Lecture Notes

Module 2 : Orthographic Projections

Computer Science (Specialization)

[Link]. - II Semester
 PROJECTION

Objective:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

♦ Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

♦ Describe “Glass Box Method” of orthographic projection

♦ Mention the principal views and combination of views

♦ Convert pictorial drawings in to orthographic or multi view projection

♦ Describe representation of circular surfaces, hidden surfaces in orthographic projection

♦ List the precedence of lines in multi view projection

♦ Explain the necessity of pictorial projection

♦ Discuss the procedure to construct box for isometric and oblique drawings

♦ Convert orthographic projection in to isometric projection.

5.1 Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two- dimensional surface (paper) be used to
communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here projections have been
divided in to two basic categories; pictorial and multi view. This simple division separates single view
projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi view projections (orthographic).
Theoretically, projections can be classified as convergent and parallel, or
divided in to three systems of projection: perspective, oblique, and orthographic. Division of types based
on whether the drawing is a one view or multi view projection sufficiently separate projection types in to
those used for engineering working drawings (orthographic) and those used for display (architectural
rendering, technical illustrations etc)

In short, one of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or drawing.
This is especially true for the engineer. The purpose of this chapter is to give you the basics of
engineering sketching and drawing.

We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally, means freehand drawing.
"Drawing" usually, means using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to bring precision to
the drawings.
Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at this strange block (figure
5.1) from several angles.

Figure 5.1 Machine block

5.1.1 Isometric Drawing

The representation of the object in figure 5.2 is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family of
three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's vertical lines are
drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to the
horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at their true
(scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of their true length.

Figure 5.2 Isometric drawing

Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete understanding of the object should be
possible from the drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all dimensions on one
drawing, it is ideal.

One can pack a great deal of information into an isometric drawing. Look, for instance, at the
instructions for a home woodworker in figure 5.2. Everything the designer needs to convey to the
craftsperson is in this one isometric drawing.
However, if the object in figure 5.2 had a hole on the back side, it would not be visible using a
single isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete view of the object, an orthographic projection
may be used.

5.1.2 Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Orthographic projection

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box (figure 5.4) and
you have the three views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multi view" drawing.

Figure 5.4 the creation of an orthographic multi view drawing Figure 5.5 shows how the three views
appear on a piece of paper after unfolding the box.
Figure 5.5 a multi view drawing and its explanation

Which views should one choose for a multi view drawing? The views that reveal every detail about the
object. Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are required to
describe the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others need four.
The circular object in figure 5.6 requires only two views.

Figure 5.6 an object needing only two orthogonal views

5.2 Theory of Multi view Projections

Multi view orthographic projection is the primary means of graphic communication used in engineering
work. Drawings are used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and procedures for the
manufacture of the object or construction of a system. Orthographic projection is the basis of all
descriptive geometry procedures. Multi view projection is a procedure that can be used to completely
describe an object’s shape and dimensions using two or more views that are
0
normally projected at 90 to each other, or at specified angles.
In general, engineering work is complete using this method of projection. The finished drawing is then
reproduced and sent to the shop or to the job site.
To design and communication every detail to manufacturing groups (Engineers, technicians)
descriptions must be prepared. This description must show
every aspect of the shape and size of each part and of the complete structure. Because of this
necessity graphics is the fundamental method of communication only as a supplement, for notes and
specifications, is the word language used.
Shape is described by projection that is by the process of causing an image to be formed by rays of
sight taken in a particular direction from an object to a picture plane. Methods of projection vary
according to the direction in which the rays of sight are taken to the plane. When the rays are
perpendicular to the plane, the projective method is Orthographic. If the rays are at an angle to the plane,
the projective method is called oblique. Rays taken to a particular station point result in perspective
projection. By the methods of perspective, the object is represented as it would appear to the eye.

Theory of projection is the basis of background information necessary to shape representation

in graphics. Two fundamental methods of shape
representation are used.

1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate views of an object taken
from different directions, generally at right angles to each other and arranged relative to each other in a
definite way. Each of the views shows the shape of the object for a particular view direction and
collectively the views describe the object completely.

2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and projected up on a single plane. Either
oblique on perspective projection is used.

5.2.1 Orthographic Projection

A. Definition Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection made by
dropping perpendiculars to a plane. In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the
exact shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes,
generally at right angles to each other; collectively, the views on these planes describe the object
completely.
Descriptive geometry is basically the use of orthographic projection in order to solve for advanced
technical data involving the spatial relation ship of points, lines, planes, and solid shapes. The most
common means of understanding these types of orthographic projection is The Glass Box method.

The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry problems, requires that the user
imagine that the object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent “box”. Each view of the
object is established on its corresponding glass box surface by means of perpendicular projectors
originating at each point of the object and extending to the related box surface. The box is hinged so that
it can be unfolded on to one flat plane (the paper).

The lines of sight representing the direction from which the object is viewed. In figure 5.7, the vertical
lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to originate at infinity. The line of sight is
always perpendicular to the image plane, represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top, front, and
right side). Projection lines(c) connect the same point on the image plane from view to view, always at
right angle.

A point is projected up on the image plane where its projector, or line of sight, pierces that image
plane. In the figure 5.8, point 1, which represents a corner of the given object, has been projected on
to the three primary image planes. Where it is intersects the horizontal plane (top image plane), it
is
 ,
identified as 1H when it intersects the frontal plane (front
image plane), it is identified as 1F, and where it intersects the profile plane (right side image plane), it is
labeled 1P.

Figure 5.7 Glass box methods

Figure 5.8 Orthographic projection of objects

B. Orthographic views

It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by extending perpendiculars to the plane from all
points of the object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the shape of the object when
viewed from the front but it does not tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more
than one protection is required to describe the object.

If transparent plane is placed horizontally above the object, the projection on this plane found by
extending perpendiculars to it from the object, will give the appearance of the object as if viewed from
directly above and will show the distance from frontal plane. Then the horizontal plane is now rotated
into coincidence with the frontal plane. Now again a third plane, perpendicular to the first two called
profile plane are used to view an object from the side.

C. The Six Principal Views

Let us surround the object entirely by asset of six planes, each at fight angles to each other. On
these planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and right side, left side,
bottom and rear.

Think now of the six sides, or the plane of the paper. The front is already in the plane of the paper, and
the other sides are, as it were, hinged and rotated in position as shown. The projection on the frontal
plane is the front view vertical projection, or front elevation, that on the horizontal plane, the top view,
horizontal projection, or plan, that on the side, profile view, side view, profile projection, or side elevation.
By reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained
instead of a top view, or a rear view instead of a front view.
Figure 5.9 Principal Picture Planes

In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one
drawing. All these views are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions
of height, width and depth.

In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved outward so that they lie in the
plane of the paper. And each image plane is perpendicular to its adjacent image plane and parallel to
the image plane across from it. Before it is revolved around its hinged fold line (reference line). A fold
line is the line of intersection between any hinged (adjacent) image planes.

The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The top and bottom
planes are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are required.

D. COMBINATION OF VIEWS

The most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the top, front, and right side
views some times the left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly then the light side view.

N.B: The side view of the front face of the object is adjacent to the front view and the side view of a point
will be at the same distance from the front surface as its distance from
the front surface on the top view.

The six principal views of an object or the glass box have previously been presented in the type of
orthographic projection known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection. This form of projection is used
throughout this lecture note and is primary form of projection found in all American Industry with the
exception of some special cases in the architectural and structural fields.

Figure 5.10 Third angle projections

The type of projection used in most foreign countries and on many American Structural and architectural
drawings is called First Angle Orthographic Projections.

In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front of the image plane. Each view is formed
by projecting through
the object and on to the image plane.

Figure 5.11 First angle projections

5.2.2 Classification of surfaces and Lines in

Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or may not have some surfaces parallel
or perpendicular to the planes of projection.

Surfaces are classified according to their space relation ship with the planes of projection i.e. horizontal,
frontal and profile surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two of the planes of projection (but
perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to be auxiliary or inclined .It the surface is at angle to all
three planes, the term oblique or skew is used

Although uniform in appearance, the lines on a drawing may indicate three different types of directional
change on the object. An edge view is a line showing the edge of a projection. An intersection is a
line formed by the meeting of two surfaces where either one surface is parallel and one at an angle or
both are at an angle to the plane of projection. A

surface limit is a line that indicates the reversal of direction of a curved surface.

A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces

The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a simple position or inclined to the
planes of projection depending up on the shape or position, the surface takes is name from the plane of
projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line in a horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal plane;
and a profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to two planes, the line takes the
name of both planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal – profile.
Figure 5.12 Examples of objects having parallel surfaces to the principal planes

B. Inclined Surfaces
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point when it is
perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane. Similarly, a
surface appears in trey shape when it is parallel to the planes of projection, as alien when it is
perpendicular to the plane, and fore shortened when it inclined to the plane. An object with its face
parallel to the plans of projection as figure
5.12; a top, front, and right side surfaces are shown in true shape and the object edges appear either in
true length or as points. The inclined surface of the object as figure 5.13 does not show true shape in
any of the views but appears as an edge in front view. The front and rear edges of the inclined surface
are in true length in the front view and fore shortened in the top and side views. The top and bottom
edges of the inclined surface appear in true length in top and side views
and as points in the front view.

Figure 5.13 Examples of objects having inclined surfaces

C. Oblique Surfaces
A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it does not show in
true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval length in one view and
is fore shortened in the other two
views,
 Figure 5.14 Examples of objects having oblique surfaces

D. Hidden Surfaces

To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should contain lines
representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects In any view there will be
some parts of the object that can not be seen from the position of the observer, as they will be
covered by station of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and
surface limits of these hidden parts
are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line. In figure 5.15, the drilled hole that is visible
in the top-side view is hidden in the front and right side views, and there fore it is indicated in these
views by a dashed line showing the hole and the shape as left by the drill.

Figure 5.15 Examples of objects having hidden surfaces

Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these dashed lines. It carelessly drawn, they ruin
the appearance of a drawing. Dashed lines are drawn lighten full lines, of short dashes uniform in length
with the space between there very short, about ¼ of the length of the dash.

This view shows the shape of the object when viewed from the side and the distance from bottom to
top and front to rear. The horizontal and profile planes are rotated in to the same plane as the frontal
plane. Thus, related in the same plane,
they give correctly the three dimensional shape of the object.

E. Curved Surfaces

To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are commonly utilized. All the
center lines, which are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are a part of views.

1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line before the part
is drawn.

2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular center lines.

The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a fine line made up of alternate long and
short dashes.

Figure 5.16 Examples of objects having curved surfaces

5.2.3 Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the object may project to
coincide with visible portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or hidden out line of some
part of the object.

Since the physical features of the object must be represented full and dashed lines take precedence
over all other lines since visible out line is more prominent by space position, full lines take
precedence over dashed lines. A full line could cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not
cover a full line. It is evident that a dashed line could not occur as one of
the boundary lines of a view.

When a centerline and cutting- plane line coincide, the one that is more important to the readability of
the drawing takes precedent over the other.

Break lines should be placed so as not to coincide with other lines of the drawing.

The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.

1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.

5.3 Pictorial Projections

By means of multi view drawing, it is possible to represent accurately the most complex forms by
showing a series of exterior views and sections. This type of representation has, however, two limitations:
its execution requires a through understanding of the principles of multi view projection, and it’s
reading requires a definite exercise of the constructive imagination.

Frequently it is necessary to prepare drawings that are accurate and scientifically correct, and that can
be easily understood by persons with out technical training. Such drawings show several faces of
an object at once,

approximately as they appear to the observer. This type of drawing is called pictorial drawing. Since
pictorial drawing shows only the appearances of objects, it is not satisfactory for completely
describing complex or detailed forms.

As we have seen in the previous chapters, the four principal types of projection are:
♦ Multi view projection
♦ Axonometric projection
♦ Oblique projection
♦ Perspective projection

All except the regular multi view projection are pictorial types since they show several sides of the object
in a single view. In all cases the view or projections are formed by the piercing points in the plane of
projection of an infinite number of visual rays or projectors. In this chapter, we will focus on the
common types of pictorial projection i.e. isometric projection.

Figure 5.17 types of projection

In both multi view projection and axonometric projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and
the visual rays are perpendicular to the plane of projection. There fore, both are classified as
Orthographic Projections.

In Oblique projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and the visual rays are parallel to
each other but oblique to the plane of projection.

In Perspective, the observer is considered to be at a finite distance from the object, and the visual rays
extend from the observer’s eye, or the station point (SP), to all points of the object to form a so-called
“cone of rays.”

The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection, as compared to multi view projection, is the
inclined position of the object with respect to the plane of projection. Since the principal edges and
surfaces of the object are inclined to the plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the
angle, and the general proportions of the object vary with the infinite number of possible positions in
which the object may be placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three of these are shown below.

In these cases the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane of projection, and therefore foreshortened.
The degree of foreshortening of any line depends on its angle with the plane of projection; the greater
the angle the greater the foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is determined for each of
the three edges of the cube which meet at one corner, scales can be easily constructed for
measuring along these edges or any other edges parallel to them. It is customary to consider the three
edges of the cube which meet at the corner nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.

Axonometric projections are classified as a) Isometric projection

b) Dimetric Projection
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales of reduction required.

Figure 5.18 Axonometric projections

Since the most widely used method of axonometric projection is Isometric, we will only see isometric
projection in detail.

5.3.1 Isometric Projection

To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal measure”), it is necessary to place the
object so that its principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of projection, and are
therefore foreshortened equally. In this position the edges of a cube would be projected equally and
0
would make equal angles with each other (120 ).

Figure 5.19 Isometric Projection

0
In the figure above, the projections of the axes OX, OY and OZ make angles of 120 with each other,
and are called the isometric axes. Any line parallel to one of these is called an Isometric line; a line
which is not parallel is called a non- isometric line. It should be noted that the angles in the isometric
0 0 0
projection of the cube are either 120 or 60 and that all projections of 90 angles. In an isometric
projection of a
cube, the faces of the cube or any planes parallel to them are called Isometric planes.

5.3.2 Isometric Drawing

When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or other wise as the object is actually projected
on a plane of projection, it is an isometric projection. But when it is prepared with an ordinary scale,
it is an isometric drawing. The isometric drawing is 22.5% larger than the isometric
projection, but the pictorial value is obviously the same in both.

Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and an isometric drawing is full size, it is customary to
make an isometric drawing rather than an isometric projection, because it is so much easier to execute
and, for all practical purposes, is just as satisfactory as the isometric projection.

The steps in constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed only of normal surfaces, as
illustrated in figure 5.20
.Notice that all measurements are made parallel to the main edges of enclosing box, that is, parallel to
isometric axes. No measurement along a diagonal (non-isometric line) on any surface or through the
object can be set off directly with the scale. The object may be drawn in the same position by beginning
at the corner Y or any other corner, instead of at the corner X.

The method of constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed partly of inclined surface (and
oblique edges) is shown in figure 5.20 .Notice that inclined surfaces are located by offset
measurements along isometric lines.

Figure 5.20 Isometric drawing of normal surfaces

For example, dimensions E and F are setoff to locate the inclined surface M, and dimensions A and
B are used to locate surface N.

Box Construction

Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by means of box construction, which consists
simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides coincide with the main
faces of the object. For example, in fig below, the object shown in two views is imagined to be enclosed
in a construction box.

This box is then drawn lightly with construction lines, I, the irregular features are then constructed, II,
and finally, III, the required lines are made heavy.
 Figure 5.21 isometric box constructions

Lines in Isometric Drawing

♦ Hidden Lines

The use of hidden lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in all other types of
projection: Hidden lines are omitted unless they are needed to make the drawing clear. If a
projecting part cannot be clearly shown with out the use of hidden lines, then hidden lines are needed.

♦ Center Lines

The use of center lines in isometric drawing is governed by the same rules as in multi view
drawing: center lines are drawn if they are needed to indicate symmetry, or if they are needed for
dimensioning. In general, center lines should be used sparingly, and omitted in cases of doubt. The use
of too many center lines may produce a confusion of lines, which
diminishes the clearness of the drawing.

Review question
1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

2. Construct a box for isometric and oblique drawings based on the technical drawing procedure.

3. Describe “Glass box method“ of orthographic projections.

 PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES
AND PLANES
Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

♦ Discuss reference line, picture planes and views
♦ Classify lines based on direction, type etc.
♦ Explain the orthographic projection of points and lines
( principal, vertical and inclined lines etc)
♦ Draw the true length of an oblique lines
♦ Explain how to draw a point view of a line
♦ Define principal planes
♦ List out the main difference between types of principal planes
♦ Explain the use of edge view and steps to draw an edge view of a plane
♦ Discuss the procedures how to draw true shape/size of oblique or
inclined planes

1 Introduction

A major problem in technical drawing and design is the creation of projections for finding the true
views of lines and planes. The following is a brief review of the principles of descriptive geometry
involved in the solution of such problems. The designers working along with an engineering team
can solve problems graphically with geometric elements. Structures that occupy space have three-
dimensional forms made up of a combination of geometric elements.
The geometric solutions of three-dimensional forms require an understanding of the space relations that
points, lines, and planes share in forming any given shape. Problems which many times require
mathematical solutions can often be solved graphically with accuracy that will allow manufacturing
and construction. Thus, basic descriptive geometry is one of the designer’s methods of thinking through
and solving problems.
All geometric shapes are composed of points and their connectors, lines. In descriptive geometry points
are the most important geometric element and the primary building block for any graphical projection
of a form. All projections of lines, planes, or solids can be physically located and manipulated by
identifying a series of points that represent the object.

A point can be considered physically real and can be located by a small dot or a small cross. It is
normally identified by two or more projections. In fig below, points A and B are located on all three-
reference planes. Notice that the unfolding of the three planes forms a two-dimensional surface with the
fold lines remaining. The fold lines are labeled as shown to indicate that F represents the Front
view, T represents the Top views, and S represents the Profile or Right side view. The planes are
replaced with reference lines HF and FP, which are placed in the same position as the fold lines.

2 Reference Planes

Unfolding of the reference planes forms a two-dimensional surface, which a drafter uses to construct
and solve problems. The planes are labeled so that T represents the top or horizontal reference plane, F
represents the front or vertical reference plane, S or P represents the side (end) or profile reference
plane. Thus a point 1 on the part, line or plane would be identified as 1F on the top reference plane,
and 1T on the top reference plane, and 1S on the profile reference plane. The folding lines shown on the
box are required to as reference lines on the drawing. Other reference planes (auxiliary planes) and
reference lines (auxiliary lines) are drawn and labeled as required.

3 Projection of Point

Since a point is a location in space and not a dimensional form, it must be located by
measurements taken from established reference line. The two figures below show the glass box method
of orthographic projection illustrated pictorially and orthographically. These two figures represent the
projection of point 1 in the three principal planes, frontal (1F), horizontal (1H), and profile (1P). In glass
box method, it is assumed that each mutually perpendicular plane is hinged so as to be revolved in
to the planes of the paper. “The intersection line of two successive (perpendicular) image planes is
called fold line/ reference line.” All measurements are taken from fold lines to locate a point is space. A
fold line/reference line can be visualized as the edge view of a reference plane.
A point can be located by means of verbal description by giving dimensions from fold/ reference
lines. Point 1 is below the horizontal plane (D1), to the left of the profile plane (D2), and behind the
frontal plane (D3). D1 establishes the elevation or height of the point in front and side view, D2 the
right, left location or width in the front and top view, and D3 the distance behind the frontal plane
(depth) in the top and side view.

Figure 7.1 Projection of a point

4 Lines in Space

Lines can be thought as a series of points in space, having magnitude (length) but not width. It will be
assumed that a line is straight unless otherwise stated. Though a line may be located by establishing its
end points and may be of a definite specified length, all lines can be extended in order to solve a
problem. Therefore a purely theoretical definition of a line could be: “Lines are straight elements
that have no width, but are infinite in length (magnitude); they can be located by two points which are
not on the same spot but fall along the line.”
When two lines lie in the same plane they will either be parallel or intersect. Lines can be used
to establish surfaces, or solid shapes. In a majority of illustrations the view of a line and its locating
points are labeled with a subscript
corresponding to the plane of projection, as fig below where
the end points of line 1-2 are denoted 1H and 2H in the horizontal views, 1F and 2F in the frontal view,
and 1P and 2P in the profile plane.
 Figure 7.2 Projection of a line

4.1 Classification of Lines in Orthographic

Projections

In orthographic projections lines can be classified based on their parallelism with the picture planes, type
and direction.
A. Classification based on Parallelism
A line that is parallel to a principal plane is called a principal line, and is true length in the principal
plane to which it is
parallel. Since there are three principal planes of projection, there are three principal lines: horizontal,
frontal and profile.
♦ A horizontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the horizontal plane
and appears true length in the horizontal view.
♦ A frontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the frontal plane and
appears true length in the frontal view.
♦ A profile line: is a principal line which is parallel to the profile plane and
appears true length in the profile view.

(a) Horizontal line (b) Frontal line (c) Profile line

Figure 7.3 Types of principal lines

Besides the above definitions, the following terms are used to describe lines according to the direction
and type.
B. Classification Based on Direction
♦ Vertical line: A vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, and
appears true length in the frontal
and profile views and as a point view in the horizontal views.
♦ Level line: any line that is parallel to the horizontal plane is a level line.
Level lines are horizontal lines.
♦ Inclined lines: Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal or profile planes
and at angle to the horizontal plane and appears true length in the views where it is parallel to a principal
plane.
C. Classification based on Type
♦ Oblique: oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes and
therefore will not appear true length in a principal view.

♦ Foreshortened: lines that are not true length in a specific view appear
shortened than their true length measurement.
♦ Point view: a point view is a view of a line in which the line is
perpendicular to the viewing plane (the line of sight is parallel to the line).
♦ True length: a view in which a line can be measured true distance between
its end points shows the line as true length and appears true length in any view where
it is parallel to the plane of projection

7.4.2 Orthographic Projection of a Line

Lines are classified according to their orientation to the three principal planes of projection or how
they appear in a projection plane. They can also be described by their relationship to other lines in
the same view. All lines are located from the fold lines/ reference lines, which represent the
intersection of two perpendicular planes of projection. In fig. above, line 1-2 is pictorially
represented. Line 1-2 (dashed) is projected on to each principal projection plane and located by
dimensions taken from fold lines.

Figure 7.4 Orthographic projection of a line

In figure above, each end points of line 1-2 is located from two fold lines in each view, using
dimensions or projection lines that originate in a previous view. Dimensions D1 and D2 establish the
elevation of the end points in the profile and frontal view, since these points are horizontally in line in
these two views. D3 and D4 locate the end points in relation to the F/P fold line (to the left of the profile
plane), in both the frontal and horizontal views, since these points are aligned vertically. D5 and D6
locate each point in relation to the H/F and the F/P fold line, since these dimensions are the distance
behind the frontal plane and will show in both the horizontal and profile views.
A. Level and Vertical Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a “level” line and appears true length in the
horizontal view. A level line is a horizontal line (principal line) since it is parallel to the horizontal
projection plane. In figure below the three variations of level (horizontal) lines are illustrated. In example
(1), line 1-2 is parallel to the horizontal plane and inclined to the frontal and profile planes. It appears
true length in the horizontal view and foreshortened in the other two views. Example (2) shows level line
line1-2 parallel to both the frontal and horizontal projection planes and is a point view in the profile view.
Line 1-2 is true length in two principal views and
is therefore both a horizontal line and a frontal line where as in

example (3), line1-2 is parallel to both the profile and horizontal projection planes and appears
as a point view in the frontal view, and true length in both other principal views. Hence, line 1-2 is a
profile line, and a horizontal line.
Vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizontal plane (view) and appear true length in both the
frontal and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Thus, a vertical line is parallel to the
profile and frontal projection planes.

Figure 7.5 Level and Vertical line

B. Inclined Lines

Lines that appear true length in the frontal or profile view (but not both) are inclined

Figure 7.6 Inclined lines

Lines. Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal plane, or parallel to the profile plane. Hence,
inclined lines will appear foreshortened in two principal views and true length in the other
principal view. In example (1), line 1-2 is true length in the frontal view i.e. parallel to the frontal
projection plane and foreshortened in the H (T) and P (S) views. In example (2), line1-2 is true
length in the profile view i.e. parallel to the profile projection plane and foreshortened in the
H and F views. Note that line1-2 in example (1) is the same distance behind the frontal plane in
both the horizontal and profile view,
dimension D1.

C. Frontal Lines
A line that is parallel to the frontal projection plane is a frontal line. Frontal lines are principal lines
and always appear true length in the frontal view. A frontal line can be inclined, level, or vertical,
but must be true length. A vertical frontal line appears as a point view in the horizontal view and
true length in both the frontal and profile views, therefore a vertical line is both a frontal and profile
line since it is true length in both of these views. If a level frontal line appeared as a point in the
profile plane, it would be true length in the frontal and horizontal views and is therefore a horizontal
as well as a frontal line.

Figure 7.7 Frontal lines

Line 1-2 lies behind the frontal plane the same distance in the horizontal and profile views,
dimensions [Link] that it is not possible to tell if a line is a frontal line given the front view alone.
Only in the profile and horizontal views can it be established that a line is a frontal line

Figure 7.8 Orthographic projection of frontal lines

D. Horizontal Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a horizontal line. Horizontal lines appear
true length in the horizontal view and are therefore principal lines. A horizontal line will always be
level in the frontal and profile views. If a
horizontal line is perpendicular to the frontal plane (and

parallel to the profile view) it appears as a point views in the frontal view and true length in the
profile view and is a combination horizontal and profile line. Likewise, if a horizontal line is
parallel to the frontal plane it appears as a point view in the profile view and true length in the
frontal view and thus is a combination horizontal and frontal line.
 Figure 7.9 Horizontal lines

In order to tell if a line is in or parallel to the horizontal plane, it is necessary to have either the
frontal or profile views of the line. Only the frontal and profile views show the line as a point
view or parallel to the horizontal plane.

Figure 7.10 Orthographic projection of horizontal lines

E. Profile Lines
A profile line is parallel to the profile plane and shows as true length in the profile view. The frontal
and horizontal view of a profile line always shows the line as a point view or foreshortened, in either
case the line is parallel to the profile plane. Vertical lines are both profile and frontal lines since
they appear true length in the frontal and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view.
Where a profile line appears as a point in the front view, the line is both a frontal and profile
line.
 Figure 7.11 Profile lines

Line 1-2 is true length in the profile view and appears foreshortened in the other two principal views.
Dimensions D1 and D2 locate the end points of the line from the F/P fold line and the H/F fold
line. These measurements represent the distance of point 1 and point 2 behind the frontal plane.
The angle that the profile line 1p-2p makes with the F/P fold line is the angle between the line and
the frontal plane (angle F).Angle H is the angle that line 1p-2p makes with the
horizontal plane.

Figure 7.12 Orthographic projection of profile lines

F. Oblique Lines

Oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes: horizontal, frontal, and profile. An oblique line
is not vertical, parallel or perpendicular to any of the three principal planes, and therefore does not
appear true length in the frontal, horizontal, or profile views. All three principal views of an
oblique line appear foreshortened.
 Figure 7.13 Oblique lines

In order to solve for true length of an oblique line, an auxiliary view with a line of sight perpendicular
to a view of the oblique line must be projected from any existing view. The fold line between these
two views will be parallel to the oblique line.
Line 1-2 is an oblique line since it is not parallel to any principal planes of projection and
appears foreshortened in every view. In order to locate an oblique in space, dimensions must be
taken from fold lines and projection lines extended from an existing view. Dimension D1 and D2
locate the end points of line 1-2 from the H/F and F/P fold line and represent
the distance line1-2 behind the frontal plane.

Figure 7.14 Orthographic projection of oblique lines

So, the true length of an oblique line can be measured in a view where the line is parallel to the
projection plane of that view. And if the line of sight for a view is not perpendicular to the line, the
line will be foreshortened.
Since oblique lines are not true length in a principal plane, it is necessary to project an auxiliary
view in which the given line appears true length. An oblique line appears foreshortened in all three
principal views: frontal, horizontal, and profile. In order to have a true length of a line, the line
must be parallel to the projection plane in the adjacent view.
A true length view of an oblique line can be projected from any existing view by establishing a
line of sight perpendicular to a view of the line and drawing a fold line parallel to the line
(perpendicular to the line of sight). The following steps
describe the procedure for drawing a true length projection of an oblique line from the frontal view,
1. Establish a line of sight perpendicular to oblique line 1-2 in the frontal view.
2. Draws fold line F/A perpendicular to the line of sight and parallel to the oblique line 1F-2F

Figure 7.15 True lengths of oblique lines

3. Extend projection lines from point 1F and 2F perpendicular to the fold line and parallel to the line
of sight.

4. Transfer dimensions D1 and D2 from the horizontal view to locate point 1A and 2A along
the projection lines in auxiliary view A.
5. Connect points 1Aand 2A. This is the true length of line1-2.

The true length of an oblique line can also be projected from the horizontal views and profile views
using the same basic steps as described above.

Figure 7.16 True lengths of oblique lines for all principal planes
G. Point View of a Line
A line will project as a point view when the line of sight is parallel to a true length view of the line;
in other words the point view is projected on a projection plane that is perpendicular to the true
length. Finding the true length and the point view of a line will be required for many situations
involving the application of descriptive geometry to engineering
problems. The first requirement for a point view is that the line be projected as a true length.
The point view of a principal line is established by the use of a primary auxiliary view as shown
below. The steps are:
Step 1: Establish a line of sight parallel to the true length line
1H-2H.
Step 2: Draw the fold line perpendicular to the line of sight (H/A or H/B). Note that the fold line
is also perpendicular to the true length line.
Step 3: Draw a projection line from line 1H-2H perpendicular to the fold line and therefore parallel to
the line of sight.
Step 4: Transfer dimension D1 from the front view to locate both points along the projection
line, in either
auxiliary view A or B.

Figure 7.17 Point view of a line

Line 1-2 is projected as true length in two separate primary auxiliary views, A and C. To establish
the point view, a secondary auxiliary view (B or D) is projected perpendicular to the true length line.
For auxiliary view B transfer the distance between H/A and line 1H-2H along the projection line from
fold line A/B to locate point view 1B-2B. For auxiliary view D, transfer the distance between
F/C and line 1F-2F along the projection line from fold line C/D to locate the point view of line
1D-2D.

Figure 7.18 Point view of an oblique line

Planes
A plane can be defined as a flat surface that is not curved or warped. And a plane can be fixed in
space by locating any three points that lie in its surface and are not in a straight line. A line and a
point, two intersecting lines, or two parallel lines also define a plane.

Classification of Planes

When a plane is parallel to a principal projection plane, it is a principal plane. A principal plane can
be a horizontal plane, a frontal plane, or a profile plane depending on its relation ship to a
principal projection plane. All lines in a horizontal plane, frontal plane, or profile plane are true
length lines; therefore principal planes are made up of principal lines. Principal
planes can be classified as:

A. Principal Lines

♦ A horizontal plane: it is parallel to the projection plane. It is true

size or shape in the horizontal view since all of its lines are principal lines, therefore they project
true length. The frontal and profile views of a horizontal plane always show the plane as edge view.
♦ A frontal plane: it lies parallel to the frontal projection plane where it
shows as true size. In the horizontal and profile views the plane appears as an edge view. All
lines show true length in the frontal view, since they are principal lines (frontal lines).
♦ A profile plane: it is true size in the profile view and appears as an
edge in the frontal and horizontal views. Every line in the plane is true length in the profile view
since they are profile lines. Profile planes are perpendicular to the frontal and horizontal projection
planes.

Figure 7.19 Types of principal planes

B. VERTICAL PLANES

Vertical planes are perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. The horizontal view of all
vertical planes shows the plane as an edge view. The following figures show the three basic
positions for a vertical plane.

Figure 7.20 Vertical Planes

C. OBLIQUE AND INCLINED PLANES

The classification of planes is determined by their relationship to the three principal projection
planes: frontal, horizontal, and profile. Principal planes appear as a true size in one of the three
principal projections and as edges in the other two. Oblique planes and inclined planes do not
appear true size in any of the three principal views. Oblique and inclined planes are not vertical or
horizontal (level), and will not be parallel to a principal projection plane.
♦ Oblique plane: An oblique plane is inclined to all three principal
projection planes, which results in each
view being foreshortened (distorted). The true size of

an oblique plane can not be seen in the three principal projections.

Figure 7.21 Oblique planes

♦ Inclined plane: An inclined plane does not appear true size in any of
the principal projections. This form of plane is seen as an edge in the profile view or in the
frontal view and foreshortened (distorted) in the other two views

Figure 7.22. Inclined Planes

Edge View of a Plane

An edge view of a plane is seen in a view where the line of sight is parallel to the plane. The line of
sight is parallel to the plane when it is parallel to a true length line that lies on the plane. Since a
projection plane is always perpendicular to the line of sight, it follows that a view drawn
perpendicular to a plane (perpendicular to a true length line that lies in the plane) shows the plane
as an edge. This can be seen in a vertical plane, which appears, as an edge in the horizontal view,
since it is perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. A horizontal plane is perpendicular to the
frontal and profile projection planes and thus appears as an edge in these two views.
When the given plane is oblique, an auxiliary (secondary projection plane) plane is needed. In
order to establish a line of sight parallel to the plane, a true length line needs to be drawn which
lies on the plane. An auxiliary view where the line appears as a point view shows the plane as
an edge. So the following are the genera steps that are required to create an edge view. In figure
below, plane 1-2-3 is given and an edge view is required.
Step 1: Draw line 1H-2H on plane 1H-2H-3H, parallel to the H/F, and complete the frontal view by
projection. Line 1F-
4F is true length.

Step 2: Project auxiliary view a perpendicular to plane 1F-2F-

3F. The line of sight for this projection is parallel to the plane and parallel to the true length line 1F-4F.
Draw F/A perpendicular to 1F-4F and complete auxiliary view A by projection.

Step 3: Auxiliary view a shows the line 1A-4A as a point view and therefore plane 1A-2A-3A
appears as an edge view.

Figure 7.23 Edge view of a plane

145
7.4.3 True Size (Shape) Of an Oblique Plane
When the line of sight is perpendicular to the edge view of a plane, it projects as true size (shape). The
true size view is projected parallel to the edge view of the plane. Therefore the fold line between the
views is drawn parallel to the edge view. An oblique plane does not appear as true size in any of the
principal projection planes. Therefore a primary and secondary auxiliary
view is needed to solve for the true shape of an oblique plane.
In figure 8.6, oblique plane 1-2-3 is given and its true shape is required.
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line 1F-4F parallel to the H/F and show it as true length in the horizontal view.

Step 2: Draw H/A perpendicular to line 1H-4H and complete auxiliary view B. Line 1A-4A is a point view
and plane
1A-2A-3A an edge.

Step 3: Project secondary auxiliary view B parallel to the edge view of plane 1A-2A-3A. Draw A/B parallel
to the edge view.
Step 4: Complete auxiliary B; plane 1B-2B-3B is true size
(shape)
Note that: In a true size/shape view of a plane, all lines are true length and all angles are true angle.

Figure 7.24 True shape of an oblique plane

questions

1. Describe the difference among reference line, picture planes and views.
2. Explain the orthographic projections of points and lines (
principal, vertical and inclined lines etc)

3. Discuss the procedure how to draw the true shape/ size of oblique or inclined planes.
4. Enumerate the use of edge view and steps to draw edge of a plane.
 PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
A solid has three dimensions, the length, breadth and thickness or height. A solid may be
represented by orthographic views, the number of which depends on the type of solid and its
orientation with respect to the planes of projection. solids are classified into two major groups. (i)
Polyhedral, and (ii) Solids of revolution

POLYHEDRAL:
A polyhedral is defined as a solid bounded by plane surfaces called faces. They are:
(i)Regular polyhedral (ii) Prisms and (iii) Pyramids

Regular Polyhedral
A polyhedron is said to be regular if its surfaces are regular polygons. The following are
some of the regular polyhedral.

SOLIDS
Prisms: A prism is a polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases parallel to each other.
The two bases are joined by faces, which are rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing
through the centers of the bases is called the axis of the prism.
A prism is named after the shape of its base. For example, a prism with square base is called a
square prism, the one with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism, and so on (Fig) The
nomenclature of the prism is given in Fig.

Page 1
(a) Tetrahedron: It consists of four equal faces, each one being a equilateral triangle.
(b) Hexa hedron(cube): It consists of six equal faces, each a square.
(c) Octahedron: It has eight equal faces, each an equilateral triangle.
(d) Dodecahedron: It has twelve regular and equal pentagonal faces.
(e) Icosahedrons: It has twenty equal, equilateral triangular faces.

Pyramids: A pyramid is a polyhedron having one base, with a number of isosceles triangular
faces, meeting at a point called the apex. The imaginary line passing through the centre of the
base and the apex is called the axis of the pyramid.

The pyramid is named after the shape of the base. Thus, a square pyramid has a square base
and pentagonal pyramid has pentagonal base and so on. The nomenclature of a pyramid is
shown in Fig.

Types of Pyramids:
There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base. These are
Triangular Pyramid, Square Pyramid, Pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid and etrahedron.

Solids of Revolution: If a plane surface is revolved about one of its edges, the solid
generated is called a solid of revolution. The examples are (i) Cylinder, (ii) Cone, (iii) Sphere.

Frustums and Truncated Solids: If a cone or pyramid is cut by a section plane parallel to
its base and the portion containing the apex or vertex is removed, the remaining portion is called
frustum of a cone or pyramid.

Page 2
Prisms Position of a Solid with Respect to the Reference Planes: The position of
solid in space may be specified by the location of the axis, base, edge, diagonal or face with the
principal planes of projection. The following are the positions of a solid considered.

1. Axis perpendicular to HP
2. Axis perpendicular to VP
3. Axis parallel to both the HP and VP
4. Axis inclined to HP and parallel to VP
5. Axis inclined to VP and parallel to HP
6. Axis inclined to both the Planes (VP. and HP)

The position of solid with reference to the principal planes may also be grouped as follows:
1. Solid resting on its base.
2. Solid resting on anyone of its faces, edges of faces, edges of base, generators, slant edges,
etc.
3. Solid suspended freely from one of its corners, etc.

Simple Problems:
When the axis of solid is perpendicular to one of the planes, it is parallel to the other. Also, the
projection of the solid on that plane will show the true shape of the base. When the axis of a
solid is perpendicular to H.P, the top view must be drawn first and then the front view is
projected from it. Similarly when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to V.P, the front view must
be drawn first and then the top view is projected from it.

1. Axis perpendicular to HP

Page 3
Problem:- A Square Pyramid, having base with a 40 mm side and 60mm axis is resting on its
base on the HP. Draw its Projections when (a) a side of the base is parallel to the VP. (b) A side

Page 4
of the base is inclined at 300 to the VP and (c) All the sides of base are equally inclined to the
VP. Solution:

2. Axis perpendicular to VP

Page 5
Page 6
Problem:- A pentagonal Prism having a base with 30 mm side and 60mm long Axis, has one
of Its bases in the VP. Draw Its projections When (a) rectangular face is parallel to and 15 mm
above the HP (b) A rectangular face perpendicular to HP and (c) a rectangular face is inclined at
450 to the HP.

3. Axis parallel to both the HP and VP

Problem:- A pentagonal Prism having a base with a 30 mm side and 60mm long axis, is resting
on one of its rectangular faces on the HP. with axis parallel to the VP. Draw its projections?

Page 7
4. Axis inclined to HP and parallel to VP

Page 8
Problem: - A Hexagonal Prism having a base with a30 mm side and 75 mm long axis, has an
edge its base on the HP. Its axis is Parallel to the VP and inclined at 45 0 to the HP Draw its
projections?

Page 9
 5. Axis inclined to VP and parallel to HP
Problem:- An Hexagonal Prism, having a base with a 30 mm side and 65 mm long axis, has
an edge it’s base in the VP Such that the axis is inclined at 300 to the VP and Parallel to the
HP. Draw its Projections?

6. Axis inclined to both the principal planes (HP and VP)

A solid is said to be inclined to both the planes when (i) the axis is inclined to both the planes,
(ii) the axis is inclined to one plane and an edge of the base is inclined to the other. In this case
the projections are obtained in three stages.
 Stage I: Assume that the axis is perpendicular to one of the planes and draw the
projections.
 Stage II: Rotate one of the projections till the axis is inclined at the given angle and
project the other view from it.

Page 10
 Stage III: Rotate one of the projections obtained in Stage II, satisfying the remaining
condition and project the other view from it.

Page 11
Page 12
Problem: A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed on HP on one corner that a body diagonal
is parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw its projections.
Solution Steps:
1. Assuming standing on HP, begin with TV, a square with all sides equally inclined to xy .Project
Fv and name all points of FV & TV.
2. Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’ (This can become Parallel to xy)
3. From 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
4. Draw 2nd Fv in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’ diagonal must be horizontal. .Now as usual
project TV..
5. In final TV draw same diagonal is perpendicular to VP as said in problem. Then as usual project
final FV.

Page 13
Problem:
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one of its generator on HP which makes
300 inclinations with VP. Draw its projections?

Solution Steps:
Resting on HP on one generator, means lying on HP
1. Assume it standing on HP.
2. It’s TV will show True Shape of base( circle )
3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as TV& taking 50 mm axis project FV. (a triangle)
4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
5. Draw 2nd FV in lying position I.e. o’e’ on xy. And project it’s TV below xy.
6. Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7. Then construct remaining inclination with VP (generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project
final FV.

Page 14
Problem:
A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed on HP on one corner that a body diagonal through
this corner is perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Draw its three views.
Solution Steps:
1. assuming it standing on HP begin with TV, a square of corner case.
2. Project corresponding FV. & name all points as usual in both views.
3. Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2nd FV making it vertical (I’ on xy)
4. Project its TV drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure.
5. With standard method construct Left-hand side view.( Draw a 450 inclined Line in Tv region
(below xy). Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and reflect vertically upward, above
xy. After this, draw horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these lines. Name points of
intersections and join properly. For dark & dotted lines locate observer on left side of Fv as
shown.)

Page 15
Problem:
A circular cone, 40 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is resting on HP, on one point of
base circle such that its axis makes 450 inclination with HP and 400 inclination with VP. Draw its
projections.

Problem:
A hexagonal prism, having a base with a 30mm side and an 80mm long axis, rests on one of its
base edges in the H.P such that the axis is inclined at 300 to the HP and 450 to the VP. Draw its
projections?

Page 16
Problem:
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one point of a base circle on VP while
its axis makes 450 with VP and FV of the axis 350 with HP. Draw its projections.
Solution Steps:
Resting on VP on one point of base, means inclined to VP:
1. Assume it standing on VP
2. It’s FV will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as FV & taking 50 mm axis project TV. (a Rectangle)
4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
5. Draw 2nd TV making axis 450 to xy and project it’s FV above xy.
6. Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7. Then construct remaining inclination with HP (FV of axis i.e. center line of view to xy as
shown) & project final.

Page 17
Sectional Views
 • Sectional Views
– Why sectional views are needed
 Invisible features of an object are shown by means of
hidden lines in their projected views.
 But when such lines are too many, these lines make the
views more complicated and difficult to interprete.
In such a case it is customary to imagine the object as being
cut through by plane

The part of the object

between a plane &
observer is assumed
to be removed
Important terms
Cutting plane or section plane
The imaginary plane by which the object is
assumed to be cut through. It is assumed to be
parallel to the plane on which the view is
projected
 CUTTING PLANE
Cutting plane is a plane that imaginarily cuts
the object to reveal the internal features.

Cutting
plane Cutting plane line

Section lines
Section : The surface produced by cutting an object
by the section plane is called section

Sectional view : The projection of the section along

with the remaining part of the object is called
sectional view

Cutting plane line : The position of the cutting plane is

indicated by these line. The direction of viewing the
section is shown by arrows resting on the cutting
plane line & designated by capital letter. e.g. A-A
 CUTTING PLANE LINE
Cutting plane line is an edge view of the cutting
plane.
Indicate the path
of cutting plane.
CUTTING PLANE LINE

Thin line

Viewing
direction
 CUTTING PLANE LINE

• The sight arrows at the

end of the cutting plane
are always perpendicular
to the cutting plane.

• The direction of the arrow

indicates the line of sight.
The section is indicated by hatching or section lines

The section lines should be drawn evenly spaced inclined

at 45 0 to the axis or to the main outline of the section. It
can be drawn at 30 0 or 60 0

Section lines should be drawn with 2H or 3H pencil

 SECTION LINING
Section lines or cross-hatch lines are used to
indicate the surfaces that are cut by the cutting
plane.

Section
lines
Drawn with 2H or 3H pencil.
 Section Lines
• Section lines (crosshatching) are used to show
where the cutting plane passed through solid
material
SECTION LINES SYMBOLS
The section lines are different for each of
material’s type.
For practical purpose, the cast iron symbol is
used most often for any materials.

Cast iron, Concrete Sand Wood

Malleable iron
SECTION LINING PRACTICE
The spaces between lines may vary from 1.5 mm
for small sections to 3 mm for large sections.

COMMON MISTAKE
Section Lining Technique
Cutting Planes & Sections
Cutting Planes & Sections
 Types of Section Views
• Full sections
• Half sections
• Revolved sections
• Removed sections
• Offset sections
 Full Section View
• In a full section view, when the object is
assumed to be cut through entirely and the
front half removed.
• Note that hidden lines become visible in a
section view Hidden Lines
are Visible
 FULL SECTION VIEW
The view is made by passing the straight cutting
plane completely through the part.
Multiple Sectioned Views

SECTION A-A
B

A A

SECTION B-B B
 Individual Exercise
● Sketch a full section of the object shown below
Individual Exercise
● Were you correct ?
 HALF SECTION VIEW
It may be assumed to be cut by two cutting planes at right angle
to each other and containing two center lines of the object.
The one quarter of the object between two plane is then removed
showing only a half section.
 HALF SECTION VIEW
A center line is used to separate the sectioned half
from the unsectioned half of the view.
Hidden line is omitted in unsection half of the view.