UNIT I INTRODUCTION

Security trends – Legal, Ethical and Professional Aspects of Security, Need for
Security at Multiple levels, Security Policies – Model of network security –
Security attacks, services mechanisms–OSIsecurityarchitecture–
Classicalencryptiontechniques:substitutiontechniques, transposition techniques,
steganography- Foundations of modern cryptography: perfect security –
information theory – product cryptosystem –cryptanalysis.

Definition
Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data.
Phil Zimmermann
Cryptography is the art and science of keeping messages secure.
Bruce Schneier
The art and science of concealing the messages to introduce secrecy in
information Security is recognized as cryptography.

It isthestudyandpracticeoftechniquesforsecure
communicationinthepresenceofthirdparties called adversaries. Data
Confidentiality, Data Integrity, Authentication and Non-repudiation are core
principles of modern-daycryptography.
Terminologies
Amessageisplaintext(sometimescalledcleartext).Theprocessofdisguisingamessagei
nsuch a way as to hide its substance is encryption. An encrypted message is
cipher text. The processof turning cipher text back into plaintext isdecryption.

A cryptosystem is an implementation of cryptographic techniques and their

accompanying infrastructure to provide information security services. A
cryptosystem is also referred to as a cipher system. The various components of a
basic cryptosystem are as follows
  Plaintext
 EncryptionAlgorithm
 Ciphertext
 DecryptionAlgorithm
 EncryptionKey
 DecryptionKey
Whilecryptography
isthescienceofsecuringdata,cryptanalysisisthescienceofanalyzingand breaking
secure communication. Classical cryptanalysis involves an interesting combination
of analytical reasoning, application of mathematical tools, pattern finding,
patience, determination, and luck. Cryptanalysts are also called attackers.
Cryptology embraces both cryptography and cryptanalysis.

[Link] Trends

Definition of Computer Security

The protection afforded to an automated information system in order to
attain the applicable objectives of preserving the integrity, availability, and
confidentiality of information system resources (includes hardware, software,
firmware, information / data, and telecommunications)

Confidentiality
 Dataconfidentiality
Assures that private or confidential information is not made available or disclosed to
unauthorized
 Privacy
Assures that individuals control or influence what information related to them may
be collected and stored and by whom and to whom that information may be
disclosed.
Integrity
 Dataintegrity
Assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and authorized
manner.
 Systemintegrity
Assuresthatasystemperformsitsintendedfunctioninanunimpairedmanner,freefromdel
iberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of thesystem.
Availability
 Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorizeusers.
 CIA Triad

Confidentiality

 Preserving authorized restrictions on information access and disclosure, including

means for protecting personal privacy and proprietaryinformation.
 A loss of confidentiality is the unauthorized disclosure ofinformation.
Integrity

 Guarding against improper information modification or destruction, including

ensuring information nonrepudiation andauthenticity.
 A loss of integrity is the unauthorized modification or destruction ofinformation.
Availability
Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information
A loss of availability is the disruption of access to or use of information or an information
system.
Authenticity
 The property of being genuine and being able to be verified andtrusted
Accountability
 The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of an entity to be
traced uniquely to thatentity
2. LEGAL, ETHICAL AND PROFESSIONAL ASPECTS OF SECURITY:
The laws and ethics are important aspects in data and network security. The legal system
has adapted quite well to computer technology by reusing some old forms of legal protection
(copyrights and patents) and creating laws where no adequate one existed (malicious access).
Still the courts are not a perfect form of protection for computer, for two reasons, first court
tends to be reactive instead of proactive. That is, we have to wait for regression to occur and
then adjudicative it, rather than try to prevent it in first place. Second fixing a problem through
the courts can be time consuming and more expensive.
The latter characteristic prevents all but the wealthy from addressing most wealthy. On
other hand, 1ethics has not had to change , because ethic is more situational and personal than
the law, for example the privacy of personal information becoming important part of computer
network security and although technically this issue is just an aspect of confidentiality,
practically it has a long history in both law and ethics.
Law and security are related in several ways. First international, national, state, city laws
affect privacy, secrecy. These statutes often apply to the rights of individuals to keep personal
matters private. Second law regulates the use of development, and ownership of data and
programs. Patents, copy rights, and trade secrets are legal devices to protect the right of
developers and owners of the information and data.
There are three main types of intellectual property for which legal protection is available.
Copy rights: Copyright law protects the tangible or fixed expression of an idea, not the idea
itself. Copy right properties exists when proposed work is original and creator has put original
idea in concrete form and the copyright owner has these exclusive rights, protected against
infringement such as reproduction right, modification right, distribution right
Patents: A patent for an invention is the grant of a property right to the inventor. There are 3
types in patents:-
• Utility (any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of
matter).
• Design (new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture)
• Plant (discovers and asexually reproduces any distinct and new variety of plant).

Trade-Marks: A trademark is a word, name, symbol or expression which used to identify the
products or services in trade uniquely from others. Trade mark rights used to prevent others
from using a confusingly similar mark, but not to prevent others from making the same goods
or from selling the same goods or services under a clearly different mark.
• Intellectual Property Relevant to Network and Computer Security A number of forms of
intellectual property are relevant in the context of network and computer security.
• Software programs: software programs are protected by using copyright, perhaps patent.
• Digital content: audio / video / media / web protected by copy right Algorithms: algorithms
may be able to protect by patenting
• Privacy Law and Regulation: An issue with considerable overlap with computer security is
that of privacy. Concerns about the extent to which personal privacy has been and may be
compromised have led to a variety of legal and technical approaches to reinforcing privacy
rights. A number of international organizations and national governments have introduced laws
and regulations intended to protect individual privacy.
• European Union Data Protection Directive was adopted in 1998 to ensure member states
protect fundamental privacy rights when processing personal info and prevent member states
from restricting the free flow of personal info within EU organized around principles of notice,
consent, consistency, access, security, onward transfer and enforcement. US Privacy Law have
Privacy Act of 1974 which permits individuals to determine records kept, forbid records being
used for other purposes, obtain access to records, ensures agencies properly collect, maintain,
and use personal info and creates a private right of action for individuals. Cryptography and
Ethics

There are many potential misuses and abuses of information and electronic
communication that create privacy and security problems. Ethics refers to a system of moral
principles that relates to the benefits and harms of particular actions. An ethic an objectively
defined standard of right and wrong. Ethical standards are often idealistic principles because
they focus on one objective. Even though religious group and professional organization
promote certain standards of ethical behaviour, ultimately each person is responsible for
deciding what do in a specific situation.
ETHICAL ISSUES
The foundations of all secure systems are the moral principles and practices and the
professional standards of all employees of the organization, i.e., while people are part of the
solution, they are also most of the problem. The following issues are examples of security
problems that an organization may have to deal with:
A. Ethics and Responsible Decision-Making
The foundation of all security systems is formed by the moral principles and practices of those
people involved and the standards of the profession. That is, while people are part of the
solution, they are also most the problem. Security problems with which an organization may
have to deal include: responsible decision-making, confidentiality, privacy, piracy, fraud &
misuse, liability, copyright, trade secrets, and sabotage. It is easy to sensationalize these topics
with real horror stories; it is more difficult to deal with the underlying ethical issues involved.
The student should be made aware of his individual responsibility in making ethical decisions
associated with information security.
B. Confidentiality & Privacy
Computers can be used symbolically to intimidate, deceive or defraud victims. Attorneys,
government agencies, and businesses increasingly use mounds of computer generated data
quite legally to confound their audiences. Criminals also find useful phony invoices, bills, and
checks generated by the computer. The computer lends an ideal cloak for carrying out criminal
acts by imparting a clean quality to the crime.
 The computer has made the invasion of our privacy a great deal easier and potentially more
dangerous than before the advent of the computer. A wide range of data is collected and stored
in computerized files related to individuals. These files hold banking information, credit
information, organizational fundraising, opinion polls, shop at home services, driver license
data, arrest records, and medical records. The potential threats to privacy include the improper
commercial use of computerized data, breaches of confidentiality by releasing confidential data
to third parties, and the release of records to governmental agencies for investigative purposes.
The basic law that protects our privacy is the Fourth Amendment to the United States
Constitution, which mandates that people have a right to be secure in homes and against
unreasonable search and seizure. In addition, many laws have been enacted to protect the
individual from having damaging information stored in computerized databases.
C. Privacy
Microcomputer software presents a particular problem since many individuals are involved in
the use of this software. Section 117 of the copyright laws, specifically the 1980 amendment,
deals with a law that addresses the problem of backup copies of software. This section states
that users have the right to create backup copies of their software. That is, users may legally
create a backup copy of software if it is to be held in an archive. Many software companies
provide a free backup copy to users that preclude the need for to users purchase software
intended to defeat copy protection systems and subsequently create copies of their software. If
the software purchased is actually leased, you may in fact not even be able to make backup
copies of the software. The distinction between leasing and buying is contained within the
software documentation. The copyright statement is also contained in the software
documentation. The copyright laws regarding leased material state that the leasor may say what
the leaseholder can and cannot do with the software. So it is entirely up to the owner of the
software as to whether or not users may make backup copies of the software. At a time when
federal laws relating to copyright protection are evolving, several states are considering
legislation that would bar unauthorized duplication of software.
The software industry is prepared to do battle against software piracy. The courts are dealing
with an increasing number of lawsuits concerning the protection of software. Large software
publishers have established the Software Protection Fund to raise between $500,000 and $1
million to promote anti-piracy sentiment and to develop additional protection devices.
D. Fraud & Misuse
The computer can create a unique environment in which unauthorized activities can occur.
Crimes in this category have many traditional names including theft, fraud, embezzlement,
extortion, etc. Computer-related fraud includes the introduction of fraudulent records into a
computer system, theft of money by electronic means, theft of financial instruments, theft of
services, and theft of valuable data.
E. Liability
 Under the UCC, an express warranty is an affirmation or promise of product quality to the
buyer and becomes a part of the basis of the bargain. Promises and affirmations made by the
software developer to the user about the nature and quality of the program can also be
classified as an express warranty. Programmers or retailers possess the right to define express
warranties. Thus, they have to be realistic when they state any claims and predictions about the
capabilities, quality, and nature of their software or hardware. They should consider the legal
aspects of their affirmative promises, their product demonstrations, and their product
description. Every word they say may be as legally effective as though stated in writing. Thus,
to protect against liability, all agreements should be in writing. A disclaimer of express
warranties can free a supplier from being held responsible for any informal, hypothetical state-
ments or predictions made during the negotiation stages.

Implied warranties are also defined in the United States by the UCC. These are warranties that
are provided automatically in every sale. These warranties need not be in writing nor do they
need to be verbally stated. They ensure that a good title will pass to the buyer, that the product
is fit for the purpose sold, and that it is fit for the ordinary purposes for which similar goods are
used (merchantability).
F. Patent and Copyright Law
A patent can protect the unique and secret aspects of an idea. It is very difficult to obtain a
patent compared to copyright (please see discussion below). With computer software, complete
disclosure is required; the patent holder must disclose the complete details of a program to
allow a skilled programmer to build the program. Moreover, a United States software patent
will be unenforceable in most other countries.
Copyright law provides a very significant legal tool for use in protecting computer software,
both before a security breach and certainly after a security breach. This type of breach could
deal with the misappropriation of data, computer programs, documentation, or similar material.
For this reason, the information security specialist will want to be familiar with basic concepts
of copyright law.
The United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and other countries have now amended or
revised their copyright legislation to provide explicit laws to protect computer programs.
Copyright law in the United States is governed by the Copyright Act of 1976 that preempted
the field from the states. Formerly, the United States had a dual state and federal system. In
other countries, such as Canada, the courts have held that the un-revised Copyright Act is
broad enough to protect computer programs. In many of these countries, the reform of
copyright law is actively underway.

G. Trade Secrets
A trade secret protects something of value and usefulness. This law protects the unique and
secret aspects of ideas, known only to the discoverer of his/her confidants. Once disclosed the
trade secret is lost as such and can only be protected under one of the following laws. The
application of trade secret law is very important in the computer field, where even a slight head
start in the development of software or hardware can provide a significant competitive ad-
vantage.
H. Sabotage
The computer can be the object of attack in computer crimes such as the unauthorized use of
computer facilities, alternation or destruction of information, data file sabotage, and vandalism
against a computer system. Computers have been shot, stabbed, short-circuited, and bombed.
Professional Issues:

Maintain confidentiality
√ Maintain anonymity
√ Respect copyright and reference your work
√ Consent – consider whether it is appropriate for you to gain informed consent before you use
the incident for reflection.

3. Need for Multilevel Security

Having information of different security levels on the same computer systems
poses a real threat. It is not a straight-forward matter to isolate different information
security levels, even though different users log in using different accounts, with
different permissions and different access controls.

Some organizations go as far as to purchase dedicated systems for each security

level. This is often prohibitively expensive, however. A mechanism is required to
enable users at different security levels to access systems simultaneously, without fear
of information contamination.

The term multi-level arises from the defense community's security classifications:
Confidential, Secret, and Top Secret.

Individuals must be granted appropriate clearances before they can see classified
information. Those with Confidential clearance are only authorized to view
Confidential documents; they are not trusted to look at Secret or Top Secret
information. The rules that apply to data flow operate from lower levels to higher
levels, and never the reverse. This is illustrated below.
 InformationSecurityLevels Available data flow using MLSsystem

Under such a system, users, computers, and networks use labels to indicate
security levels. Data can flow between like levels, for example between "Secret"
and "Secret", or from a lower level to a higher level. This means that users at
level "Secret" can share data with one another, and can also retrieve information
from Confidential-level (i.e., lower-level), users.
However, data cannot flow from a higher level to a lower level. This prevents
processes at the "Secret" level from viewing information classified as "Top Secret".
It also prevents processes ata higher level from accidentally writing information to
a lower level. This is referred to as the "no read up, no write down" model.

MLS and System Privilege

MLS access rules are always combined with conventional access

permissions (file permissions). For example, if a user with a security level of
"Secret" uses Discretionary Access Control (DAC) to block access to a file by
other users, this also blocks access by users with a security level of "Top Secret".
A higher security clearance does not automatically give permission to arbitrarily
browse a file system.

Users with top-level clearances do not automatically acquire

administrative rights on multi-level systems. While they may have access to all
information on the computer, this is different from having administrative
rights.
 Security Levels, Objects and Subjects

As discussed above, subjects and objects are labeled with Security Levels
(SLs), which are composed of two types of entities:

Sensitivity: — A hierarchical attribute such as "Secret" or "Top

Secret". Categories: — A set of non-hierarchical attributes such as
"US Only" or "UFO". An SL must have one sensitivity, and may have
zero or more categories.
Examples of SLs are: { Secret / UFO, Crypto }, { Top Secret / UFO,
Crypto, Stargate } and { Unclassified }

Note the hierarchical sensitivity followed by zero or more categories. The

reason for having categories as well as sensitivities is so that sensitivities can be
further compartmentalized on a need-to-know basis.

4. Security Polices
Following are some points which help in security policy of an organization.

 Who should have access to thesystem?

 How it should beconfigured?
 How to communicate with third parties
orsystems? Policies are divided in two
categories−
 Userpolicies
 ITpolicies.
 User policies generally define the limit of the users towards the computer
resources in a workplace. For example, what are they allowed to install in their
computer, if they can use removable storages.
Whereas, IT policies are designed for IT department, to secure the procedures and
functions of IT fields.
 GeneralPolicies−Thisisthepolicywhichdefinestherightsofthestaffandaccessl
evel to the systems. Generally, it is included even in the communication
protocol as a preventive measure in case there are anydisasters.
 Server Policies − This defines who should have access to the specific server
and with what rights. Which software’s should be installed, level of access
to internet, how they should beupdated.
 Firewall Access and Configuration Policies − It defines who should have
access to the firewall and what type of access, like monitoring, rules
change. Which ports andservices should be allowed and if it should be
inbound oroutbound.
 BackupPolicies−Itdefineswhoistheresponsiblepersonforbackup,whatshould
bethe backup, where it should be backed up, how long it should be kept and
 the frequency of the backup.
 VPNPolicies−Thesepoliciesgenerallygowiththefirewallpolicy,
itdefinesthoseusers who should have a VPN access and with what rights.
For site-to-site connections with partners, it defines the access level of the
partner to your network, type of encryption to beset.

Structure of a SecurityPolicy

When you compile a security policy you should have in mind a basic structure in
order to make something practical. Some of the main points which have to be
taken into consideration are −

Description of the Policy and what is the usage for?

 Where this policy should beapplied?

 Functions and responsibilities of the employees that are affected by thispolicy.
 Procedures that are involved in thispolicy.
 Consequences if the policy is not compatible with companystandards.

Types of Policies

In this section we will see the most important types of policies.

 Permissive Policy − It is a medium restriction policy where we as an
administrator block just some well-known ports of malware regarding
internet access and just some exploits are taken inconsideration.
 Prudent Policy − This is a high restriction policy where everything is
blocked regarding the internet access, just a small list of websites are
allowed, and now extra services are allowed in computers to be installed
and logs are maintained for everyuser.
 Acceptance User Policy − This policy regulates the behavior of the users
towards a systemornetworkorevenawebpage,soit
isexplicitlysaidwhatausercandoandcannot in a system. Like are they
allowed to share access codes, can they share resources,etc.
 User Account Policy − This policy defines what a user should do in order
to have or maintain another user in a specific system. For example,
accessing an e-commerce webpage. To create this policy, you should
answer some questions such as−
o Should the password be complex ornot?
o What age should the usershave?
o Maximum allowed tries or fails to login?
o When the user should be deleted, activated,blocked?
 Information Protection Policy − This policy is to regulate access to
information, hot to process information, how to store and how it should
 betransferred.
 RemoteAccessPolicy −Thispolicyis
mainlyforbigcompanieswheretheuserandtheir branches are outside their
headquarters. It tells what should the users access, when they can work and
on which software like SSH, VPN,RDP.
 Firewall Management Policy − This policy has explicitly to do with its
management, which ports should be blocked, what updates should be taken,
how to make changes in the firewall, how long should be the logs bekept.
 SpecialAccessPolicy
−Thispolicyisintendedtokeeppeopleundercontrolandmonitor the special
privileges in their systems and the purpose as to why they have it. These
employees can be team leaders, managers, senior managers, system
administrators, and such high designation basedpeople.
 Network Policy − This policy is to restrict the access of anyone towards the
network resource and make clear who all will access the network. It will
also ensure whether that person should be authenticated or not. This policy
also includes other aspects like, who will authorize the new devices that will
be connected with network? The documentation of network changes. Web
filters and the levels of access. Who should have wireless connection and
the type of authentication, validity of connectionsession?
 Email Usage Policy − This is one of the most important policies that should
be done because many users use the work email for personal purposes as
well. As a result information can leak outside. Some of the key points of
this policy are the employees
[Link]
hould
[Link]
notbe sent via any encryptedemail.
 Software Security Policy − This policy has to do with the software’s
installed in theuser computer and what they should have. Some of the key
points of this policy are Software
[Link]’ss
hould
be allowed, no other software’s should be installed in the computer. Warez
and pirated software’s should not be allowed
5. Model for Network Security
A message is to be transferred from one party to another across some sort of Internet service.
The two parties, who are the principals in this transaction, must cooperate for the exchange to
takeplace.
A logical information channel is established by defining a route through the
Internet from source to destination and by the cooperative use of communication
protocols (e.g., TCP/IP) by the two principals.
All the techniques for providing security have two components:
A security-related transformation on the information to be sent.
Examples: encryption of the message, addition of a code based on the contents
Some secret information shared by the two principals, unknown to the
opponent Example: encryption key used in conjunction with the
transformation
A trusted third party may be needed to achieve secure transmission.
 for distributing the secret information to the twoprincipals
 to arbitrate disputes between the two principals concerning the authenticity
ofa message transmission
Four basic tasks in designing a particular security service:
1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-
relatedtransformation such that an opponent cannot defeat
itspurpose.
2. Generate the secret information to be used with thealgorithm.
3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information.
4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of
the security algorithm and the secret information to achieve a
particular securityservice
Network Access Security Model
  Protecting an information system from unwanted access from hacker, intruder
hacker who,with no malign intent, simply gets satisfaction from breaking and
entering a computersystem.
 Intruder can be a disgruntled employee who wishes to do damage or a Criminal
who seeks to exploit computer assets for financialgain
 placement in a computer system of logic that exploits vulnerabilities in the
system and that can affect application programs as well as utility programs, such
as editors andcompilers
Two kinds of threats:
o Information access threats: Intercept or modify data on behalf of users who
should not have access
o Service threats: Exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by
legitimate users Examples: Viruses and worms, spread using disks &
inserted over network

6. The OSI Security Architecture

 ITU-T Recommendation X.800, Security Architecture for OSI, defines such
asystematic approach
 The OSI security architecture focuses on security attacks, mechanisms, andservices.
[Link] attack
 Any action that compromises the security of information owned by anorganization.
Security Attacks
 means of classifying security attacks, used both in X.800 and RFC2828
 A passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information but does not
affect system resources.
 An active attack attempts to alter system resources or affect theiroperation.
Passive Attacks
 It is the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of,transmissions.
 The goal is to obtain information that is beingtransmitted.
 very difficult to detect, because they do not involve any alteration of thedata
 feasible to prevent the success of these attacks, usually by means ofencryption
  emphasis in dealing with passive attacks is on prevention rather thandetection
Two types of passive attacks
 Release of messagecontents
 Traffic analysis.

 The release of message contents is easily understood (Figure 1.5a).A telephone

conversation, an electronic mail message, and a transferred file may contain sensitive or
confidential information. We would like to prevent an opponent from learning the
contents of these transmissions.
 A second type of passive attack, traffic analysis, is subtler (Figure 1.5b). Suppose that
we had a way of masking the contents of messages or other information traffic so that
opponents, even if they captured the message, could not extract the information from the
message. The common technique for masking contents is encryption. If we had
encryption protection in place, an opponent might still be able to observe the pattern of
these messages.
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect, because they do not involve any alteration of the
data. Typically, the message traffic is not sent and received in an apparently normal fashion
and the sender nor receiver is aware that a third party has read the messages or observed the
traffic pattern.
Active Attacks

 Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the

creation of afalse stream
 detect and to recover from any disruption or delays caused bythemcan besubdivided
into fourcategories:
o masquerade,
o replay,
o Modification of messages
o Denial of service
 Masquerade: A masquerade takes place when one entity pretends to be a different
entity A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other forms of active attack.
For example, authentication sequences can be captured and replayed after a valid
authentication sequence.
 Replay involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent retransmission to
produce an unauthorized effect
 Modification of messages simply means that some portion of a legitimate message is
altered, or that messages are delayed or reordered, to produce an unauthorized effect
For example, a message meaning “Allow John Smith to read confidential file accounts”
is modified to mean “Allow Fred Brown to read confidential file account.
 The denial of service prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of
communications facilities This attack may have a specific target.
Active attacks present the opposite characteristics of passive attacks. Whereas passive attacks
are difficult to detect, measures are available to prevent their success.
[Link] Services
 X.800 defines a security service as a service that is provided by a protocol
layer of communicating open systems and that ensures adequate security of
the systems or of data transfers.
 RFC 2828, defines as a processing or communication service that is
provided by a system to give a specific kind of protection to
systemresources;
 Security services implement security policies and are implemented by
security mechanisms.
X.800
 divides these services into five categories and fourteen specificservices
[Link]
 The assurance that the communicating entity is the one that it claims tobe
 Twotypes
o Peer EntityAuthentication
o Data-OriginAuthentication
[Link] control
 The prevention of unauthorized use of aresource
[Link] confidentiality
 The protection of data from unauthorizeddisclosure.
 FourTypes
o ConnectionConfidentiality
o ConnectionlessConfidentiality
o Selective-FieldConfidentiality
o Traffic-Flow Confidentiality
[Link] integrity
 The assurance that data received are exactly as sent by an authorized entity
(i.e., contain no modification, insertion, deletion, orreplay).
 Five types
o Connection Integrity withRecovery
o Connection Integrity withoutRecovery
o Selective-Field ConnectionIntegrity
o ConnectionlessIntegrity
o Selective-Field ConnectionlessIntegrity
[Link]
 Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a
communication of having participated in all or part of thecommunication
 Twotypes
o Nonrepudiation,Origin
o Nonrepudiation,Destination
[Link] Mechanisms in X.800.
May be incorporated into the appropriate protocol layer in order to provide some
of the OSI security services.
[Link]
The use of mathematical algorithms to transform data into a form that is not readily
intelligible.
Thetransformationandsubsequentrecoveryofthedatadependonanalgorithmandzero
ormore encryptionkeys.
[Link] Signature
Data appended to, or a cryptographic transformation of, a data unit that allows a
recipient of the data unit to prove the source and integrity of the data unit and
protect against forgery (e.g, by the recipient).
[Link] Control
A variety of mechanisms that enforce access rights to resources.
[Link] Integrity
A variety of mechanisms used to assure the integrity of a data unit or stream of data units.
[Link] Exchange
A mechanism intended to ensure the identity of an entity by means of information
exchange.
[Link] Padding
The insertion of bits into gaps in a data stream to frustrate traffic analysis attempts.
[Link] Control
Enablesselectionofparticularphysicallysecureroutesforcertaindataandallowsrouting
changes, especially when a breach of security issuspected.
[Link]
The use of a trusted third party to assure certain properties of a data exchange.
[Link] Security Mechanisms
Mechanisms that are not specific to any particular OSI security service or protocol layer.
[Link] Functionality
Thatwhichisperceivedtobecorrectwithrespecttosomecriteria(e.g.,asestablishedbyase
curity policy).
[Link] Label
The marking bound to a resource (which may be a data unit) that names or designates the
security attributes of that resource.
[Link] Detection
Detection of security-relevant events.

[Link] Audit Trail

Data collected and potentially used to facilitate a security audit, which is an
independent review and examination of system records and activities.
[Link] Recovery
Deals with requests from mechanisms, such as event handling and management
functions, and takes recovery actions.
[Link] ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES:

 Symmetric encryption is a form of cryptosystem in which encryption and decryption are

 performed using the same key. It is also known as conventional encryption.
• Symmetric encryption transforms plaintext into ciphertext using a secret key and an encryption
algorithm. Using the same key and a decryption algorithm, the plaintext is recovered from the
ciphertext.
• The two types of attack on an encryption algorithm are cryptanalysis, based on properties of the
encryption algorithm, and brute-force, which involves trying all possible keys.
• Traditional (precomputer) symmetric ciphers use substitution and/or transposition techniques.
Substitution techniques map plaintext elements (characters, bits) into ciphertext elements.
Transposition techniques systematically transpose the positions of plaintext elements.
• Rotor machines are sophisticated precomputer hardware devices that use substitution techniques.
• Steganography is a technique for hiding a secret message within a larger one in such a way that
others cannot discern the presence or contents of the hidden message.
An original message is known as the plaintext, while the coded message is called the
ciphertext. The process of converting from plaintext to ciphertext is known as enciphering or
encryption; restoring the plaintext from the ciphertext is deciphering or decryption. The many
schemes used for encryption constitute the area of study known as cryptography. Such a scheme is
known as a cryptographic system or a cipher. Techniques used for deciphering a message without
any knowledge of the enciphering details fall into the area of cryptanalysis. Cryptanalysis is what the
layperson calls “breaking the code” The areas of cryptography and cryptanalysis together are called
cryptology

A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients

• Plaintext: This is the original intelligible message or data that is fed into the algorithm as
input.
• Encryption algorithm: The encryption algorithm performs various substitutions and
transformations on the plaintext.
• Secret key: The secret key is also input to the encryption algorithm. The key is a value
independent of the plaintext and of the algorithm. The algorithm will produce a different output
depending on the specific key being used at the time. The exact substitutions and transformations
performed by the algorithm depend on the key
• Ciphertext: This is the scrambled message produced as output. It depends on the plaintext
and the secret key. For a given message, two different keys will produce two different ciphertexts.
. • Decryption algorithm: This is essentially the encryption algorithm run in reverse. It takes
the cipher text and the secret key and produces the original plaintext.

There are two requirements for secure use of conventional encryption:

1. We need a strong encryption algorithm.
 At a minimum, we would like the algorithm to be such that an opponent who knows the
algorithm and has access to one or more ciphertexts would be unable to decipher the
ciphertext or figure out the key. This requirement is usually stated in a stronger form: The
opponent should be unable to decrypt ciphertext or discover the key even if he or she is in
possession of a number of ciphertexts together with the plaintext that produced each
ciphertext.

2. Sender and receiver must have obtained copies of the secret key in a secure fashion and
must keep the key secure. If someone can discover the key and knows the algorithm, all
communication using this key is readable.
Model of Conventional Cryptosystem

A source produces a message in plaintext, X = [X1, X2, ..., XM]. The M elements of X are
letters in some finite alphabet. Traditionally, the alphabet usually consisted of the 26 capital
letters. Nowadays, the binary alphabet {0, 1} is typically used. For encryption, a key of the form
K = [K1, K2, ..., KJ] is generated. If the key is generated at the message source, then it must also
be provided to the destination by means of some secure channel. Alternatively, a third party
could generate the key and securely deliver it to both source and destination.

With the message X and the encryption key K as input, the encryption algorithm forms the
ciphertext Y = [Y1, Y2, ..., YN]. We can write this as
Y = E(K, X)
This notation indicates that Y is produced by using encryption algorithm E as a function of the
plaintext X, with the specific function determined by the value of the key K.
The intended receiver, in possession of the key, is able to invert the transformation:
X = D(K, Y)
An opponent, observing Y but not having access to K or X, may attempt to recover X or K or
both X and K. It is assumed that the opponent knows the encryption (E) and decryption (D)
 algorithms. If the opponent is interested in only this particular message, then the focus of the
effort is to recover X by generating a plaintext estimate.
SUBSTITUTION TECHNIQUES
The two basic building blocks of all encryption techniques are substitution and transposition.
A substitution technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or
by numbers or symbols.
If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves replacing plaintext
bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns.
1. Caesar Cipher:
The earliest known, and the simplest, use of a substitution cipher was by Julius Caesar.
The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing
three places further down the alphabet.
For example, plain: meet me after the toga party cipher:
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that the letter following Z is A. We can define the
transformation by listing all possibilities, as follows:
plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
cipher: D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
Let us assign a numerical equivalent to each letter: When letters are involved, the following
conventions are used in this book. Plaintext is always in lowercase; ciphertext is in uppercase; key
values are in italicized lowercase.
Let us assign a numerical equivalent to each letter: Then the algorithm can be expressed as
follows. For each plaintext letter,
substitute the cipher text letter: C = E(3, p) = (p + 3) mod 26
A shift may be of any amount, so that the general Caesar algorithm is
C = E(k, p) = (p + k) mod 26 where takes on a value in the range 1 to 25.
The decryption algorithm is simply p = D(k, C) = (C - k) mod 26
If it is known that a given ciphertext is a Caesar cipher, then a brute-force cryptanalysis is
easily performed: simply try all the 25 possible keys.
Three important characteristics of this problem enabled us to use a bruteforce cryptanalysis:
1. The encryption and decryption algorithms are known.
2. There are only 25 keys to try.
3. The language of the plaintext is known and easily recognizable.
2. Monoalphabetic Ciphers
With only 25 possible keys, the Caesar cipher is far from secure.A dramatic increase in the key
space can be achieved by allowing an arbitrary substitution. A permutation of a finite set of elements
is an ordered sequence of all the elements of, with each element appearing exactlyonce.
For example, if S ={a,b,c} , there are six permutations of : abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba
In general, there are n! permutations of a set of elements, because the first element can be
chosen in one of n ways, the second in n-1 ways, the third in n-2 ways, and so on. Recall the
assignment for the Caesar cipher:
 plain: a b c d e f g h I j kl m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
cipher: D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
If, instead, the “cipher” line can be any permutation of the 26 alphabetic characters, then there
are 26! or greater than 4*1026 possible keys. This is 10 orders of magnitude greater than the key
space for DES and would seem to eliminate brute-force techniques for cryptanalysis. Such an
approach is referred to as a monoalphabetic substitution cipher, because a single cipher alphabet
(mapping from plain alphabetto cipher alphabet) is used per message.
The ciphertext to be solved is
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
As a first step, the relative frequency of the letters can be determined and compared to a
standard frequency distribution for English, such as is shown in Figure 1.9. If the message were long
enough, this technique alone might be sufficient, but because this is a relatively short message, we
cannot expect an exact match.

Relative Frequencies of Letters in English Text That cipher letters P and Z are the equivalents
of plain letters e and t, but it is not certain which is which. The letters S, U, O, M, and H are all of
relatively high frequency and probably correspond to plain letters from the set {a, h, i, n, o, r, s}. The
letters with the lowest frequencies (namely A, B, G, Y, I, J) are likely included in the set {b, j, k, q, v,
x, z}.
A powerful tool is to look at the frequency of two-letter combinations, known as digrams. The
most common such digram is th. In our ciphertext, the most common digram is ZW, which appears
three times. So we make the correspondence of Z with t and W with h. Then, by our earlier
hypothesis, we can equate P with e. Now notice that the sequence ZWP appears in the ciphertext, and
we can translate that sequence as “the.” This is the most frequent trigram (threeletter combination).
Monoalphabetic ciphers are easy to break because they reflect the frequency data of the
original alphabet. A countermeasure is to provide multiple substitutes, known as homophones, for a
single letter.
[Link] Cipher The best-known multiple-letter encryption cipher is the Playfair, which treats
digrams in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into ciphertext digrams.
The Playfair algorithm is based on the use of a 5 × 5 matrix of letters constructed using a
keyword.
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
In this case, the keyword is monarchy. The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the
keyword (minus duplicates) from left to right and from top to bottom, and then filling in the remainder
of the matrix with the remaining letters in alphabetic order.

The letters I and J count as one letter. Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time, according to
the following rules:

1. Repeating plaintext letters that are in the same pair are separated with a filler letter, such as
x, so that balloon would be treated as ba lx lo on.
2. Two plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the matrix are each replaced by the letter to
the right, with the first element of the row circularly following the last. For example, ar is encrypted as
RM.
3. Two plaintext letters that fall in the same column are each replaced by the letter beneath,
with the top element of the column circularly following the last. For example, mu is encrypted as CM.
4. Otherwise, each plaintext letter in a pair is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and the
column occupied by the other plaintext letter. Thus, hs becomes BP and ea becomes IM (or JM, as the
encipherer wishes).
. 3. Hill Cipher:
Another interesting multiletter cipher is the Hill cipher, developed by the mathematician Lester Hill in 1929.

ThisencryptionalgorithmtakessuccessiveMplaintextlettersandsubstitutesforthemMciphertextletters. The
substitution is determined by linear equations in which each character is assigned a numerical value (a=0,
b=1, c=2, , z=25). For M=3, the system can be describedas
C = PK mod 26
whereCandParerowvectors oflength3representingtheplaintextandciphertext,and Kisa3*3matrix representing the
encryption key. Operations are performed mod26.

Example:

Plain Text : paymoremoney

The first three letters of the Plain Text are represented by

15 15 375 11
0 then, K 0 = 879 mod26 = 13 = LNS
24 24 486 18

Cipher Text : LNSHDLEWMTRW

Eg:Encrypt the message “meet me at the usual place at ten rather than eight oclock” using the
Hill cipher with the key ( ). Show your calculations and the [Link] the calculations for the
corresponding decryption of the ciphertext to recover the original plaintext.
 Hence the plain text is “me”

[Link]

Another way to improve on the simple monoalphabetic technique is to use different monoalphabetic
substitutions as one proceeds through the plaintext message. The general name for this approach is
polyalphabetic substitution cipher.

All these techniques have the following features in common:

• A set of related monoalphabetic substitution rules isused.
• A key determines which particular rule is chosen for a giventransformation.

[Link]
Encryption and Decryption
Given a key letter X and plaintext letter Y, the ciphertext letter is at the intersection of the row labeled X
and the column labled Y.
Toencryptamessage,a [Link].
Decryption is simple. The key letter again identifies the row. The position of the ciphertext letter in that
row determines the column, and the plaintext letter is the top of thecolumn.

Example:
Key : deceptive
Plain Text : we are discoveredyourself

key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext:wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
 Vigenere Table

Note : Rows represents Plaintext and Columns represents the Key

keyword can be eliminated by using a nonrepeating keyword that is as long as the message [Link]ère
proposed what is referred to as an autokey system, in which a keyword is concatenated with the plaintext
itself to provide a running key. For our example,

key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself

ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA

VernamCipher
Theultimatedefenseagainstsuchacryptanalysisistochooseakeywordthatisas longastheplaintextand has no
statistical relationship to it. Such a system was introduced by an AT&T engineer named Gilbert Vernam
in1918.
 [Link]-Time Pad
 improvement to the Vernam cipher that yields the ultimate insecurity
 using a random key that is as long as the message, so that the key need not berepeated
 the key is to be used to encrypt and decrypt a single message, and then isdiscarded.
 Each new message requires a new key of the same length as the new messageExample
ciphertext:ANKYODKYUREPFJBYOJDSPLREYIUNOFDOIUERFPLUYTSkey:
pxlmvmsydofuyrvzwc tnlebnecvgdupahfzzlmnyih plaintext: mr mustard with the
candlestick in the hall
ciphertext:ANKYODKYUREPFJBYOJDSPLREYIUNOFDOIUERFPLUYTSkey:
mfugpmiydgaxgoufhklllmhsqdqogtewbqfgyovuhwt plaintext: missscarlet
with the knife in the library two fundamentaldifficulties
 problem of making large quantities of randomkeys
 problem of key distribution andprotection

Transposition Techniques
A very different kind of mapping is achieved by performing some sort of permutation on the
plaintext letters
Rail Fence Technique
The simplest such cipher is the rail fence technique, in which the plaintext is written down as a
sequence of diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows.
For example, to encipher the message "meet me after the toga party" with a rail fence of depth 2,
we write the following
mematrhtgpryetefeteoaat
The encrypted message is
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
Pure Transposition Cipher
Write the message in a rectangle, row by row, and read the message off, column by column, but
permute the order of the columns.
The order of the columns then becomes the key to the algorithm
Example
Key: 4 3 1 256 7
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
ostponed
untiltwo
amxyz
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
Double Transposition
performing more than one stage of transposition Example
if the foregoing message is reencrypted using the same algorithm

Key: 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
Input: t t na apt
mt su oao
 d w c o ix k

n ly pet z
Output: NSCYAUOPTTWLTMDNAOIEPAXTTOKZ
This is a much less structured permutation and is much more difficult to cryptanalyze

Steganography
We conclude with a discussion of a technique that is, strictly speaking, not encryption, namely,
steganography
A plaintext message may be hidden in one of two ways.
The methods of steganography conceal the existence ofthe message
The methods of cryptography render the message unintelligible tooutsiders
o by various transformations of the text
Various ways to conceal the message
Arrangement of words or letters within an apparently innocuous text spells out the real
message
Character marking
Selected letters of printed or typewritten text are overwritten in pencil. The marks are ordinarily
not visible unless the paper is held at an angle to bright light.
Invisible ink
A number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible trace until heat or some
chemical is applied
Pinpunctures
Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held up in
front of alight.
Typewriter correctionribbon
Used between lines typed with a black ribbon, the results of typing with the correction tapeare
visible only under a stronglight
Hiding a message by using the least significant bits of frames on a CD

 The Kodak Photo CD format's maximum resolution is 2048 by 3072 pixels, with each
pixel containing 24 bits of RGB colorinformation.
  The least significant bit of each 24-bit pixel can be changed without greatly affecting the
quality of theimage
 Thus you can hide a 2.3-megabyte message in a single digitalsnapshot
Number of drawbacks
 lot of overhead to hide a relatively few bits ofinformation
 once the system is discovered, it becomes virtuallyworthless
 the insertion method depends on some sort ofkey
o Alternatively, a message can be first encrypted and then hidden usingsteganography
Advantage of steganography

 can be employed by parties who have something to lose should the fact of their secret
communication bediscovered
 Encryption flags traffic as important or secret or may identify the sender or receiveras
someone with something tohide

11. Foundations of Modern Cryptography

Modern cryptography is the cornerstone of computer and communications
security. Its foundation is based on various concepts of mathematics such as
number theory, computational- complexity theory, and probability theory.
Characteristics of Modern Cryptography
There are three major characteristics that separate modern cryptography from the
classical approach.

Classic Cryptography Modern Cryptography

It manipulates traditional characters, It operates on binary bit sequences.
i.e., letters
and digits directly.
It is mainly based on ‘security through It relies on publicly known
obscurity’. The techniques employed mathematical algorithms for coding the
for coding were kept secret and only information. Secrecy is
the parties involved in communication obtainedthroughasecretekeywhichisuse
knew about them. dasthe seed for the algorithms. The
computational
difficultyofalgorithms,absenceofsecretk
ey,etc., make it impossible for an
 attacker to obtain the original
information even if he knowsthe
algorithm used for coding.
It requires the entire cryptosystem Modern cryptography requires parties
for communicatingconfidentially. interested in secure communication to
possess the secret key
only.
Context of Cryptography
Cryptology, the study of cryptosystems, can be subdivided into two branches −
 Cryptography
 Cryptanalysis

Cryptography
Cryptography is the art and science of making a cryptosystem that is capable of providing
information security. Cryptography deals with the actual securing of digital data. It refers to the
design of mechanisms based on mathematical algorithms that provide fundamental information
security services.

Cryptanalysis
The art and science of breaking the cipher text is known as cryptanalysis. Cryptanalysis is the
sister branch of cryptography and they both co-exist. The cryptographic process results in the
cipher text for transmission or storage. It involves the study of cryptographic mechanism with
the intention to break them. Cryptanalysis is also used during the design of the new
cryptographic techniques to test their security strengths.

Types of Modern Cryptography

Different algorithms have come up with powerful encryption mechanisms incorporated in
them. It gave rise to two new ways of encryption mechanism for data security. These are:
 Symmetric key encryption
 Asymmetric key encryption

Key
It can be a number, word, phrase, or any code that will be used for encrypting as well as
decrypting any ciphertext information to plain text and vice versa.
Symmetric and asymmetric key cryptography is based on the number of keys and the way
these keys work. Let us know about both of them in details:
Symmetric key encryption
Symmetric key encryption technique uses a straight forward method of encryption.
Hence, this is the simpler among these two practices. In the case of symmetric key encryption,
the encryption is done through only one secret key, which is known as "Symmetric Key", and
this key remains to both the parties.
 The same key is implemented for both encodings as well as decoding the information.
So, the key is used first by the sender prior to sending the message, and on the receiver side,
that key is used to decipher the encoded message.
One of the examples of this encryption technique is Caesar's Cipher, AES, DES,
Asymmetric Key Encryption
Asymmetric Encryption is another encryption method that uses two keys, which is a new
and sophisticated encryption technique. This is because it integrates two cryptographic keys for
implementing data security. These keys are termed as Public Key and Private Key.
The "public key", as the name implies, is accessible to all who want to send an encrypted
message. The other is the "private key" that is kept secure by the owner of that public key or
the one who is encrypting.
Encryption of information is done through public key first, with the help of a particular
algorithm. Then the private key, which the receiver possesses, will use to decrypt that
encrypted information. The same algorithm will be used in both encodings as well as decoding.
Examples of asymmetric key encryption algorithms are Diffie-Hellman and RSA algorithm.
Security Services of Cryptography
o Confidentiality of information.
o Data Integrity.
o Authentication.
o Message authentication.
o Entity authentication.
o Non-repudiation.

Cryptography Primitives
Cryptography primitives are nothing but the tools and techniques in Cryptography that can be
selectively used to provide a set of desired security services −
 Encryption
 Hash functions
 Message Authentication codes (MAC)

[Link] Security:
Definition of Perfect Security
Let ε= (E,D) be a Shannon cipher defined over (K,M, C).
Consider a probabilistic experiment in which the random variable k is uniformly
distributed over
K. If for all m0,m1 Є M, and all c Є C, we have
Pr [ E(k,m0) = c ] = Pr [ E(k,m1) = c ], then we say that ε is a perfectly secure
Shannon cipher.

There are a number of equivalent formulations of perfect security

[Link] theory
For a long time, information theory has mainly been used in cryptography to prove
lower bounds on the size of the secret key required to achieve a certain level of
security in secrecy and authentication systems. In order to prove the security of a
cryptographic system, a definition of security or, alternatively, of breaking the
system must be given. Whether a system with provable security is satisfactory
from a theoretical and practical viewpoint depends in a crucial manner on three
aspects:
(1) On the acceptability and generality of the definition ofsecurity;

(2) On how realistic the two assumptions are;and

(3) On the practicality of thesystem.

For instance, it is trivial to \prove" the security of a cipher if we define security

(irrelevantly) to mean that an adversary is unable to square a circle with
straightedge and compass. It is similarly
trivialtoprovethatanadversarycannotobtainanyinformationabouttheplaintext
forasystemin which the legitimate receiver cannot either, or if one assumes that the
adversary is unable to even receive theciphertext.
There are two possible types of assumptions about the adversary's computing power:
  A system is called computationally-secure if it is secure against an adversary
with reasonably bounded computational resources and it is called
information-theoretically secure if it is secure even against adversaries with
infinite computingpower
 The second type of assumption, namely that an adversary has infinite
computing power, impliesno
restrictionwhatsoeverandthereforeanticipatesallargumentsaboutmodel'sof
computation and realistic estimates of an opponent's computingpower.
However, if one considers the theoretical possibility of testing all possible keys of
a system at once, it appears impossible to prove a system secure under such an
assumption. Here is where
[Link]
hertext provides no information about the plaintext or, equivalently, if plaintext and
ciphertextarestatistically independent. In other words, when a perfect cipher is used
to encipher a message, an adversary can do no better than guess the message
without even looking at the ciphertext.
The role of information theory in cryptography can be characterized as that of
deriving results on the provable security of a system, even in presence of
adversaries with infinite computing power.
Basics of Information Theory

According to Shannon, the entropy of an information source S is defined as:

where pi is the probability that symbol Si in S will occur.

 indicates the amount of information contained in Si, i.e., the

number of bits needed to codeSi.
 For example, in an image with uniform distribution of gray-levelintensity,
i.e. pi = 1/256, then the number of bits needed to code each gray level is 8
bits. The entropy of this image is 8.

Pessimistics Results: Lower bounds on key size

Information theory has been used in cryptography primarily to derive
pessimistic results, i.e., lower bounds on the size of the secret key necessary to
achieve a certain level of security. In this section we review the three most
important areas for which such bounds have been derived: secrecy, Y This is a
generalization of Shannon's model: it contains a secret randomizer S known only to
the sender of a message X as well as a public randomizer R assumed to be
available to everybody, including the eavesdropper.

Model of symmetric cipher with two types of Randomizer

Randomizer R

Eavesdropper

X Y
Y X
PlainText Encrypter Decrypter CipherTesxt

Z Z
Z

Secure Channel

RANDOM Z
SOURCE
Key SourcE
There are two dual and complementary security goals in
communication: Confidentiality (or secrecy) and authenticity.
Confidentiality means that an eavesdropper cannot obtain any useful
information about the plaintext, and authenticity means that 5 an active
eavesdropper cannot successfully insert a fraudulent message Y that will
be accepted by the receiver
Information-theoretic security
Information-theoretic security is a cryptosystem whose security derives
purely from information theory; the system cannot be broken even if the
adversary has unlimited computing power. The cryptosystem is
considered cryptanalytically unbreakable if the adversary does not have
enough information to break the encryption.
There are a variety of cryptographic tasks for which information-
theoretic security is a meaningful and useful requirement. A few
of these are:

1. Secret sharing schemes such as Shamir's are information-

theoretically secure (andalso perfectly secure) in that
having less than the requisite number of sharesof
the secret provides no information about the secret.
2. More generally, secure multiparty computation
protocols often haveinformation- theoretic security.
3. Private information retrieval with multiple databases can be
achieved with information- theoretic privacy for the
user'squery.
4. Symmetric encryption can be constructed under an
information-theoretic notion of security called entropic
security, which assumes that the adversary knows
almostnothing about the message being sent. The goal here is
to hide all functions of the plaintext rather than all
information aboutit.
5. Quantum cryptography is largely part of information-
theoreticcryptography.

[Link] Cryptosystem
Two of the first kinds of cryptosystems that we considered were
simple substitution ciphers and permutation ciphers. Each of them
quickly proved vulnerable to attack. We now consider a new kind of
cryptosystem that is based on them but which is considerably more
difficult to attack; so difficult, in fact, that most modern
 cryptosystems are of the type we now consider. A product
cryptosystem is a block cipher that repeatedly performs
substitutions and permutations, one after the other, to produce
ciphertext.
Example : DES and AES

15. CRYPTANALYSIS
Cryptanalysis is the art of trying to decrypt the encrypted messages
without the use of the key that was used to encrypt the messages. Cryptanalysis
uses mathematical analysis & algorithms to decipher the ciphers.
The success of cryptanalysis attacks depends
 Amount of time available
 Computing power available
 Storage capacity available
The following is a list of the commonly used Cryptanalysis attacks;

Type of Attack Known to Cryptanalyst

Ciphertext Only  Encryptionalgorithm
 Ciphertext
Known Plaintext  Encryptionalgorithm
 Ciphertext
 One or more plaintext-ciphertext pairs formed
withthe secretkey
Chosen plaintext  Encryptionalgorithm
 Ciphertext
 Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together
withits corresponding ciphertext generated with
the secretkey
Chosen ciphertex  Encryptionalgorithm

Chosen text  Encryptionalgorithm

 Ciphertext
 Plaintext message chosen by cryptanalyst, together
withits corresponding ciphertext generated with
the secretkey
 Purported ciphertext chosen by cryptanalyst,
togetherwith its corresponding decrypted
plaintext generated withthe
secret key
Attacks using Cryptanalysis
[Link]-Plaintext Analysis /Attack(KPA): In a known plaintext
attack (KPA) both the plaintext and matching ciphertext are
 available for use in discovering the key.

The attacker knows or can guess the plaintext for some parts of the
ciphertext. For example, maybe all secure login sessions begin with
the characters LOGIN, and the next transmission may be
PASSWORD. The task is to decrypt the rest of the ciphertext blocks
using this information.
.

[Link]-Plaintext Analysis /Attack(CPA): A chosen plaintext

attack (CPA) occurs when the attacker gains access to the target
encryption device - if, for example, it is left unattended. The
attacker then runs various pieces of plaintext though the device
for encryption. This is compared to the plaintext to attempt to
derive the key.

In an adaptive chosen plaintext attack (ACPA), the attacker not only

has access to the plaintext and its encryption, but can adapt or
modify the chosen plaintext as needed based on results of the
previous encryptions.

[Link]-Only Analysis/Attack (COA): A ciphertext only

attack (COA) is a case in which only the encrypted message is
available for attack, but because the language is known a frequency
 analysis could be attempted. In this situation the attacker does not
know anything about the contents of the message, and must work
from ciphertext only.

[Link]-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack: Attack occurs when two parties use

message or key sharing for communication via a channel that appears secure but
is actually compromised. Attacker employs this attack for the interception of
messages that pass through the communications channel. Hash functions
prevent MITM attacks.
Adaptive Chosen-Plaintext Attack (ACPA): Similar to a CPA, this attack
uses chosen plaintext and ciphertext based on data learned from past
encryptions.
5. Chosen Ciphertext Attack:
In a chosen ciphertext attack (CCA), the cryptanalyst can choose
different ciphertexts to be decrypted and has access to the decrypted
plaintext.
This type of attack is generally applicable to attacks against public key
cryptosystems.2decrypted, then using the results of these decryptions to
select subsequent ciphertexts. The modifications in the ciphertext help in
deciphering the key from the decryptions.
 Two schemes
 Unconditionallysecure
If the ciphertext generated by the scheme does not contain enough
information to determine uniquely the corresponding plaintext, no
matter how much ciphertext is available
 Computationallysecure
meets either of the following criteria:
o The cost of breaking the cipher exceeds the value of the
encryptedinformation.
o Thetimerequiredtobreakthecipherexceedstheusefullifetimeoftheinf
ormation.
Brute force attack– this type of attack uses algorithms that try
to guess all the possible logical combinations of the plaintext
which are then ciphered and compared against the original
cipher. The attacker tries every possible key on a piece of
ciphertext until anintelligible translation into plaintext
isobtained.
 On average, half of all possible keys must be tried to achievesuccess.