Terms: It is an alphabetical list of important terms that are used in research
project, particularly ambiguous terms or those used in a special way. Often, research includes
terms that are technical or not wildly known outside of the circle of experts. These terms include
particular theoretical meaning that differs from colloquial or popular definitions. One of the
examples could be the term client. In popular thinking a client is somebody who buys goods or
pays for services. However, for researcher in social communication technology “a client is a
computer that connects to and uses the resources of remote computer or server.

Data: It refers to all the information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Researcher
recognize two types of data: primary data and secondary data. Primary data refers to original
information a researcher obtains from the field. Secondary data refers to the information a
researcher obtains research articles, books or other sources.

Paradigm: The Oxford English Dictionary defines a paradigm (a Greek word) as "a pattern or
model, an exemplar; a typical instance of something, an example." Paradigm first appeared in
English in the 1400s, meaning “an example or pattern,” and it still bears this meaning
today: Their company is a paradigm of the small high-tech firms that have recently sprung up in
this area. For nearly 400 years paradigm has also been applied to the patterns of inflections that
are used to sort the verbs, nouns, and other parts of speech of a language into groups that are
more easily studied. Since the 1960s, paradigm has also been used in science to refer to a
theoretical framework, as in a new paradigm for understanding diabetes. This usage was
acceptable to 91% percent of the Usage Panel in our 2009 survey. Applications of the term in
other contexts show that it can sometimes be used more loosely to mean “the prevailing view of
things.”

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Hypothesis: According to Bailey (1978, p.35), Hypothesis is: “... A proposition that is stated
in a testable form and that predicts a particular relationship between two (or more) variables. In
other words, if we think that a relationship exists, we first state it as a hypothesis the test the
hypothesis in the field.” Hypothesis is an “intelligent guess” of the outcome of the study. The
“intelligent” guess requires from us a general knowledge on the issue at stake, good
understanding of relationship among variables, certain logic, experience, or insight from the
observation. In this way our hypothesis gains a ground for its reasonable pre-existence.

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