5.

Gravitation
Can you recall?

1. When released from certain height why do objects tend to fall vertically downwards?
2. What is the shape of the orbits of planets? 3. What are Kepler’s laws?
5.1 Introduction: virtue of their masses. It is always an attractive
All material objects have a natural force with infinite range. It does not depend
tendency to get attracted towards the Earth. In upon intervening medium. It is much weaker
many natural phenomena like coconut falling than other fundamental forces. Gravitational
from trees, raindrops falling from the clouds, force is 10-39 times weaker than strong nuclear
etc., the same tendency is observed. All bodies force.
are attracted towards the Earth with constant 5.2 Kepler’s Laws:
acceleration. This fact was recognized by Kepler’s laws of planetary motion describe
Italian physicist Galileo. He is said to have the orbits of the planets around the Sun. He
demonstrated it by releasing two balls of published first two laws in 1609 and the third
different masses from top of the leaning tower law in 1619. These laws are the result of the
of Pisa which reached the ground at the same analysis of the data collected by Tycho Brahe
time. through years of observations of the planetary
Indian astronomer and mathematician motion.
Aryabhatta (476-550 A.D.) studied the motion
of the moon, Earth and other planets in the Do you know ?
5th century A.D. In his book ‘Aryabhatiya’,
he concluded that the Earth revolves about its Drawing an ellipse
own axis and it moves in a circular orbit around An ellipse is the locus of the points in a plane
the Sun. Also the moon revolves in a circular such that the sum of their distances from two
orbit around the Earth. Almost a thousand years fixed points, called the foci, is constant.
after Aryabhatta, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) and You can draw an ellipse by the following
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) studied planetary procedure.
motion through careful observations. Kepler 1) Insert two tacks or drawing pins, A and
analysed the huge data meticulously recorded B, as shown in the figure into a sheet of
by Tycho Brahe and established three laws of drawing paper at a distance ‘d’ apart.
planetary motion. He showed that the motion 2) Tie the two ends of a piece of thread
of planets follow these laws. The reason why whose length is greater than ‘2d’ and
planets obey these laws was provided by place the loop around AB as shown in
Newton. He explained that gravitation is the the figure.
phenomenon responsible for keeping planets 3) Place a pencil inside the loop of thread,
in their orbits around the Sun. The moon also pull the thread taut and move the pencil
revolves around the Earth due to gravitation. sidewise, keeping the thread taut.
Gravitation compels dispersed matter to The pencil will trace an ellipse.
coalesce, hence the existence of the Earth, the
Sun and all material macroscopic objects in the
universe.
Every massive object in the universe
experiences gravitational force. It is the force of
mutual attraction between any two objects by

78
1 Law of orbit Fig 5.2 shows the orbit of a planet. The shaded
All planets move in elliptical orbits areas are the areas swept by SP, the line joining
around the Sun with the Sun at one of the the planet and the Sun, in fixed intervals of time.
foci of the ellipse. These are equal according to the second law.
The law of areas can be understood as an
outcome of conservation of angular momentum.
It is valid for any central force. A central force
on an object is a force which is always directed
along the line joining the position of object and
a fixed point usually taken to be the origin of
the coordinate system. The force of gravity
due to the Sun on a planet is always along the
line joining the Sun and the planet (Fig. 5.2).
It is thus a central force. Suppose the Sun is
Fig. 5.1: An ellipse traced by a planet with at the
the Sun at the focus.  origin. The position of planet is denoted
by r and the perpendicular  component of its
The orbit of a planet around the Sun is shown
in Fig. 5.1. momentum is denoted by p (component ⊥ r ).
The area swept by
 the planet of mass m in given
Here, S and S′ are the foci of the ellipse the Sun
being at S. interval Δt is ∆A which is given by
 1  
P is the closest point along the orbit from ∆A = (r × v∆t ) --- (5.1)
S and is, called ‘Perihelion’. 2  
As for small ∆t , v is perpendicular to r and
A is the farthest point from S and is, called this is the area of the triangle.
‘Aphelion’. 
A 1   --- (5.2)
PA is the major axis = 2a.  = (r × v)
t 2 
PO and AO are the semimajor axes = a.
Linear momentum ( p ) is the product of mass
MN is the minor axis =2b.
and velocity.
MO and ON are the semiminor axes = b  
p = mv --- (5.3)
2. Law of areas 
.. . putting v = p /m in the above equation, we
The line that joins a planet and the Sun
sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time. get  
 A 1  p 
Kepler observed that planets do not move = r×  --- (5.4)
around the Sun with uniform speed. They move t 2  m 

faster when they are nearer to the Sun while
Angular momentum L is the rotational
they move slower when they are farther from
equivalent of linear momentum and is defined
the Sun. This is explained by this law.
as   
∴ L = r × p --- (5.5)
For central force the angular momentum is
conserved.
 
A L
 = = constant --- (5.6)
t 2m
... This proves the law of areas. This is a
Fig. 5.2: The orbit of a planet P moving consequence of the gravitational force being a
around the Sun. central force.

79
 3. Law of periods T2 2 r2 3
The square of the time period of  
T12 r13
revolution of a planet around the Sun is 3/ 2
proportional to the cube of the semimajor T r 
 2  2 
axis of the ellipse traced by the planet. T1  r1 
If r is length of semimajor axis then, this 3/ 2
law states that  3r 
= 1
T 2  r3  r1 
T2 T2
or 3  constant   27
--- (5.7) T1
r
Kepler’s laws were based on regular T2  T1  27
observations of the motion of planets. Kepler  365  27
did not know why the planets obey these laws,.
 1897days
i.e. he had not derived these laws.
Table 5.1 gives data from measurements (B) If r2=2r1, T2 =2 ? 3
of planetary motions which confirm Kepler’s T2 r
2
 23
law of periods. T1 r1
3
Table 5.1: Kepler’s third law T2 2  2r1 
 
Planet Semi-major Period T2/r3 T12  r1 
axis in units in years in units of T2
  8
of 1010 m 10-34 y2m-3 T1
Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95 T2  T1 8
Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00
 365 8
Earth 15.0 1 2.96
Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98  1032 days.
Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01 5.3 Universal Law of Gravitation:
Saturn 143 29.5 2.98
When objects are released near the surface
Uranus 287 84. 2.98
of the Earth, they always fall down to the
Neptune 450 165 2.99
ground, i.e., the Earth attracts objects towards
Pluto 590 248 2.99
itself. Galileo (1564-1642) pointed out that
heavy and light objects, when released from the
Example 5.1: What would be the average
same height, fall towards the Earth at the same
duration of year if the distance between the Sun
speed, i.e., they have the same acceleration.
and the Earth becomes
Newton went beyond (the Earth and objects
(A) thrice the present distance. falling on it) and proposed that the force of
(B) twice the present distance. attraction between masses is universal. Newton
Solution: stated the universal law of gravitation which
(A) Let r1 = Present distance between the Earth led to an explanation of terrestrial gravitation.
and Sun It also explains Kepler’s laws and provides the
T = 365 days. reason behind the observed motion of planets
around the Sun.
If r2 = 3r1, T2 = ?
In 1665, Newton studied the motion of
According to Kepler’s law of period moon around the Earth. It was known that the
T12 ∝ r13 and T22 ∝ r23 moon completes one revolution about the Earth
in 27.3 days. The distance from the Earth to

80
the moon is 3.85×105 km. The motion of the by an object due to the gravitational force of
moon is in almost a circular orbit around the the Earth must be decreasing with distance of
Earth with constant angular speed ω. As it is a the body from the Earth. (Remember that the
circular motion, the moon must be constantly value of acceleration due to Earth’s gravity at
acted upon by a force directed towards the the surface is 9.8 m/s2)
Earth which is at the centre of the circle. This We have,
force is the centripetal force, and is given by a object 9.8 m / s 2
F = mrω2 --- (5.8)   3600
a moon 0.0027 m / s 2
where m is the mass of the moon and r is the Also,
distance between the centres of the moon and distance of moon from the Earth’s centre
the Earth. distance of object from the Earth’s centre
Also we have F = ma from Newton’s laws
of motion. 3.85×105 km
... ma = mrω2 = ≈ 60
6378 km
... a = rω2 --- (5.9)
Thus from the above two equations we get
As angular velocity in terms of time period 2
a object  distance of moon  --- (5.11)
is given as  
a moon  distance of object 
2
 Newton therefore concluded that the
T
we get acceleration of an object towards the Earth is
2 inversely proportional to the square of distance
 2  --- (5.10)
a = r  of object from the centre of the Earth.
 T  1
a 
Substituting values of r and T, we get r2
3.85  105  1034 2 m As, F = ma
a
(27.3  24  60  60) 2 s 2 Therefore, the force exerted by the Earth on an
object of mass m at a distance r from it is
 a  0.0027 m / s 2 m
F∝
This is the acceleration of the moon which r2
is towards the centre of the Earth, i.e., centre of Similarly an object also exerts a force on the
orbit in which the moon revolves. What could Earth which is
M
FE ∝ 2
Do you know ? r
The value of acceleration due to gravity where M is the mass of the Earth.
can be assumed to be constant when we are According to Newton’s third law of
dealing with objects close to the surface of motion, the force on a body due to the Earth has
the Earth. This is because the difference in to be equal to the force on the Earth due to the
their distances from the centre of the Earth object. Hence the force F is also proportional to
is negligible. the mass of the Earth. Hence Newton concluded
be the force which produces this acceleration? that the gravitational force between the Earth
Newton assumed that the laws of nature and an object of mass m is
are the same for Earthly objects and for Mm
F∝ 2
celestial bodies. As this acceleration is much r
smaller than the acceleration felt by bodies
He then generalized it to gravitational
near the surface of the Earth (while falling on
force between any two objects and stated his
Earth), he concluded that the acceleration felt

81
Universal law of gravitation as follows. Gm1m2
The force between them, F1 =
Every particle of matter attracts every r2
other particle of matter with a force which is
When the distance between them is doubled the
directly proportional to the product of their
Gm1m2 Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the force becomes, F2 = =
square of the distance between them. (2r ) 2 4r 2
This law is applicable to all material F Gm1m2 4r 2
 1  
objects in the universe. Hence it is known as F2 r2 Gm1m2
the universal law of gravitation. F
 1 4
F2
1
 F2  N ( F1  1 N )
4
F2  0.25 N
 Force become one forth (0.25 N)

Figure 5.3 shows two point masses m1 and

o m2 with position vectors r 1 and r 2 respectively
from origin O. The position vector of m2
Fig. 5.3: Gravitational force between with respect to m1 is then
     given  by
masses m1 and m2. r 21 = r 2 - r 1 . Similarly r 12 = r 1 - r 2 = - r 21 and
If two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are  
separated by a distance r, then the gravitational if r = r 12 = r 21 , the formula for force on m
2

force of attraction between them can be written due to m1 can be expressed in vector form as,
 mm
as F 21 =G 1 2 2 (-r 21 ) --- (5.13)
r
m1 m2
F∝ 2
r where r 21 is the unit vector from m1 to m2. The
or, F =G m1 m2 --- (5.12) force F 21 is directed from m2 to m1.  Similarly,
2
r force experienced by m1 due to m2 is F 12
where G is a constant known as the universal  mm
gravitational constant. Its value in SI units is F 12  G 1 2 2 (r 12 ) --- (5.14)
given by r
 
G = 6.67×10-11N m2/kg2  F 12   F 21 --- (5.15)
and its dimensions are
[G] = [L3M-1T-2].
The gravitational force is an attractive
force and it acts along the line joining the two
bodies. The forces exerted by two bodies on each
other have same magnitude but have opposite
directions, they form an action-reaction pair.
Example 5.2: The gravitational force between
two bodies is 1 N. If distance between them is
doubled, what will be the gravitational force
between them?
Solution: Let the masses of the two bodies be
m1 and m2 and the distance between them be r. Fig. 5.4: gravitational force due to a
collection of masses.

82
 This law refers to two point masses. For a part of the shell may be closer to point A, but
collection of point masses, the force on any one its mass is less. Remaining part will then have
of them is the vector sum of the gravitational larger mass but its centre of mass is away from
forces exerted by all the other point masses. A. However mathematically it can be shown
As shown in Fig. 5.4, the resultant force that the net gravitational force on A is still
on
 point mass m1 is the vector sum of forces zero, so long as it is inside the shell. In fact,
 
F 12 , F 13 and F 14 due to point masses m2, m3 the gravitational force at any point inside any
and m4 respectively. Masses m2, m3 and m4 are hollow closed object of any shape is zero.
also attracted towards mass m1 and there is also (2) The gravitational force of attraction
mutual attraction between masses m2, m3 and between a hollow spherical shell or solid sphere
m4 but these forces are not shown in the figure. of uniform density and a point mass situated
 n  outside is just as if the entire mass of the shell
For n particles, force on ith mass F i   F ij or sphere is concentrated at the centre of the
j 1
j i shell or sphere.

where F ij is the force on ith particle due to Gravitational force caused by different
jth particle. regions of shell can be resolved into components
The gravitational force between an along the line joining the point mass to the
extended object like the Earth and a point mass centre and along a direction perpendicular to
A can be obtained by obtaining the vector sum this line. The components perpendicular to this
of forces on the point mass A due to each of the line cancel each other and the resultant force
point mass which make up the extended object. remains along the line joining the point to the
We can consider the following two special centre. By mathematical calculations it can be
cases, for which we can get a simple result. shown to be equal to the force that would have
We will state the result here and show how it been exerted if the entire mass of the shell was
can be understood qualitatively. present at the centre of the shell.
(1) The gravitational force of attraction It is obvious that case (2) is applicable for
due to a hollow, thin spherical shell of uniform any uniform sphere (solid or hollow), so long as
density, on a point mass situated inside it is the point is outside the sphere.
zero. Example 5.3: Three particles A, B, and C each
This can be qualitatively understood as having mass m are kept along a straight line
follows. First let us consider the case when the with AB = BC = l. A fourth particle D is kept on
point mass A, is at the centre of the hollow thin the perpendicular bisecter of AC at a distance l
shell. In this case as every point on the shell from B. Determine the gravitational force on D.
is equidistant from A, all points exert force of Solution : CD = AD = AB2  BD 2  2 l
equal magnitude on A but the directions of these Gravitational force on D = Vector sum of
forces are different. Now consider the forces gravitational forces due to A, B and C.
on A due to two diametrically opposite points
on the shell. The forces on A due to them will
be of equal magnitude but will be in opposite
directions and will cancel each other. Thus
forces due to all pairs of points diametrically
opposite to each other will cancel and there
will be no net force on A due to the shell. When
the point object is situated elsewhere inside
the shell, the situation is not so symmetric.
Gravitational force varies directly with mass
and inversely with square of the distance. Some

83
 Gmm Gm2 vertical metallic fibre about 100 cm long. Two
Force
due = 2 . This will small spheres s1 and s2 of lead having equal
 to A = ( AD) 2 2l
be along DA mass m and diameter about 5 cm are mounted
at the ends of the rod and a small mirror M is
Gmm Gm2
Force = 2 . This is fastened to the metallic fibre as shown in Fig.
 due to C = (CD) 2 2l
along DC 5.5. The mirror can be used to reflect a beam of
light onto a scale and thereby measure the angel
Gmm Gm2
Force = 2 . This is through which the wire will be twisted.
 due to B = (BD) 2 l
along DB Two large lead spheres L1 and L2 of equal
We can resolve the forces along horizontal mass M and diameter of about 20 cm are
and vertical directions. brought close to the small spheres on opposite
side as shown in Fig. 5.5. The big spheres attract
Let the unit vector along horizontal
 the nearby 
small spheres by equal and opposite
direction AC be i and along the vertical
 force. Let F be the force of attraction between
direction BD be j a big sphere and small sphere near to it. Hence
Net horizontal force on D a torque will be generated without exerting any
Gm2 2 net force on the bar. Due to this torque the bar
 cos 45 ( i )  Gm cos 90(i )
turns and the suspension wire gets twisted till
2l 2 l2
the restoring torque due to the elastic property
Gm2
 2 cos 45(i ) of the wire becomes equal to the gravitational
2l torque.
-Gm2 Gm2 The gravitational force between the
  0
2 2l 2 2 2l 2 spherical balls is the same as if their masses are
Net vertical force on D concentrated at their centres. If r is the initial
Gm2 2 distance of separation between the centres of
 cos 45 (  j )  Gm ( j )
2l 2 l2 the big and the neighbouring small sphere, then
the magnitude of the force between them is
Gm2
 2 cos 45( j ) mM
2l F =G 2
r
-Gm2  1  If length of the rod is L, then the magnitude
   1 ( j )
2
l  2  of the torque arising out of these forces is
Gm2  1  mM
 2   1 ( j ) τ = FL =G 2 L --- (5.16)
l  2  r
At equilibrium, it is equal and opposite to
(- j ) shows that the net force is directed the restoring torque.
along DB
mM
5.4 Measurement of the Gravitational G 2 L = K --- (5.17)
r
Constant (G): where K is the restoring torque per unit angle
The magnitude of the gravitational and θ is the angle of twist.
constant G can be found by measuring the force By applying a known torque τ1 and
of gravitational attraction between two bodies measuring the corresponding angle of twist
of masses m1 and m2 separated by certain α, the restoring torque per unit twist can be
distance ‘L’.This can be measured by using the determined as K = τ1/α .
Cavendish balance. Thus, in actual experiment measuring θ
The Cavendish balance consists of a light and knowing values of τ, m, M and r, the value
rigid rod. It is supported at the centre by a fine of G can be calculated from Eq. (5.17). The

84
gravitational constant measured in this way is gravity of the Earth and denoted by g.
found to be If the object is close to the surface of the
G = 6.67×10-11N m2/kg2 Earth, r ≅ R, the radius of the Earth then
GM
g Earth’s surface = 2 --- (5.19)
R
Example 5.4: Calculate mass of the Earth from
given data,
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/s2
Radius of the Earth RE = 6.37×106 m
G = 6.67×10-11 N m2/kg2
Solution:
GM
g = 2E
RE
Fig 5.5 : The Cavendish balance. gR 2
 ME = E
5.5 Acceleration due to Gravity: G
We have seen in section 5.3 that the 9.81 (6.37  106 ) 2
magnitude of the gravitational force on a point  M E 
6.67  1011
object of mass m due to another point object of
 M E  5.97  1024 kg
mass M at a distance r from it is given by the
equation. The value of g depends only on the
mM properties of the Earth and does not depend
F =G 2
r on the mass of the object. This is exactly what
This formula can be used to calculate Galileo had found from his experiments of
the gravitational force on an object due to the dropping objects with different masses from the
Earth. We know that the Earth is an extended same height.
object. In many practical applications Earth
can be assumed to be a uniform sphere. As seen Do you know ?
in section 5.3 its entire mass can be assumed to
An object of mass m (much smaller
be concentrated at is centre. Thus if the mass
than the mass of the Earth) is attracted
of the Earth is M and that of the point object
towards the Earth and falls on it. The
is m and the distance of the point object from
Earth is also attracted by the same force
the centre of the Earth is r then the force of
(magnitude) toward the mass m. However,
attraction between them is given by
its acceleration towards m will be
Mm  Mm 
F =G 2  G r 2  Gm
r a earth =  =
If the point object is not acted upon by M r2
a m  GM 
any other force, it will be accelerated towards  earth =
g M  as g  r 2 
 
the centre of the Earth under the action of this
force. Its acceleration can be calculated by As m << M, aEarth<< g and is nearly
using Newton’s second law F = ma. zero. Thus, practically only the mass m
Acceleration due to the gravity of the Earth = moves towards the Earth.
Mm 1 Example 5.5: Calculate the acceleration due
G 2 ×
r m to gravity on the surface of moon if mass of
the moon is 1/80 times that of the Earth and
GM
--- = 2 (5.18) diameter of the moon is 1/4 times that of the
r
This is known as the acceleration due to Earth (g =9.8 m/s2)

85
Solution: 5.6 Variation in the Acceleration due to
Mm = Mass of the moon = M/80, Gravity with Altitude, Depth, Latitude
where M is mass of the Earth. and Shape:
(A) Variation in g with Altitude:
Rm = Radius of the moon = R/4, Consider a body of mass m on the surface
where R is Radius of the Earth. of the Earth. The acceleration due to gravity on
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface the Earth’s surface is given by,
of the Earth, g = GM/R2 --- (1) GM
g= 2
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface R
of the moon, gm=GMm/ Rm
2
--- (2)
... From equation (1) and (2)
2
gm Mm  R 
= × 
g M  Rm 
2
gm 1  4 
 
g 80  1  Fig. 5.6 Acceleration due to gravity at
g 1 height h above the Earth’s surface.
 m 
g 5 When the body is at height h above the
g 9.8 surface of the Earth as shown in Fig. 5.6,
 gm   acceleration due to gravity changes to
5 5
GM
 g m  1.96 m / s 2 gh =
(R +h)2
Example 5.6: Find the acceleration due to GM
gravity on a planet that is 10 times as massive gh (R +h)2
as the Earth and with radius 20 times of the ∴ =
g GM
radius of the Earth (g = 9.8 m/s2).
R2
Solution : Let mass of the planet be Mp, radius
gh R2
of the Earth and that of the planet be RE and RP ∴ =
respectively. Let mass of the Earth be ME and gp g (R +h)2
be acceleration due to gravity on the planet. g R2
∴ gh = --- (5.20)
M p = 10 M E (R +h)2
Rp = 20 RE , g = 9.8 m / s 2 This equation shows that, the acceleration
gp = ? due to gravity goes on decreasing with increase
in altitude of body from the surface of the Earth.
GM E GM
g= 2
, gP = 2 P We can rewrite Eq. (5.20) as
RE RP g R2
G (10 M E ) gh = 2
∴ gP = 2 h
(20 RE ) 2 R 1 + 
 R
10GM E -2
=  h
400 RE2  gh = g  1 + 
 R
1
= g h
40 For small altitude h, i.e., for << 1,
R
= 0.245 m / s 2  2h 
 g h  g  1-  --- (5.21)
 R

86
(by neglecting higher power terms of The acceleration due to gravity according
h h to eq. (5.19) is
as << 1 )
R R GM
g= 2
This expression can be used to calculate R
the value of g at height h above the surface of
Assuming that the density of the Earth is
the Earth as long as h << R.
uniform, it is given by
Example 5.7 : At what distance above the Mass (M)
surface of Earth the acceleration due to gravity 
Volume(V)
decreases by 10% of its value at the surface?
4
(Radius of Earth = 6400 km). Assume the  M =  R3 
distance above the surface to be small compared 3
to the radius of the Earth. 4
G   R3
Solution : gh = 90% of g (g decreases by 10% g  3
hence it becomes 90%) R2
g h 90 4 --- (5.22)
or, = = 0.9  g   R G
g 100 3
From Eq. (5.21) Consider a body at a point P at the depth
 2h  d below the surface of the Earth as shown in
g h = g 1 - 
 R Fig. 5.7. Here the force on a body at P due to
g 2h the material outside the inner sphere shown by
 h =1 - shaded region, can be shown to cancel out due
g R
to symmetry. The net force on P is only due to
2h the material inside the inner sphere of radius OP
 0.9 =1 -
R = R - d. Acceleration due to gravity because of
R this sphere is
h=
20 GM ′
gd =
h = 320 km (R - d)2
(B) Variation in g with Depth: where M ' = volume of the inner sphere×density
The Earth can be imagined to be a sphere 4
 M    ( R - d )3  
made of large number of concentric uniform 3
spherical shells. The total mass of the Earth 4
is the combined mass of all the shells. When G   ( R - d )3 
 gd  3
an object is on the surface of the Earth it ( R - d )2
experiences the gravitational force as if the
entire mass of the Earth is concentrated at its 4
 gd  G   ( R - d )  --- (5.23)
centre. 3
Dividing Eq. (5.23) by Eq. (5.22) we get,
g R-d
 d =
g R
g d
 d =1 -
g R
 d
 g d = g 1 -  --- (5.24)
Fig. 5.7 Acceleration due to gravity at depth  R 
d below the surface of the Earth. This equation gives acceleration due to
gravity at depth d below the Earth's surface.

87
It shows that the acceleration due to gravity (C) Variation in g with Latitude and Rotation
decreases with depth. of the Earth:
Special case : Latitude is an angle made by radius vector
At the centre of the Earth, where d = R, Eq. of any point from centre of the Earth with the
(5.24) gives gd = 0 equatorial plane. Obviously it ranges from 00 at
Hence, a body of mass m if taken to the the equator to 900 at the poles.
centre of Earth, will not experience the force
of gravity due to the Earth. This can also be
understood to be due to symmetry. The case
is similar to the force of gravity on an object
placed at the centre of a spherical shell as seen
in section 5.3.
Thus, the value of acceleration due to
gravity is maximum at the surface of the Earth. Fig. 5.9 Variation of g with latitude.
The value goes on decreasing with The Earth rotates about its polar axis from
1) increase in depth below the Earth’s west to east with uniform angular velocity ω.
surface. (varies linearly with (R-d) = r) Hence every point on the surface of the Earth
(except the poles) moves in a circle parallel to
2) increase in height above the Earth’s
the equator. The motion of a mass m at point P
surface. (varies inversely with (R+h)2 = r 2)
on the Earth is shown by the dotted circle with
Graphically the variation of acceleration centre at O′ in Fig. 5.9. Let the latitude of P be
due to gravity according to depth and height θ and radius of the circle be r.
can be expressed as follows. We have plotted PO′ = r
the value of g as a function of r, the distance ∠ EOP = θ, E being a point on the
from the centre of the Earth, in Fig. 5.8. For r equator
< R i. e. below the surface of the Earth, we use ∴ ∠ OPO′ = θ
 d PO r
Eq. (5.24), according to which gd = g 1  In ∆ OPO′, cosθ = 
 R PO R
Writing R - d = r, the distance from the ∴ r = Rcos θ
centre of the Earth, we get the value of g as a The centripetal acceleration for the mass
r m, directed along PO′ is­
function of r, g(r) = g which is the equation
R a = rω2
of a straight line with slope g/R and passing
through the origin. a = Rω2cosθ
The component of this centripetal
acceleration along PO, i.e., towards the centre
of the Earth is
ar = a cosθ
∴ ar = Rω2cosθ.cosθ
ar = Rω2cos2θ
Part of the gravitational force of attraction
on P acting towards PO is utilized in providing
Fig 5.8 - Variation of g due to depth and this components of centripetal acceleration.
altitude from the Earth’s surface. Thus the effective force of gravitational
For r > R we have to use Eq. (5.20). Writing attraction on m at P can be written as
R + h = r we have mg ′ = mg - mRω2cos2θ
g R2 g ′ being the effective acceleration due to
g(r) = 2 which is plotted in Fig. 5.8
r gravity at P i.e., at latitude θ. This is thus given

88
by g ′ = g - Rω2cos2θ --- (5.25) Effect of the shape of the Earth: Quite often
As the value of θ increases, cosθ decreases. we assume the Earth to be a sphere. However,
Therefore g′ will increase as we move away it is actually on ellipsoid; bulged at equator.
from equator towards any pole due to the Hence equatorial radius of Earth (6378 km) is
rotation of the Earth. greater than the polar radius (6356 km). Thus,
special case I At equator θ = 0 on the equator, there is combined effect of
cos θ = 1 greater radius and rotation in reducing the force
g′ = g - Rω2 of gravity. As a result, the acceleration due to
The effective acceleration due to gravity gravity on the equator is gE = 9.7804 m/s2 and
is minimum at equator, as here it is reduced by on the poles it is g = 9.8322 m/s2.
maximum amount. The reduction here is g - g′ Weight of an object is the force with which
= Rω2 the Earth attracts that object. Thus, weight
R = 6.4 ×106 m ---Radius of the Earth and w = mg where m is the mass of the object. As
the value of g changes with altitude, depth and
ω = Angular velocity of rotation of the latitude, the weight also changes. Weight of an
Earth object is minimum at the equator. Similarly,
2
 the weight of an object reduces with increasing
T height above the Earth’s surface and with
2 increasing depth below the its surface.
 
24  60  60 5.7 Gravitational Potential and Potential
  7.275  105 s -1 Energy:
 g - g  = R 2 In earlier standards, you have studied
potential energy as the energy possessed by an
 g - g  = 0.03386 m / s 2
object on account of its position or configuration.
Case II At poles θ = 900 The word configuration corresponds to the
cosθ = 0 distribution of the particles in the object.
... g′ = g - Rω2 cos θ More specifically, potential energy is the work
=g-0 done against conservative force (or forces) in
=g achieving a certain position or configuration
There is no reduction in acceleration due to of a given system. It always depends upon the
gravity at poles, due to the rotation of the Earth relative positions of the particles in that system.
as the poles are lying on the axis of rotation and There is a universal principle that states, Every
do not revolve. system always configures itself in order to
Variation of g with latitudes at sea level is have minimum potential energy or every
given in the following table. system tries to minimize its potential energy.
Obviously, in order to change the configuration,
Table 5.2: Variation of g with latitude
you will have to do work.
Latitude (°) g (m/s2) Examples:
0 9.7804 (I) A spring in its natural state, possesses
10 9.7819 minimum potential energy. Whenever we stretch
20 9.7864 it or compress it, we perform work against the
30 9.7933 conservative force (in this case, the elastic
40 9.8017 restoring force). Due to this work, the relative
50 9.8107 distances between the particles of the system
60 9.8192 change (configuration changes) and its potential
70 9.8261 energy increases. The spring finally regains its
80 9.8306 original configuration of minimum potential
90 9.8322 energy on removal of the applied force.

89
(II) When an object is lying on the Earth, the work done by us (external
 agent) against the
system of that object and the Earth has minimum gravitational force F g
potential energy. This is the gravitational For displacement of the object from an
potential energy of the system as these two are  
initial position ri to the final position rf , the
bound by the gravitational force. While lifting change in potential energy ∆U, can be obtained
the object to some height (new position), we by integrating dU.
do work against the conservative gravitational rf rf
 
force in order to achieve the new position.  U    dU     F g .dr 
In its new position, the object is at rest due ri ri

to balanced forces. If you are holding the object,  GMm

the force of static friction between the object and Gravitational force of the Earth, F g   r 2 rˆ
your fingers balances the gravitational force. where r is the unit vector in the direction of
If kept on a surface, the normal reaction force 
r . Negative sign appears here because r is
given by the surface balances the gravitational
force. However, now, the object has a capacity from centre of the Earth to the object and F g is
to acquire kinetic energy, when given an directed towards centre of the Earth.
opportunity (when allowed to fall). We call this ∴ For ‘Earth and mass’ system,
rf rf
increase in the capacity as the potential energy  GMm  
U  dU      2 rˆ  . dr
gained by the system. As we raise it more and ri ri  r 
more, this capacity, and hence potential energy rf
of the system, increases. It falls on the Earth to  dr  
 GMm   2  as dr is along rˆ
achieve the configuration of minimum potential ri 
r 
energy on dropping it from the new position. r
 1
f
Thus, in general, we can write work done  GMm   
against a conservative force acting on an  r  ri
object = Increase in the potential energy of
1 1 
the system.    GMm    - - - (5.26)
r r 
 F .dx  dU  i f 
Here dU is the change in potentialenergy Change in potential energy corresponds

while displacing the object through dx , F being
to the work done against conservative forces.
the force acting on the object The absolute value of potential energy is not
It should be remembered that potentialdefined. It is logical as well as convenient to
energy is always of the system as a whole. For
choose the point of zero potential energy to be
an object on the Earth, it is of the system of the
the point of zero force. For gravitational force,
such point is taken at r   . This point should
object and the Earth and not only of that object.
There is no meaning to potential energy of anbe chosen as the initial point so that initially the
potential energy is zero. ∴U (ri) = 0 at ri = ∞
isolated object in the intergalactic (gravity free)
space, in the absence of any conservative force
Final point rf is obviously the point where we
acting upon it. need to determine the potential energy of the
5.7.1 Expression for Gravitational Potential system.  rf  r
Energy: 1 1 
U (r) grav .  GMm   
 Work done against gravitational force r r 
F g , in displacing an object through a small  i f 

displacement dr , appears as increase in the  1 1

 GMm   
potential energy of the system.  r

 dU   F g .dr GMm

Negative sign appears because dU is the r --- (5.27)

90
This is gravitational potential energy of the Thus, mgh is increase in the gravitational
system of object of mass m and Earth of mass potential energy of the Earth -mass system if an
M having separation r (between their centres of object of mass m is lifted to a height h, provided
mass). h is negligible compared to radius of the Earth
Example 5.8: What will be the change in (up to a few kilometers).
potential energy of a body of mass m when it is 5.7.3 Concept of Potential:
raised from height RE above the Earth’s surface From eq. (5.27), the gravitational potential
to 5/2 RE above the Earth’s surface? RE and ME energy of the system of Earth and any mass
are the radius and mass of the Earth respectively. m at a distance r from the centre of the Earth is
Solution: given by
1 1  GMm
U  GmM E    U 
r r  r
 i f 
 GM 
 1 1    m
 GmM E     r 
 2 RE 3.5 RE 
 VE r  m --- (5.30)
GmM E 1.5 2.14 GmM E
   GM
RE 2  3.5 RE The factor   VE r depends only upon
r
5.7.2 Connection of potential energy formula
with mgh: mass of Earth and the location. Thus, it is
If the object is on the surface of Earth, r = R the same for any mass m bound to the Earth.
GMm Conveniently, this is defined as the gravitational
U1   potential of Earth at distance r from its centre.
R
If the object is lifted to height h above the In terms of potential, we can write the potential
surface of Earth, the potential energy becomes energy of the Earth-mass system as
GMm Gravitational potential energy, U = Gravitational
U2  
Rh potential Vr × mass m or Gravitational potential
Increase in the potential energy is given by is Gravitational potential energy per unit mass,
U
U  U 2  U1 i.e., Vr = . The concept of potential can be
m
 1  1  defined on similar lines for any conservative
 GMm      
 R h  R force field.
 h  Gravitational potential difference between
 GMm 
 R  R  h   any two points in gravitational field can be
  written as
GMmh  U  U1  dW
 V2  V1   2
R  R  h  --- (5.31)
 m  m
If g is acceleration due to the Earth on the = Work done (or change in potential energy) per
unit mass
surface of Earth, GM = gR 2
 R  In general, for a system of any two masses m1
 U  mgh   --- (5.28) and m2, separated by r, we can write
 Rh
Gravitational potential energy,
Eq. (5.28) gives the work to be done (or energy
Gm1m2
to be supplied) to raise an object of mass m to a U    V1  m2  V2  m1 ---(5.32)
height h, above the surface of the Earth. r
If h  R , wecanuseR  h  R. Only in this Here V1 and V2 are gravitational potentials at r
case U  mgh --- (5.29) due to m1 and m2 respectively.

91
5.7.4 Escape Velocity: 5.8 Earth Satellites:
When any object is thrown vertically up, it The objects which revolve around the
falls back to the Earth after reaching a certain Earth are called Earth satellites. moon is the
height. Higher the speed with which the object is only natural satellite of the Earth. It revolves
thrown up, greater will be the height. If we keep in almost a circular orbit around the Earth
on increasing the velocity, a stage will come with period of revolution of nearly 27.3 days.
when the object will reach heights so large that Artificial satellites have been launched by
it will escape the gravitational field of the Earth several countries including India. These
and will not fall back on the Earth. This initial satellites have different periods of revolution
velocity is called the escape velocity. according to their practical use like navigation,
Thus, the minimum velocity with which a surveillance, communication, looking into
body should be thrown vertically upwards from space and monitoring the weather.
the surface of the Earth so that it escapes the Communication Satellites: These are
Earth’s gravitational field, is called the escape geostationary satellites. They revolve around the
velocity (ve) of the body. Obviously, as the Earth in equatorial plane. They have same sense
gravitational force due to Earth becomes zero of rotation as that of the Earth and the same period
only at infinite distance, the object has to reach of rotation as that of the Earth, i. e., one day
infinite distance in order to escape. or 24 hours. Due to this, they appear stationary
Let us consider the kinetic and potential from the Earth’s surface. Hence they are called
energies of an object thrown vertically upwards geostationary satellites or geosynchronous
with escape velocity ve, when it is at the surface satellites. These are used for communication,
of the Earth and when it reaches infinite distance. television transmission, telephones and
On the surface of the Earth, radiowave signal transmission, e.g., INSAT
1 2 group of satellites launched by India.
K.E. = mv e
2 Polar Satellites: These satellites are placed
GMm in lower polar orbits. They are at low altitude
P.E. = -
R 500 km to 800 km. Polar satellites are used
Total energy = P.E. + K.E. for weather forecasting and meteorological
1 2 GMm purpose. They are also used for astronomical
= mv e - --- (5.33) observations and study of Solar radiations.
2 R
The kinetic energy of the object will go Period of revolution of polar satellite is
on decreasing with time as it is pulled back by nearly 85 minutes, so it can orbit the Earth16
Earth’s gravitational force. It will become zero time per day. They go around the poles of the
when it reaches infinity. Thus at infinite distance Earth in a north-south direction while the Earth
from the Earth rotates in an east-west direction about its own
K.E. = 0 axis. The polar satellites have cameras fixed
on them. The camera can view small stripes of
GMm
Also, P.E. =  =0 the Earth in one orbit. In entire day the whole
 Earth can be viewed strip by strip. Polar and
∴ Total energy = P.E. + K.E. = 0 equatorial regions at close distances can be
As energy is conserved viewed by these satellites.
1 2 GMm 5.8.1 Projection of Satellite:
mv e - =0
2 R For the projection of an artificial satellite,
2GM it is necessary for the satellite to have a certain
or, ve = --- (5.34) velocity and a minimum two stage rocket. A
R
Using the numerical values of G, M and R. single stage rocket can not achieve this. When
the escape velocity is 11.2 km/s. the fuel in first stage of rocket is ignited on
the surface of the Earth, it raises the satellite

92
vertically. The velocity of projection of satellite During this elliptical path, if the satellite
normal to the surface of the Earth is the vertical passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, it
velocity. If this vertical velocity is less that the experiences a nonconservative force of air
escape velocity (ve), the satellite returns to the resistance. As a result it loses energy and spirals
Earth’s surface. While, if the vertical velocity is down to the Earth.
greater than or equal to the escape velocity, the Case (II) vh=vc
satellite will escape from Earth’s gravitational If the horizontal velocity is exactly equal
influence and go to infinity. Hence launching to the critical velocity, the satellite moves in a
of a satellite in an orbit round the Earth can stable circular orbit round the Earth.
not take place by use of single stage rocket. It Case (III) vc<vh<ve
requires minimum two stage  rocket. If horizontal velocity is greater than
With the help of first stage of rocket, the critical velocity and less than the escape
satellite can be taken to a desired height above velocity at that height, the satellite again moves
the surface of the Earth. Then the launcher is in an elliptical orbit round the Earth with the
point of projection as perigee (point closest to
rotated in horizontal direction i.e. through 900
the Earth).
using remote control and the first stage of the
Case (IV) vh = ve
rocket is detached. Then with the help of second
If horizontal speed of projection is equal
stage of rocket, a specific horizontal velocity
to the escape speed at that height, the satellite
(vh) is given to satellite so that it can revolve travels along parabolic path and never returns
in a circular path round the Earth. The exact to the point of projection. Its speed will be zero
horizontal velocity of projection that must be at infinity.
given to a satellite at a certain height so that it Case (V) vh > ve
can revolve in a circular orbit round the Earth is If horizontal velocity is greater than the
called the critical velocity or orbital velocity escape velocity, the satellite escapes from
(vc) gravitational influence of Earth transversing a
A satellite follows different paths depending hyperbolic path.
upon the horizontal velocity provided to it. Four Expression for critical speed
different possible cases are shown in Fig. 5.10. Consider a satellite of mass m revolving
Case (I) vh<vc: round the Earth at height h above its surface.
If tangential velocity of projection vh is less Let M be the mass of the Earth and R be
than the critical velocity, the orbit of satellite is its radius. If the satellite is moving in a circular
an ellipse with point of projection as apogee orbit of radius (R+h) = r, its speed must be the
(farthest from the Earth) and Earth at one of the magnitude of critical velocity vc.
foci. The centripetal force necessary for circular
motion of satellite is provided by gravitational
force exerted by the Earth on the satellite.
∴ Centripetal force = Gravitational force
mv c 2 GMm
= 2
r r
GM
 vc2 =
r
GM
 vc =
r
GM
 vc =  g h ( R +h) --- (5.35)
Fig. 5.10: Various possible orbits depending (R +h)
on the value of vh.

93
 This is the expression for critical speed in
G
the orbit of radius (R + h)  vc = 2R
It is clear that the critical speed of a 3
satellite is independent of the mass of the When a satellite revolves very close to
satellite. It depends upon the mass of the Earth the surface of the Earth, motion of satellite
and the height at which the satellite is revolving gets affected by the friction produced due to
or gravitational acceleration at that altitude. resistance of air. In deriving the above expression
The critical speed of a satellite decreases with the resistance of air is not considered.
increase in height of satellite. 5.8.2 Weightlessness in a Satellite:
Special case According to Newton’s second law of
When the satellite is revolving close to the motion, F = ma , where F is the net force acting
surface of the Earth, the height is very small as on an object having acceleration a.
compared to the radius of the Earth. Hence the
height can be neglected and radius of the orbit is Let us consider the example of a lift or
nearly equal to R (i.e R>>h, R+h ≈ R) elevator from an inertial frame of reference.
GM Whether the lift is at rest or in motion, a
... Critical speed v c = passenger in it experiences only two forces:
R
As G is related to acceleration due to (i) Gravitational force mg directed vertically
gravity by the relation, downwards (towards centre of the earth) and
GM (ii) normal reaction force N directed vertically
g= 2
R upwards, exerted by the floor of the lift. As these
∴ GM = gR 2 forces are oppositely directed, the net force in
the downward direction will be F = ma - N .
... Critical speed in terms of acceleration
due to gravity can be obtained as Though the weight of a body (passenger, in
this case) is the gravitational force acting upon
gR 2
vc = = gR it, we experience or feel our weight only due
R to the normal reaction force N exerted by the
= 7.92 km/s floor. This, in turn, is equal and opposite to the
Obviously, this is the maximum possible critical relative force between the body and the lift. If
speed. This is at least 25 times the speed of the you are standing on a weighing machine in a
fastest passenger aeroplanes. lift, the force recorded by the weighing machine
Example 5.9: Show that the critical velocity of is nothing but the normal reaction N.
a body revolving in a circular orbit very close
Case I: Lift having zero acceleration
to the surface of a planet of radius R and mean
G This happens when the lift is at rest or is
density ρ is 2 R . moving upwards or downwards with constant
3
Solution : Since the body is revolving very velocity:
close to the planet, h = 0 The net force F = 0 = mg - N ∴ mg =N
M M
density   = Hence in this case we feel our normal
V 4 weight mg .
R 3

3
Case II: Lift having net upward acceleration au
4
M = R  3
This happens when the lift just starts
3
moving upwards or is about to stop at a lower
Critical Velocity
floor during its downward motion (remember,
4 while stopping during downward motion, the
G R 3
GM 3 acceleration must be upwards).
vc = =
R R

94
 As the net acceleration is upwards, the not falling on the earth? The reason is that the
upward force must be greater. revolving satellite is having a tangential velocity
∴ F = mau = N - mg ∴ N = mg + mau, i.e., which manages to keep it moving in a circular
N > mg, hence, we feel heavier. orbit at that height.
5.8.3 Time Period of a Satellite:
It should also be remembered that this is
not an apparent feeling. The weighing machine The time taken by a satellite to complete
really records a reading greater than mg. one revolution round the Earth is its time period.

Case III (a): Lift having net downward Consider a satellite of mass m projected to
acceleration ad height h and provided horizontal velocity equal
to the critical velocity. The satellite revolves in
This happens when the lift just starts a circular orbit of radius (R+h) = r.
moving downwards or is about to stop at a higher
floor during its upward motion (remember, The distance traced by satellite in one
while stopping during upward motion, the revolution is equal to the circumference of the
acceleration must be downwards). circular orbit within periodic time T.
Circumference of the orbit
As the net acceleration is downwards, the  Critical speed = Time period
downward force must be greater.
2 r
∴ F = mad = mg -N ∴ N = mg - mad , i.e., vc =
T
N < mg, hence, we feel lighter.
Gm
It should be remembered that this is not an but we have, v c =
r
apparent feeling. The weighing machine really
records a reading less than mg. Gm 2 r
 
r T
Case III (b): State of free fall: This will be
possible if the cables of the lift are cut. In this or, GM 4 2 r 2

case, the downward acceleration ad = g. r T2
If the downward acceleration becomes 4 2 r 3
 T2 
equal to the gravitational acceleration g, we get, GM
N = mg - mad = 0.
As π2, G and M are constant, T 2 ∝ r3, i.e.,
Thus, there will not be any feeling of the square of period of revolution of satellite is
weight. This is the state of total weightlessness directly proportional to the cube of the radius
and the weighing machine will record zero. of orbit.
In the case of a revolving satellite, the r3
T = 2
satellite is performing a circular motion. The GM
acceleration for this motion is centripetal, which
(R + h)3
is provided by the gravitational acceleration  T  2 --- (5.36)
g at the location of the satellite. In this case, GM
ad = g, or the satellite (along with the astronaut) This is an expression for period of satellite
is in the state of free fall. Obviously, the apparent
revolving in a circular orbit round the Earth.
weight will be zero, giving the feeling of total Period of a satellite does not depend on its
weightlessness. Perhaps you might have seen mass. It depends on mass of the Earth, radius
in some videos that the astronauts are floating of the Earth and the height of the satellite. If
inside the satellite. It is really difficult for them
the height of projection is increased, period of
to change their position. the satellite increases. Period of the satellite can
In spite of free fall, why is the satellite also be obtained in terms of acceleration due to

95
gravity. mass ( M )
density (  ) =
As GM = gh (R+h)2 volume (V )
(R +h)3 M = V --- (2)
T = 2
g h (R +h)2 As planet is spherical in shape, volume of
R +h planet is given as
T = 2 4
gh V =  R3
3
r 4
T = 2 --- (5.37)  M =  R3  --- (3)
gh 3

Substituting the values form eq. (2) and (3)
Special case : in Eq. (1), we get
When satellite revolves close to the surface
R3
of the Earth, R + h ≈ R and gh ≈ g. Hence the T = 2
4
minimum period of revolution is G   R3 
3
R
(T)min = 2π --- (5.38) 3
g T =
G
Example 5.9: Calculate the period of revolution
of a polar satellite orbiting close to the surface 5.8.4 Binding Energy of an orbiting satellite:
of the Earth. Given R = 6400 km, g = 9.8 m/s2. The minimum energy required by a satellite
to escape from Earth’s gravitational influence is
Solution : h is negligible as satellite is close to the binding energy of the satellite.
the Earth surface. Expression for Binding Energy of satellite
.. . R + h ≈ R revolving in circular orbit round the Earth
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving
gh ≈ g
at height h above the surface of the Earth in a
R = 6400 km = 6.4×106 m. circular orbit. It possesses potential energy as
R well as kinetic energy. Let M be the mass of the
T = 2 Earth, R be the Radius of the Earth, vc be critical
g
velocity of satellite, r = (R+h) be the radius of
6.4  106 the orbit.
= 2  3.14
9.8 ∴Kinetic energy of satellite
= 5.075  10 second
3 1
= mv c 2
= 85 minute (approximately) 2
1 GMm
Example 5.10: An artificial satellite revolves =
2 r --- (5.39)
around a planet in circular orbit close to its
surface. Obtain the formula for period of the The gravitational potential at a distance r
satellite in terms of density ρ and radius R of from the centre of the Earth is - GM
planet. r
. .. Potential energy of satellite = Gravitational
Solution : Period of satellite is given by,
potential × mass of satellite
(R +h)3 GMm
T = 2π --- (1)
=-
GM --- (5.40)
r
Here, the satellite revolves close to the The total energy of satellite is given as
surface of planet, hence h is negligible, hence T.E. = K.E. + P.E.
R+h  R

96
 1 GMm GMm influence its total energy should become non-
= - negative (zero or positive). Hence the minimum
2 r r
energy to be supplied to unbind the satellite
1 GMm
=- --- (5.41) 1 GMm
2 r is + This is the binding energy of a
2 r
Total energy of a circularly orbiting satellite.
satellite is negative. Negative sign indicates
that the satellite is bound to the Earth, due Internet my friend
to gravitational force of attraction. For the [Link]/hbase/grav.
satellite to be free from the Earth’s gravitational html#grav

Ex
erc
ises
Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. 2. Answer the following questions.

i) The value of acceleration due to gravity is i) State Kepler’s law equal of area.
maximum at ii) State Kepler’s law of period.
(A) the equator of the Earth . iii) What are the dimensions of the universal
(B) the centre of the Earth. gravitational constant?
(C) the pole of the Earth. iv) Define binding energy of a satellite.
(D) slightly above the surface of the v) What do you mean by geostationary
Earth. satellite?
ii) The weight of a particle at the centre of the vi) State Newton’s law of gravitation.
Earth is vii) Define escape velocity of a satellite.
(A) infinite. viii)  What is the variation in acceleration due
(B) zero. to gravity with altitude?
(C) same as that at other places. ix) On which factors does the escape speed
(D) greater than at the poles. of a body from the surface of Earth
depend?
iii) The gravitational potential due to the Earth
is minimum at x) As we go from one planet to another
planet, how will the mass and weight of
(A) the centre of the Earth. a body change?
(B) the surface of the Earth. xi) What is periodic time of a geostationary
(C) a points inside the Earth but not at satellite?
its centre. xii) State Newton’s law of gravitation and
(D) infinite distance. express it in vector form.
iv) The binding energy of a satellite revolving xiii) What do you mean by gravitational
around planet in a circular orbit is 3×109 J. constant? State its SI units.
Its kinetic energy is xiv) Why is a minimum two stage rocket
(A) 6×109J necessary for launching of a satellite?
(B) -3 ×109J xv) State the conditions for various possible
(C) -6 ×10+9J orbits of a satellite depending upon the
(D) 3 ×10+9J tangential speed of projection.

97
2. Answer the following questions in xiv) What is critical velocity? Obtain an
detail. expression for critical velocity of an
i) Derive an expression for critical velocity orbiting satellite. On what factors does it
of a satellite. depend?
ii) State any four applications of a xv) Define escape speed. Derive an
communication satellite. expression for the escape speed of an
iii) Show that acceleration due to gravity object from the surface of the each.
at height h above the Earth’s surface is xvi) Describe how an artificial satellite using
2 two stage rocket is launched in an orbit
 R 
gh  g   around the Earth.
 Rh
iv) Draw a labelled diagram to show different 4. Solve the following problems.
trajectories of a satellite depending uponi) At what distance below the surface of
the tangential projection speed. the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity
v) Derive an expression for binding energy decreases by 10% of its value at the
of a body at rest on the Earth’s surface. surface, given radius of Earth is 6400
km.
vi) Why do astronauts in an orbiting satellite
have a feeling of weightlessness? [Ans: 640 km].
vii) Draw a graph showing the variation ii) If the Earth were made of wood, the mass
of gravitational acceleration due to of wooden Earth would have been 10%
the depth and altitude from the Earth’s as much as it is now (without change in
surface. its diameter). Calculate escape speed
from the surface of this Earth.
viii) At which place on the Earth’s surface
[Ans: 3.54 km/s]
is the gravitational acceleration
maximum? Why? iii) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential
energy, total energy and binding energy
ix) At which place on the Earth surface the
of an artificial satellite of mass 2000 kg
gravitational acceleration minimum?
orbiting at a height of 3600 km above the
Why?
surface of the Earth.
x) Define the binding energy of a satellite.
Given:- G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2
Obtain an expression for binding energy
of a satellite revolving around the Earth R = 6400 km
at certain attitude. M = 6×1024 kg
xi) Obtain the formula for acceleration due [Ans: KE = 40.02×109J,
to gravity at the depth ‘d’ below the PE = -80.09 ×109J,
Earth’s surface. TE = 40.02 ×109J,
xii) State Kepler’s three laws of planetary BE = 40.02×109J]
motion. iv) Two satellites A and B are revolving
xiii) State the formula for acceleration due around a planet. Their periods of
to gravity at depth ‘d’ and altitude ‘h’ revolution are 1 hour and 8 hours
respectively. The radius of orbit of
Hence show that their ratio is equal to satellite B is 4×104 km. find radius of
 Rd 
 R  2h  by assuming that the altitude orbit of satellite A .
  [Ans: 1×104 km]
is very small as compared to the radius
of the Earth.

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 v) Find the gravitational force between the x) Calculate the value of the universal
Sun and the Earth. gravitational constant from the given
Given Mass of the Sun = 1.99×1030 kg data. Mass of the Earth = 6×1024 kg,
Radius of the Earth = 6400 km and the
Mass of the Earth = 5.98×1024 kg
acceleration due to gravity on the surface
The average distance between the Earth = 9.8 m/s2
and the Sun = 1.5×1011 m.
[Ans : 6.69×10-11 N m2/kg2 ]
[Ans: 3.5×1022 N]
xi) A body weighs 5.6 kg wt on the surface
vi) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity of the Earth. How much will be its
at a height of 300 km from the surface of weight on a planet whose mass is 7 times
the Earth. (M = 5.98 ×1024 kg, R = 6400 the mass of the Earth and radius twice
km). that of the Earth’s radius.
[Ans :- 8.889 m/s2] [Ans: 9.8 kg-wt]
vii) Calculate the speed of a satellite in an xii). What is the gravitational potential due to
orbit at a height of 1000 km from the the Earth at a point which is at a height
Earth’s surface. ME= 5.98×1024 kg, R = of 2RE above the surface of the Earth,
6.4×106 m. Mass of the Earth is 6×1024 kg, radius of
[Ans : 7.34 ×103 m/s] the Earth = 6400 km and G = 6.67×10-11
Nm2 kg-2.
viii) Calculate the value of acceleration due
to gravity on the surface of Mars if the [Ans: 2.08×107 J]
radius of Mars = 3.4×103 km and its
mass is 6.4×1023 kg. ***
[Ans : 3.69 m/s2]
ix) A planet has mass 6.4 ×1024 kg and radius
3.4×106 m. Calculate energy required to
remove on object of mass 800 kg from
the surface of the planet to infinity.
[Ans : 5.02 ×1010J]

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