LECTURE NOTES

For Biology Students

General Entomology (Biol2044)

1
 SCOPE OF ENTOMOLOGY

Entomology is the study of insects. Entomology deals with the development, diversity and the
applied nature of the insects. Entomology emerged as a distinct field of study in the early 19th
century. The scope of entomology typically includes the study of any terrestrial and aquatic insects
belonging to the phylum Arthropoda. Entomology is one of the subjects in zoology. Zoology is
the study of animals and their behavior. Zoologists may study a particular species or group of
species, either in the wild or in captivity. Zoologists study animals and their interactions with
ecosystems. They study their physical characteristics, diets, behaviors, and the impacts humans
have on them.

2
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO ARTHROPODS

1.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Explain the major characteristics of arthropods

 Describe the taxonomic classification of arthropods
 Describe biological functions of arthropods
 Recognize the reasons behind the success of the diversity of insects

1.2. Introduction

Arthropods are by far the most successful phylum of animals, both in diversity of distribution and
in number of species and individuals. They have adapted successfully to life in water, on land and
in the air. About 80% of all known animal species belong to the Arthropoda - about 800,000
species have been described and recent estimates put the total number of species in the phylum at
about 6 million. Arthropods are represented in every habitat on Earth and show a great variety of
adaptations. Several types live in aquatic environments, and others reside in terrestrial ones; some
groups are even adapted for flight. They can survive great extremes of temperature, toxicity,
acidity and salinity.

1.3. Common identification Characteristics of Arthropods:

Arthropods are grouped under the animal kingdom. They are invertebrate animals. Despite the
enormous diversity found among them, they all share the following common characteristics:

1. Bilaterally symmetrical body sub-divided into segments.

2. Body covered with exoskeleton which is made up of a tough and rigid substance known as
chitin.
3. Jointed appendages are present on some body segments.
4. Body cavity between the alimentary canal and the body wall.
5. Open circulatory system that works by diffusion unlike the arteries and veins in higher
animals like humans which are the closed type.

3
 6. Have ventral ladder type of nervous system: These are called ganglia and are situated at
different places in the body of the arthropod with a ladder type linkage: message passes
from one ganglia to the other and finally to the big ganglia at the head trough nerves.
7. Growth by molting, which is controlled by hormones

1.4. Taxonomy (Scientific Classification) of Arthropods

All the living things are divided into a series of sets and subsets depending on how closely related
they are. For instance all living things are divided into 5 kingdoms. The living members of the
kingdom Animalia are divided into smaller groups called phyla singular phylum. There are more
than 38 phyla in the Animal Kingdom. The phylum arthropoda is the largest of the animal phyla.
Phylum Arthropoda is further divided into four smaller groups called classes. Phylum Arthropoda
can be divided into 18 Classes (5 major classes), excluding the extinct trilobites.

Figure 1.1: common classification tree of phylum arthropoda

4
 1. Class: Arachnida (the eight legers) - Spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions etc.

The class Arachnida has four pairs of legs. The head and the thorax are fused forming a
cephalo-thorax. The appendages (legs) are located on the cephalothorax. The head has no
antennae, but pedipalps and different mouth parts from that of insects. Mostly terrestrial and
predatory, some secondarily aquatic and sap-sucking.

2. Class: Crustacea - Cyclops, the sea- food group such as lobsters, crabs, cry fish, etc

The crustacean has evolved a twofold division of the body into a cephalothrax means prosoma
(head and chest) and opisthosoma means abdomen. The former bears sensory organs and mouth
parts to form the head region and also five pairs of enlarged appendages for walking (in the higher
forms). The crustaceans have two pairs of antennae. The prosoma carries the main sense organs
(internally and externally) that is the antennae, the eyes and the feeding parts. Opisthosoma consist
the spiracles (respiratory organs) and the sex organs

5
 3. Class: Diplopoda (millipedes)

The millipedes (they have two pairs of legs per segment). The centipedes and the millipedes jointly
are known as the Myriopods. They are very similar to the arthropods in their superficial
appearance, but they have distinct heads bearing antennae and mouth parts. They bear two body
divisions; head and trunk. The biting of myriopods is said to be allergic to some people, while
some are also venomous. The millipede’s secret chemicals for defense purposes (bad smell).

4. Class: Chilopoda (centipedes)

Centipedes have long, flattened, worm-like, segmented bodies. They can have 12-100 body
segments. They have long, jointed antennae on their heads. The next segment of their bodies has
a pair of modified legs. Typically one pair of legs per body segment. They are Terrestrial predators.

6
 5. Class Insecta : Hexapoda (the six legers)-

The insects. The insects (class insecta) are the most abundant species. In fact, about ¾ million
species are known, i.e. about 75% of all arthropods are insects. They are the greatest pest animals
as well and the greatest animals of medical importance (lots of diseases are transmitted through
insects).

The body parts of insects are grouped into three: head, thorax and abdomen. The head contains
eyes, one pair of antennae and three pairs of appendages developed as mouth parts (details are
discussed in chapter tow). The thorax has three pairs of legs, and one or two pairs of wings in most
insects (some insects have no wings). The abdomen is segmented with the end (posterior) part
serving to show the sex of the insect. A “V” shaped abdomen helps for egg disposing, carrying the
genital and excretory organs. The abdomen also contains diffusion tubes called spiracles for air
exchange (respiratory organs).

1.5. The insects (main features and their success)

The word Insect derived from the Greek word insecare, means cut in pieces or engraved
/segmented. Insects belong to the Phylum Arthropoda (Artho= jointed, Poda= Legs) which is the
biggest phylum of kingdom Animalia. More than three quarters of the animals on earth are
arthropods, and most of these are insects.

7
Insect is a small invertebrate animal with hard, segmented bodies, three pairs of jointed legs, and,
usually, two pairs of wings; they belong to Arthropods and are distributed throughout the world.
An insect's body is divided into three segments: head, thorax, and abdomen. On the head is a pair
of feelers, or antennae (for smell). The legs (for walking or running) and wings (for flying) are
attached to the thorax, or middle segment of the body. The abdomen, or end segment of the body,
is where food is digested and excreted and where the reproductive organs are located.

The skeleton of an insect is external and is composed of chitin it is membranous at the joints, but
elsewhere is hard. The head is the feeding and sensory center. It bears the antennae, eyes, and
mouthparts. By means of the antennae, the insect detects odors and experiences the sense of touch.
The eyes include compound eyes and simple eyes (ocelli). Compound eyes are formed of a large
number of individual facets or lenses; there are about 4,000 lenses to each compound eye in the
housefly. The mouthparts include a labrum, or upper lip; a pair of principal jaws, or mandibles; a
pair of accessory jaws, or maxillae; and a labium, or lower lip. These mouthparts are modified in
the various insect groups, depending on their diet.

The thorax is the locomotory center, and is made up of three segments: the pro-, meso, and
Metathorax. Each bears a pair of legs, and, in flying insects, the second and third of these segments
also each bear a pair of wings. The wings are composed of an upper and a lower membrane, and
between these two layers they are strengthened by a framework of chitinous tubes known as veins.
The abdomen is the metabolic and reproductive center, where digestion, excretion, and the sexual
functions take place. In the female, there is very commonly an egg laying instrument, or ovipositor,
and many insects have a pair of tail feelers, or cerci. Most insects breathe by means of fine air
tubes called tracheae, which open to the exterior by a pair of breathing pores, or spiracles.
Reproduction is by diverse means. In most insects, mating occurs once only, and death soon
follows.

1.5.1 Why insect are so successful in their species diversity?

Insect came on the scene of existence according to various estimates from 250 to 500 million years
ago. Human being has come on the existence only one million years ago. Insects constitute the
most dominant class of the animal kingdom. They also represent the culmination of evolutionary
development in terrestrial arthropod.

8
Contributory factors for abundance of Insects:

Insects constitute the largest class not only of the animal kingdom but of the living world as a
whole including both the animal and the plant kingdom.

The various characteristic features which contribute to the insects’ dominance as a class are

I. Structural Characters
II. Developmental Characters
III. Protective Characters

Structural Characters

1. Exoskeleton: The exoskeleton not only provides a much larger area for the attachment of
muscles but also protects the muscles from mechanical injury. It affords excellent
mechanism to protect insects against desiccation. Also, the exoskeleton has turned
appendages in to good tools for digging, preying, oviposition, etc. The exoskeleton
maintains the shape of the body much more efficiently than the endoskeleton.
2. Small size: The evolutionary course followed by insects has led to the development of a
large number of smaller individuals than a smaller number of large individuals.
Undoubtedly this step immensely increases the chances of survival of the species. It is
easier for smaller individuals to sustain on small quantities of food available to individuals
and easier it is for smaller individuals to take refuge in small niches against inclemency’s
of weather as well as against adverse biotic environments. Smaller size increases the
chances of variability and mutation. Lastly smaller size leads to greater efficiency.
Muscular strength is comparatively better in small animals. Thus it is no wonder that a flea
with a length of 1 / 20” can jump a horizontal length of 13” and a height of 8”; if a man
were to do similar feat he should jump 700 ft. and a high jump of 450 ft. This gives an idea
of the relative efficiency of insect’s small size.
3. Quicker speciation: As a result of exoskeleton and small size there has been quicker
speciation. The possession of chitinous exoskeleton and the aerial mode of life has
probably been the largest contributor to so much speciation in insects. Due to mechanical
rigidity of chitinous exoskeleton comparatively minute variations in the external genitalia
obviously lead to reproductive isolation and consequent fixation of the species.

9
4. Functional wings: This feature, the insects do not share with their other Arthropod allies
and which gives insects a definite superiority. The power of flight greatly increased the
statistical chances of survival and dispersal except on wind swept islands, where reverse
adaptation in losing the functional wings has taken place. It increased the feeding and
breeding range and provided a new means of eluding enemies, of attacking a fast moving
host (running or flying) and of finding a mate. Mosquitoes, which, but for functional wings
would not have been able to breed in small pools of water which dry in short time.
Functional wings enabled various species to undertake international migration as in the
case of locusts and butterflies. Honeybee can fly at the rate of 5.7 miles per hour, a hover
fly 7-8 miles per hour, a hawk moth about 11 miles per hour and a butterfly even 57 miles
per hour.
5. Hexapod locomotion: Jointed nature of legs is a characteristic in insects. Six legs of
insects (Hexapoda) represent the optimum number. Larger number of legs in millipedes,
the locomotion is cumbersome. In hexapods, during locomotion the body is always rests
on a tripod while the other three legs move forward.
6. Compound eyes: Insects share this characteristic only with crustaceans. These are of very
complicated structure which is not met with in other groups of animals. It is obvious that
the insects will not lose the power of vision completely if a few of their ommatidia are
injured.
7. Scattered sense organs: Except the eyes none of the other sense organs are invariably
concentrated on the head.
8. Decentralized nervous system: This system, despite the highly evolved stage of insects
as a class, is so decentralized that brainless insects can be artificially stimulated to walk,
fly or even feed and breed.
9. Direct respiration: These gases are taken to and from every minute part of the system
directly through air tubes called trachea and tracheoles which have several openings called
spiracles rather than a pair of nostrils.
10. Enteronephric excretion: The excretory function is performed by Malpighian tubules
which open in to the front part of hind intestine instead of opening directly to the exterior.
Also the excretory products are semisolid rather than liquid urine. Obviously this system

10
 is also very well suited for water conservation as it makes the excretory function very much
independent of water supply as water is not wasted in this function.

Thus despite the very minute size the whole of the internal organization of the insect system is
highly complex.

Developmental characters
Full life history of the individual consists of four well defined stages viz., the egg, larva,
pupa and adult. Two of these stages, namely, mainly feeding stage larva and mainly
reproductive stage adult are so different not only in structural details but also in their
requirements of both food and habitat that their internal competition between the parent
and the offspring for both food and shelter gets completely eliminated.
1. High fecundity: High fecundity as well as quick rate of development gives insect
prolific power of reproduction. It has been calculated that the progeny of a single moth
can cover the entire dry surface of the earth to a depth of 80 feet within a period of one
year in case all the progeny is allowed to live their normal life.
2. Quick rate of development / Short life cycle: Majority of insects, completes entire
life cycle in less than a month, and enables them to complete many generations per
year.
3. Specificity of food: Insects show great diversity of food habits, preferring one kind of
food or other. Locusts and army worms avoid interspecific competition by resorting to
Polyphagy, another type like termites feed on foods like cellulose. Extreme degree of
specificity not only to different plant species or varieties but also to different parts of
the same plant.
4. Specificity in habitat: Insects show great specificity in habitat requirements, and
within the same insect, different stages prefer different habitats, so as to reduce the
competition within the species. Similarly, due to their varied requirements in habitat,
the exclusiveness, and the reduced competitions for food and shelter, makes them to
survive successfully and proliferate.
Protective characters:
Insects as a class have developed a variety of very ingenious ways for ensuring
protection. These can be grouped in to several categories, viz., morphological

11
adaptations physiological adaptations behavioristic adaptations construction of
protective structures and selection of safety niches
1. Morphological adaptations: The protective morphological basis (exoskeleton)
has been supplemented in many cases by bristles, spines, hairs, scales etc. Often
minute size of insects affords protection against large predators. High degree of
protective coloration and adaptation used for camouflaging.
2. Physiological adaptations: Sap feeding (sucking insects) have special filter
chamber in alimentary canal to protect the digestive enzymes. Some insects have
special physiological mechanisms like diapause to escape/protect from adverse
environmental conditions.
3. Behavioristic adaptation: Some insects, for example stinging hymenoptera take
up such an offensive posture when threatened that the predator is frightened. Others
adopt such dodging attitude as feigning death. Still others eject some kind of
offensive liquid.
4. Construction of protective structures: To this category belong the termites or
white ants. The hives of honey bees, wasp, the cocoons of pupae in so many species,
the bag of clothes moth and other bag moths, the underground nests of ants, the
nests of so many solitary wasps all come in this category.
5. Selection of safety niches: So many insects use their jumping or flying capacity to
escape danger.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

MORPHOLOGY OF INSECTS

2.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:

 Describe external morphology

 Explain insect Integument
 Understand the main body regions and segmentation
 Explain the functions of the different parts of insects
2.2 The Integument
The integument, which is a characteristic feature of the arthropods, forms the outer layer of the
body, comprising the epidermis (hypodermis) and the cuticle. Integument of insects, besides
functioning as an exoskeleton, and holding the internal organs together, acts as a protective barrier
between the insect and the environment. The integument also provides external structures to the
sensory receptors, which perceive stimuli in various forms and is also responsible to prevent the
water loss from the insect body. For these reasons, integument to a very large extent is considered
a major factor in the success of insects as a terrestrial animal.

Functions of insect integument / body wall:

o Insect integument or body wall externally surrounds the insect body & its
appendages.
o Integument/body wall function as exoskeleton of insects.
o It is the outer layer of insect. Prevents water loss.
o It provides shape and rigidity to the animal body.
o It supports muscles attached to internal surface of body wall (helps in locomotion).
o It holds internal organs together.
o Acts as protective barrier (from evaporation, entry of disease causing organisms,
physical stress)
o Provides external structures/support for sensory organs (sensory hairs, sensory
areas)

13
Structure of body wall / integument:

• All Arthropods have an exoskeleton made up of chitin and proteins.

• Arthropods grow their Exoskeleton outside the body (unlike internal in human body).
• Integument / body wall consist of three basic components / parts:
1. Cuticle (Exoskeleton) (Upper)
2. Epidermis (hypodermis) (Middle)
3. Basement membrane (Inner)

General structure of Insect Integument

1. The Cuticle
 Cuticle is complex, non-cellular, non-living and is the secretion of epidermis.
 It covers the whole of outside of body as well as lining of ectodermal invaginations such
as foregut, hindgut and tracheae.
 Cuticle comprises 50% of dry weight of insects.
 The epidermal cells secrete chemicals like chitin, protein and lipid, and these polymerize
to form cuticle.
 The cuticle is primarily divided into two.
A. Epicuticle: non-chitinous
B. Procuticle: chitin-protein complex.
14
A. Epicuticle:
 Epicuticle is non-chitinous.
 Epicuticular layer of the insects is about 1-4µ in thickness, and in general, covers the entire
external surface of an insect, except some chemoreceptive sensillae, midgut and ends of
gland cells.
 The main function of the epicuticle is to prevent water loss from the insect body.
 It can maintain the water content in the body by uptake of water in terrestrial (e.g. flea,
Xenopsylla brasiliensis) as well as aquatic (e.g. alderfly, Sialis lutaria) insects.
 The epicuticle also restricts the dimensions of the exoskeleton during intra-stadial growth
of holometabolous larvae. It also dictates the extent of expansion of a newly ecdysed cuticle
or distension of cuticle during the feeding activity of sap-sucking or blood-sucking insects.
 Epicuticle is also thought to be selectively permeable to the moulting fluid into the
apolysial space, which is required for the digestion of the outer lying cuticle, and to the
return of this partially digested exuvial cuticle into the body of the moulting insect.
 It probably also acts as a reservoir for metabolic waste products, defensive secretions and
the juvenile hormone.
 The epicuticle consists of four layers, and all these layers are secreted by epidermis.
I. The outer most cement layer: also known as tectocuticle protects wax layer. The
cement layer is formed through the combined secretions of specialized dermal
glands (Verson glands of the epidermal layer), and consists of carbohydrates
(lactose), proteins, long chain lipids and some polyphenolic substances. The
thickness (not more than 0.1µ) and distribution of cement layer may vary within an
insect, or in different insects. It may be totally absent as in honeybees. The functions
of cement layer are to protect the underlying wax layer from abrasions and to act
as a reservoir of mobile lipids, which leak out to replace lost waxes.
II. Wax layer: also known as lipoid layer imparts water conserving mechanism to
insects. The wax layer usually lies below the cement layer and provides a kind of
waterproofing. The epidermis just before ecdysis secretes the lipids of the wax
layer, which is transported via pore canals, and the finer wax canals, and released
to the surface. The wax canals are considered the route of entry into the insect for
oil-soluble compounds. The composition of waxes varies not only between

15
 individuals of the same species, but also within the same individual at different
times of development. In general, these waxes are composed of hydrocarbons of
12-31 carbon chain lengths, esters of even-numbered fatty acids and alcohols. The
wax layer may exist (i) simply as a monolayer immediately above the outer
epicuticle or (ii) may be combined with the cement layer or (iii) extend above the
surface of the cement layer as wax blooms (e.g. in most homopterans, hemipterans
and some coleopterans). Initially the wax layer is in a liquid form, but is later
transformed into solid wax at ecdysis. The wax layer is composed of three layers:
(1) oriented monolayer just above the cuticulin, (2) less ordered thick layer and (3)
outer “bloom” layer. Oriented layer is instrumental in water balance. The thick
layer is the majority of wax and is in with the cement layer.
III. The outer epicuticle, referred to as cuticulin by Wigglesworth, is a trilaminar layer,
12-18nm in thickness, is present universally, except over sensory endings, lines the
trachea and serves as the insertion point for muscle tonofibrillae. Consisting of
protein and polyphenols, highly resistance to acids and organic solvents. It is
derived from the plasma membrane plaques. During its formation, they first appear
as discrete plates above the membrane, which gradually form a continuous layer.
Soon after its formation, there appear small pores (about 3nm dia.), and through
these pores the apolysial droplets move out into apolysial space to partially digest
the exuvial cuticle, and also the products formed after digestion are allowed back
into the body of the instar undergoing moulting.
IV. The inner epicuticular layer consists of polymerized lipoproteins, stabilized by
quinones. It is produced by the secretions of epidermis, and probably serves as a
reservoir of the extracellular enzymes associated with repairing of the wounds.

While the outer and inner epicuticular layers are formed before apolysis, the cement
and the wax layers are formed after apolysis.

2. Procuticle:
 It is a comparatively much thicker layer
 Consists of chitin protein and other substances.

16
  The main component present in the procuticle is chitin. Chitin is the chief
constituent forming 20-50 percent dry weight of cuticle. It is a polysaccharide made
up of Nacetyl glucosamine and glucosamine.
 Besides chitins, procuticle also contains non-chitinized substances (25-37%)
several proteins (arthropodin, resilin, and other proteins) and other substances like
lipids, pigments and salts etc.
 The much thicker procuticle (thickness ranges from 0.2µ−200µ), primary
endocuticle is in contact with epidermis (or hypodermis).
 Procuticle is colourless in living insects.

The Procuticle is distinguishable into two:

Outer exocuticle: (tanned)

 Hard and dark in colour due to tanning (outer tanned or sclerotized exocuticle)
 Has several rigid areas called sclerites.
 It contributes rigidity or toughness to the cuticle.
 Exocuticle is absent or reduced in the regions of the integument which are more
flexible.

Inner endocuticle: (untanned)

 It is soft flexible and also contains chitin and protein fibers.

 It is not tanned.
 The endocuticle is the largest section of the integument.
 It is made up of fine horizontal lamellae and vertical lines called pore canals.
 Though physically different, these layers are chemically similar, but differ quantitatively
in the relative amount of chitin and protein, and in most insects appear to be intimately
fused.

Important constituents of cuticle:

 Cuticle is composed mainly of chitin and cuticular proteins.

 Changes in the proportions of each of these components change the type of cuticle.
For example, low levels of chitin form a highly elastic cuticle. In some insects

17
 elastic rubber like cuticle consisting of special protein called “resilin” is present in
articulatary sites of wings and mouth parts, helping in movement of these organs.

Chitin:

 It is a nitrogenous polysaccharide.
 It consists of high molecular weight polymer of anhydro-N-acetyl glucosamine residues
joined by β-glycosidic [Link] is water insoluble but soluble in dilute acids, alkalies
and organic solvents.

 Chitin is the main constituent of Procuticle and is chemically linked with protein,
arthropodin. This protein undergoes tanning process forming a hard, inflexible and dark
sclerotin.
 Chitin accounts 25-60 percent of the dry weight of various cuticles and the remainder is
protein.
 It is absent in epicuticle, less in exocuticle and more in endocuticle.
 It is widely distributed in invertebrates, but is unknown in protozoa and vertebrates.
Among the plants it is restricted to fungi.
 It dissolves in conc. Mineral acids and insoluble in water, dilute acids, alkalies and organic
solvents.
 Henri Beaconnot first described chitin in 1811, from mushrooms, and named it as
“fungine”. Odier in 1823 recorded it from insects and named it as “chitin”, a Greek
equivalent for a sort of a “belted coat” and “gown” or “envelop”.

Protein:
 A mixture of several proteins is present, but the important ones are Anthropodin and
Resilin.

18
  Arthropodin is present in the upper layers of procuticle. It is water soluble but becomes
insoluble as a result of tanning reactions. The quinones (derived from tyrosine) tans
arthropodin and tanned part becomes hard exocuticle. Such a tanned arthropodin is called
selerotin and the process is known as “scleretisation” or “tanning”.
 Resilin: It is a rubber like elastic protein present in movable joints like wing joints and
mouth parts. Resilin can be stretched under tension and returns immediately after its
release.

Functions of Cuticle:

 Acts as exoskeleton
 Provides support to body
 Gives shape.
 Muscles attached to cuticle, facilitates various types of movement.
 At several places, cuticle is invaginated to provide internal support and muscle attachment.
 Wing movement is possible only because of hard cuticular flight Sclerites in thoracic
region.
 Epicuticular wax layer provides a mechanism to conserve water.
 Secretions over cuticular layer in some insects are bactericidal, protects from infection.
 Various parts of cuticle modified to form sense organs to receive stimuli.

Epidermis (Hypodermis):

 The single cellular layer lying between the basement membrane and endocuticle.
 Between the moults, the epidermal cells are flattened and have no distinct boundaries.
 During and after a moult, the cells may develop long cytoplasmic processes on the outside
extending into the pore glands. These processes are withdrawn when the cuticle matures.
 Epidermal cells secrete the moulting fluid during apolysis.
 Epidermal cells secrete greater part of cuticle and also produce moulting fluid, which
dissolves the old cuticle.
 It also absorbs the digestion products of old cuticle, repair wounds.
 Some of the epidermal cells may become specialized to form sense organs (mechanoor
chemoreceptors) or glands (dermal, peristigmatic etc.), neurons or glial cells.

19
  During the cuticle formation the dermal glands (specialized epidermal cells) secrete and
deposit the cement layer over the newly formed outer epicuticle. Peristigmatic glands
present in dipterous larvae around the spiracle continuously keep secreting a substance,
which provides the hydrofuge properties to the cuticle surrounding the spiracle, and prevent
the entry of water into the tracheal system.

Oenocytes: The oenocytes are large round or oval cells epidermal in origin and often lie in a group
on either side of each abdominal segment, or between the bases of epidermal cells and basement
membrane (as in Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Hemiptera) etc. In Homoptera, Hymenoptera and
Diptera, the oenocytes are embedded in fat body, while in Lepidoptera and Orthoptera they form
clusters in the body cavity. Oenocytes secrete the lipoprotein of the procuticle and the epicuticle,
and probably are involved in the synthesis of wax.

Pore canals: Pore canals are the extracellular extensions of the cytoplasm that extend from the
surface of the epidermal cell to the inner layer of epicuticle and may penetrate the outer epicuticle.
Pore canals filled with the cuticular material are absent in the old endocuticle due to new layers
being formed under the old. A filament is present in the pore canal for the maintenance of a hole
in the new cuticle until the cuticle is permanent and for the transfer of materials into the cuticle.
Pore canals become helical due to the compressive forces occurring during tanning. The number
of pore canals per cell varies from species to species, cockroach having as many as 200 per cell
(1,200,000/mm2), while Sarcophaga has 50-70 per cell.

Basement membrane:

 Basement membrane is an amorphous granular neutral mucopolysaccharide layer, up to

0.5µ thick and lies just below the epidermis forming a continuous sheet similar to neural
lamella.

Cuticular appendages:

 These structures include all outgrowths of the cuticle that are connected with it by means
of membranous joint.
 They arise from modified epidermal cells.
 They are setae and spurs.

20
  Setae or Macrotichia: They are hollow structures grown as an as extension of exocuticle.
Each setae arises from cup like pit called as alveolus, are commonly known as hairs or hair
like projections which arise from a special epidermal cell called trichogen (sensillum
forming cell) which penetrates through another cell called tormogen (socket forming cell)
which at the outside forms a membrane and articulate at this site. In some the setae like
structure innervates the sense organ formed by epidermal cells which receive sensory
nerve.

The main kinds of setae are:

o Clothing hairs: invest general surface of the body or its appendages eg: plumose
hairs in Apoidea bristles in Tachnidae
o Scales: Highly modified clothing hairs and are characteristic of lepidopteran wings.
o Glandular setae: those function as outlets for the secretion of epidermal glands. If
they are rigid then they are termed as glandular bristles eg: certain lepidopteran
larvae
o Sensory setae: Setae in certain appendages modified for sensory function and are
connected with nervous system.
 Spurs: differ from setae in being multicellular origin. Occur on legs of insects Eg: End of
tibia in orthoptera, Lateral claws in insect leg.

Cuticular processes (Microtrichia)

 These are outgrowths on the external surface of the cuticle without membranous
articulations / joints.
 These are non-cellular processes rigidly connected with the cuticle.
1. Fixed hair like structures found on the wings of certain Diptera.
2. Spines-outgrowths of cuticle which is thorn like, immovable-hind tibia of
Orthoptera.
3. Nodules
4. Tubercles
5. Horns-males of Coleoptera

21
Chaetotaxy: Arrangement of bristles on an exoskeleton of an insect is called chaetotaxy. The
chaetotaxy is being studied for taxonomic purposes.

Moulting, Ecdysis, Apolysis and Sclerotization

One of the general characteristics that defines the phylum Arthropoda (which includes insects,
spiders, and crustaceans) is an external skeleton, also called an exoskeleton. The arthropod
exoskeleton completely covers the outside of the body and the muscles inside adhere to it.
Exoskeletons are hard and protect the body. Because the exoskeleton is hard and rigid, an
arthropod cannot grow unless it sheds its old exoskeleton and secretes a new one. This process is
called molting. Arthropod growth is limited to molting, so growth happens in steps rather than
continuously. The stages between moltings are called instars. The extent of an individual's growth
between molts and the length of time between molts are related to the temperature as well as to the
amount of food and water an individual gets. The whole of the life history of the insect is geared
to the moulting cycle and coordination of various aspects of moulting involves a number of
hormones.

Moulting: Series of changes, which developmental stages undergo for the formation of
new cuticle and structures associated with it. Periodically outgrow and replace its
exoskeleton.

Ecdysis: The process of shedding the cuticle is called ecdysis.

Apolysis: Separation of epidermis from the cuticle giving narrow space in between and
this process is called apolysis.

Sclerotization: The process by which the cuticle is hardened by substances other than
chitin.

Tanning: The process by which the cuticle is darkened.

The cuticle is hard and forms unstretchable exoskeleton in insect, and it must be shed from time
to time to permit insect to grow and increase size. Before the old cuticle is shed, the new one has
to form underneath it. The process of shedding the cuticle is called ecdysis. Moulting includes the
series of changes, which developmental stages undergo for the formation of new cuticle and

22
structures associated with it. The process of moulting ends by the accomplishment of ecdysis when
the old cuticle splits to liberate the new instar of the insect. Pterygote (winged) insects cease
moulting after attaining adulthood, but apterygote (wingless) insects (silverfish) undergo moulting
even after attaining adulthood.

The molting process is triggered by hormones released when an insect's growth reaches the
physical limits of its exoskeleton. Each molt represents the end of one growth stage (instar) and
the beginning of another. In some insect species the number of instars is constant (typically from
3 to 15), but in others it may vary in response to temperature, food availability, or other
environmental factors. An insect is known as an imago (adult) when it becomes sexually mature.
At this point, molting stops and energy for growth is channeled into production of eggs or sperm.

An insect cannot survive without the support and protection of its exoskeleton, so a new, larger
replacement must be constructed inside the old one -- much like putting an overcoat under a
sweater! The molting process begins when epidermal cells respond to hormonal changes by
increasing their rate of protein synthesis. This quickly leads to apolysisphysical separation of the
epidermis from the old endocuticle. Epidermal cells fill the resulting gap with an inactive molting
fluid and then secrete a special lipoprotein (the cuticulin layer) that insulates and protects them
from the molting fluid's digestive action. This cuticulin layer becomes part of the new
exoskeleton's epicuticle.

After formation of the cuticulin layer, molting fluid becomes activated and chemically "digests"
the endocuticle of the old exoskeleton. Break-down products (amino acids andchitin microfibrils)
pass through the cuticulin layer where they are recycled by the epidermal cells and secreted under
the cuticulin layer as new procuticle (soft and wrinkled). Pore canals within the procuticle allow
movement of lipids and proteins toward the new epicuticle where wax and cement layers form.

When the new exoskeleton is ready, muscular contractions and intake of air cause the insect's body
to swell until the old exoskeleton splits open along lines of weakness (ecdysial sutures). The insect
sheds its old exoskeleton (ecdysis) and continues to fully expand the new one. Over the next few
hours, sclerites will harden and darken as quinone cross-linkages form within the exocuticle. This
process (called sclerotization or tanning) gives the exoskeleton its final texture and appearance.

23
An insect that is actively constructing new exoskeleton is said to be in a pharate condition. During
the days or weeks of this process there may be very little evidence of change. Ecdysis, however,
occurs quickly (in minutes to hours). A newly molted insect is soft and largely unpigmented (white
or ivory). It is said to be in a teneral condition until the process of tanning is completed (usually a
day or two).

Process of molting (formation of new cuticle layers):

Step 1:

 Triggering of moulting is under hormonal control.

 Ecdysone is secreted from glands (pro-thoracic glands) behind the brain.
 Once it is released the molting process begins.

Step 2:

 Apolysis-separation of old exoskeleton from epidermis

 The epidermis now separates from the cuticle giving rise to a narrow space in between the
epidermis and cuticle. This process of separation of epidermis is called apolysis.

Step 3:

 Secretion of moulting fluid by epidermis.

 This space is filled with moulting fluid (contains enzymes) secreted by epidermis.
 The fluid contains certain enzymes, chiefly a proteinase and a chitinase which digest the
entire endocuticle but does not attack the epicuticle.

Step 4:

 The first layer secreted over the surface of separated epidermis in the formation of the new
cuticle, is protein epicuticle or cuticulin.
 Production of cuticulin layer (outer epicuticle-consisting of protein and polyphenols,
highly resistance to acids and organic solvents) for new exoskeleton.
 Premolt-new cuticle is secreted underneath (inside) old cuticle

Step 5:

24
  Activation of moulting fluid.
 The enzymes in the moulting fluid are activated only after the completion of the
epicuticular layer.
 The moulting fluid due to presence of some unknown phenomenon has no effect on
exocuticle, nerve and muscle connections to the old cuticle and a very thin portion of
endocuticle.
 The latter forms the ecdysial membrane.

Step 6:

 Digestion and absorption of old endocuticle.

 After digestion of old cuticle and re-absorption of moulting fluid, the wax layer is laid on
the surface of the cuticle.

Step 7:

 Epidermis secretes new procuticle

 Beneath epicuticle, procuticle is formed, which after the tanning process, gets
differentiated into exo- and endo-cuticle.

Step 8:

 A waxy material is produced by the epidermal cells and is transported by pore canals
through procuticle and deposited over the protein epicuticle in the form of lipidepicuticle.

Step 9:

 Ecdysis-shedding the old exo- and epicuticle

 The insect shows active muscular activity to apply pressure on the old exocuticle which
splits at ecdysial line of weakness.
 The muscular movements are supplemented by swallowing of air or water.
 In some dipteran pupa special organ called ptilinum is present on the head.
 Once the old cuticle splits, the new insect wriggles out. Head and thorax come out first
followed by abdomen, legs and wings.
 The volume of insect also increases as the cuticle is not yet hard and is expandable.

25
  At this stage cement layer is laid over the wax layer.
 Thus, it can be seen that in the formation of epicuticular layers substance of inner most
layer is secreted first and the materials of the outer layers are carried through pore canals
and superimposed as successive layers described above.

Step 10:

 Tanning / Sclerotization / Hardening of new exocuticle (in procuticle-outer enxocuticle)

 In due course of time, during the formation of new cuticle and sepration from old cuticle,
cuticular parts are characteristically tanned and become hard.
 When insect undergoes ecdysis the cuticle is soft and can expand to permit increase in the
size of the animal.
 Soon procuticle consisting chiefly of protein and chitin undergoes chemical changes.
 The cuticular protein, arthropodin is water soluble. It becomes water insoluble as a result
of tanning reactions.
 The tanned exocuticle becomes hard and brittle, it loses considerable amount of water and
arthropodin changes in to sclerotin, and hence the process is called as sclerotization.
 The insects which moult several times e.g., some holometabolous larvae, the cuticle
contains little exocuticle with the result that most of the cuticle is digested and absorbed.
 Some insects like Collembola eat their exuviae which is another method of conservation
of cuticular material.
2.3. The main body regions and segmentation
 Insect is a small invertebrate animal with hard exoskeleton protecting soft interiors, and
the body is segmented in to head, thorax and abdomen, each of which is in turn composed
of several small segments, three pairs of jointed legs, and, usually, two pairs of wings; they
belong to Artropods and are distributed throughout the world.
 An insect's body is divided into three segments: head, thorax, and abdomen. On the head
is a pair of feelers, or antennae (for smell). The legs (for walking or running) and wings
(for flying) are attached to the thorax, or middle segment of the body. The abdomen, or end
segment of the body, is where food is digested and excreted and where the reproductive
organs are located.
 Each segment in Insecta is referred as somite or metamere.

26
 In all adult arthropoda some of the segments are more or less united in to groups forming
distinct trunk sections or tagmata. This type of grouping of segments in to body regions is
called tagmosis and each region is called tagmata.

27
 The skeleton of an insect is external and is composed of chitin. It is membranous at the
joints, but elsewhere is hard.
 The head is the feeding and sensory center. Head consists of SIX fused segments. It bears
the antennae, eyes, and mouthparts. By means of the antennae, the insect detects odours
and experiences the sense of touch. The eyes include compound eyes and simple eyes
(ocelli). Compound eyes are formed of a large number of individual facets or lenses
(ommatidia); there are about 4,000 lenses to each compound eye in the housefly. The
mouthparts include a labrum, or upper lip; a pair of principal jaws, or mandibles; a pair of
accessory jaws, or maxillae; and a labium, or lower lip. These mouthparts are modified in
the various insect groups, depending on their diet.
 The thorax is the locomotory centre, and is made up of three segments: the pro-, meso, and
metathorax. Each bears a pair of legs, and, in flying insects, the second and third of these
segments also each bear a pair of wings. The wings are composed of an upper and a lower
membrane, and between these two layers they are strengthened by a framework of
chitinous tubes known as veins.
 The abdomen is the metabolic and reproductive centre, where digestion, excretion, and the
sexual functions take place. Generally, abdomen consists of 11 segments. In the female,
there is very commonly an egg-laying instrument, or ovipositor, and many insects have a
pair of tail feelers, or cerci. Most insects breathe by means of fine airtubes called tracheae,
which open to the exterior by a pair of breathing pores, or spiracles. Reproduction is by
diverse means. In most insects, mating occurs once only, and death soon follows.
 Each body segment is formed into a ring like structure by the fusion of dorsal tergum,
ventral sternum and lateral pleuron. (Picture below is Transverse section of Insect Thorax).

28
HEAD

 The head is almost a completely sclerotized capsule formed due to fusion of six segments.
 It is composed of mainly rigid sclerites or sclerotized segments. The insect head is a capsule
that contains a pair of compound eyes, a pair of simple eyes (ocelli), mouth parts and a pair
of antennae. Insects exhibit different types of antennae, some exhibiting a sexual
dimorphism with regard to the type of antennae.
 The different appendages attach to the head capsule are, Antenna, Mandible, Maxillae and
Labium.
 Procephelon: The part of an insect's head that lies anteriorly to the segment in which the
mandibles are located.
 Gnathocephelon: The part of the insect head lying behind the protocephalon; bears the
maxillae and mandibles.

Orientation of Head: The orientation of head with respect to the rest of the body varies. Insects
have three basic types of head viz.

 Hypognathous (the mouthparts are directed downward, with the mouth parts in a
continous series with the legs, is a primitive type. This orientation mostly occurs in
vegetarian speciaes living in open habitats.
 prognathous (the mouthparts are directed forward and this is found in carnivores species
which actively pursue their prey, and in larvae, particularly of coleopteran, which use their
mandible for burrowing)
 ophisthorhynchous (the elongated proboscis slopes backwards between the front legs, e.g.
Hemiptera and Homoptera)

29
Segments of Head Capsule: The head is almost a completely sclerotized capsule formed due to
fusion of six segments. It is composed of mainly rigid sclerites (hardened body parts) or sclerotized
segments.

o 1st segment : pre antennary bears compound eyes and no other appendages
o 2nd segment: antennary a pair of antennae is present.
o 3rd segment: Intercalary segment inserts in between without any appendages.
o 4th segment: Mandibular a pair of mandibles is present.
o 5th segment: Maxillary a pair of maxillae is present (with 1st maxilla).
o 6th segment: Labial a pair of second maxillae or labium is present.

Sclerites of Insect Head Capsule:

1. Vertex (Epicranium)-the top or dorsal side of the head is known as vertex. It is

situated in between the eyes at the back of frons. Ocelli and antennae are present
on vertex.
2. Frons-It is present on the anterior face which lies between or below the epicranial
arms. The median ocellus is located on it. It is bounded by the frontoclypeal suture
ventrally.

30
 3. Clypeus-It is a tip like structure located between frontoclypeal suture and labrum.
It is attached with the frons. The labrum hangs below it or articulate be means of
membranous connection between them.
4. Labrum-It is lower lip
5. Gena (lateral sides)-It is the lower part of the head beneath the eyes and lies
posterior to the frons. A general suture is present between frons and gena. The area
directly posterior to the eyes is termed the post gena.
6. Post gena-sclerites below the genae and above the mandibles.
7. Occiput-It is the area comprising most of the back of the head. The occipital suture
divides it from the vertex and genae.
8. Post-occiput-It forms the margin of the occipital foramen and narrow ring like in
shape. The post-occipital suture divides it from occiput.
 Occipital foramen connects the back of the head with the body.
 These Sclerites (segments) are clearly separated by different lines or grooves called sutures
or sulci.
 The areas of the head enclosed between sutures are called sclerites.
 There are seven sutures in the head capsule.
1. Epicranial suture (Ecdysial suture): It is an inverted ‘Y’ shaped suture
separating vertex and frons. The stem is coronal suture and the arms are
frontal sutures. Frontal sutures come in few of grasshoppers.
2. Fronto-clypeal suture (Epistomal suture): A line between frons and
clypeus.
3. Clypeo-labral suture: A line between clypeus and labrum.
4. Genal suture: Lies on either side of the head below the compound eyes
separating facial part from gena.
5. Sub-genal suture: A line below the gena on either side of the head.
6. Occipital suture: A line between occiput and post occiput.
7. Post-occipital suture: of these, post-occipital suture is the only real suture,
separating maxillary and labial segments, as other sutures, do not represent
real sutu

31
Antennae of Insects: Olfactory organs

 Antennae are a pair of sensory preoral appendages arising from the 2nd or antennal segment
of the head possessing nerves coming from deutocerebrum of the brain.
 Antennae are also called feelers.
 Some of the information that can be detected by insect antennae includes: motion and
orientation, odor, sound, humidity, and a variety of chemical cues.
 In some insects, they may be useful for respiration, for holding the food or make and for
communication.
 They are well developed in adults and poorly developed in immature stages.
 Antennae are absent in order protura and class Arachnida whereas 2 pairs of antenna
(antennules) are present in class Crustacea.
 Antennae arise from antennal socket.
 Aantennal socket (antennifer) is provided with an antennal suture. The base of socket is
connected to the edge of the socket by an articulatory membrane. This permits free
movement of antennae
 They are the first pair of appendages of head.
 The size and shape of antennae varies in different insects.
 They are usually larger in males (sexual dimorphism) & the character can be used for
identification of sex of some insects.

Structure of Antenna: Antennae consist of three parts: a) scape, b) pedicel and c) flagellum.
Segments 1 and 2 are termed the scape and pedicel, respectively. The remaining antennal segments
(flagellomeres) are jointly called the flagellum.

32
 A. Scape: It is first basal segment of antenna by which the antennae is attached to the head. It
is often distinctly larger than the other succeeding joints. It articulates with the antennal
ridge.
B. Pedicel: The joint immediately followed the scape is pedicel. It is usually small and
contains a special sensory structure known as Johnston’s organ, which is absent in Diplura,
Collembola.
C. Flagellum: It is also known as clavola, and is the remaining part of the antenna. Flagellum
segments (flagellomeres) increase in number in certain insects. It is modified according to
the surroundings and habits of the insects. Flagellum is subdivided into ring segments,
funicle and club.

Types of antennae: Antennae are of many shapes and sizes. Various types can be noticed in insects.

Type of antenna Examples Modifications

Segments are more or less uniform
Filiform throughout, from base to apex and never
(Thread like) ends with bristle. Filiform antennae have a
thread-like shape.

Asian Long Horned Beetle Examples: Grasshopper, Ground and

longhorned beetles (order Coleoptera.

Grasshopper
Segments gradually decreases from base
Setaceous to apex presenting a whip or bristle like
(Whip like or bristle like) structure.

American Cockroach Examples: Cockroach, Dragonflies and

damselflies (order Odonata).

Dragon fly
Moniliform Segments are round or oval with well
(like string of beads) developed constrictions between segments,
appearing like a string of beads.
Example: Termites

Termites (Isoptera)

33
Pectinate (comb like) Segments possess lateral processes on the
side giving
double comb like appearance.
Example: Female arctiid moth, Fire-
colored beetles
and fireflies (order Coleoptera).
Fire fly (Coleoptera)

Bipectinate Segments bear lateral processes on either

(double comb like) side, giving double comb like appearance.
Example: Male Lymantriidd moth,
Mulberry silk moth
Mulbery Silk Moth

Serrate (saw like) Segments of flagellum are triangular with

projecting points on one side giving saw like
appearance.
Example: Pulse beetle, Jewel beetle
Clik Beetle (Coleoptera)
(Coleoptera)

Clavate (clubbed): Segments gradually increase in diameter

from base to tip ending in a club like apical
part. Clavate antennae are gradually clubbed
at the end.

Order Coleoptera: Oeceoptoma thoracica Examples: Carrion beetles (order

Coleoptera). Adult carrion beetles feed on
decaying animal matter or maggots,
Butterflies.

Clavate with hook (clubbed Segments gradually increase in diameter

antennae with hook) from base to tip and the last one ends with a
small hook like structure. Examples:
Skipper butterflies.

Skipper Butterfly

34
Capitate Segments gradually increase in diameter
(clubbed with knob) from base to apex and the terminal 3 to 5
segments suddenly enlarge to form a knob
like structure. Capitate antennae are abruptly
clubbed at the end.
Speckled wood butterfly
Examples: Red flour beetle, Blister
beetles. Butterflies (order Lepidoptera).

Red-banded hairstreak
Geniculate (elbowed) The first segment (scape) is greatly elongated
and flagellum always makes an angle with it.
Example: Ants, honey bees (order
Hymenoptera).

Order Hymenoptera: Carpenter ant

Lamellate The terminal segments expand to one side
into lateral oval lobes and appear as leaf
like. Lamellate or clubbed antennae end in
nested plates.

Order Coleoptera: Japanese beetle

Examples: Rhinoceros beetle, Dung rollers,
Chaffer beetle (order Coleoptera).

Order Coleoptera: Conifer scarab

Flabellate (Plate like) The terminal segments expand on one side
into lateral lobes. The sides of the lobes are
parallel.
Examples: Stylopids.

Plumose (brush like with Whorls of hairs arise from each joint of the
dense hairs) segment. Each whorl contains a number of
hairs. Plumose antennae have a feather-like
shape.
Mosquito male, Culex
Examples: Moths (order Lepidoptera) and
mosquitoes (order Diptera).

Luna
moth, Actius luna

35
Pilose (brush like with Looks like plumose but each whorl contains
sparse hairs) less number hairs.

Examples: Female mosquito.

Aristate (antennae with Antennae are small, microscopic, three

arista) segmented. Third segment enlarged and bears
a bristle called arista on its dorsal side.
Examples: House
and shore flies (order Diptera).
House fly, Musca domestica

Stylate
(antennae with style) Antennae small 3 to 4 segmented. Terminal
segment elongate in to bristle like structure
called style.

Example: Robberfly.

Robber fly

Functions of Antennae:

 The antenna functions primarily as sense organs and they bear very large number of
sensilla. Usually there are several types of sensillum on antenna, usually most of these
found in the middle of flagellum.
 The various types of sensilla function as tactile and ordour receptors, contact
chemoreceptors, Hygroreceptors and temperature receptors.
 Olfactory receptors (odour receptors) on antenna useful for to bind to odour molecules,
particlularly in males very useful for pheromones.
 The antenna as a whole involved in perception of sound by male mosquitoes and some
other insects, and with the measurement of air speed. In these cases, movements of
flagellum are monitored by Johnston’s organ, in the pedicel of insects.
 In fleas and collembolan, the antennae are used in mating. Male fleas use the antenna to
clasp the female.

36
Mouth parts: Feeding organs

 These are organs concerned with feeding.

 The 5 main parts of typical insect mouth are
1. Upper Lip or labrum
2. Anterior Jaws or mandibles
3. Accessory Jaws or maxillae (plural maxilla) and
4. Lowe Lip or labium.
5. Tongue like structure or Hypopharynx

 The labrum is a simple fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves longitudinally.
It is hinged to the clypeus.
 The mandibles, or anterior jaws, are highly sclerotized paired structures that move at right
angles to the body. They are used for biting, chewing and severing/cutting food.
 The maxillae or accessory jaws are paired structures that can move at right angles to the
body and possess segmented palps. They are used for holding and sending food into mouth.

37
  The labium (often called the lower lip), is a fused structure that moves longitudinally and
possesses a pair of segmented palps.

Mouthparts vary greatly among insects of different orders, but basically the mouth parts may
be divided into two groups:

o Chewing and Biting type (considered as primitive) (mandibulate)

o Sucking type (haustellate)

Sr. Type of Mouth parts Examples

No.
I (Mandibulate type) Those insects feeding on solid food material.

1. Chewing and Biting type Grasshoppers, cockroachesBeetles, Lepidopterous

larvae.

II Sucking type / Haustellate type Those insects feeding on liquid food material.

[Link] and sucking type Plant Bugs and Mosquitoes

[Link] and sucking type Thrips

[Link] type Adult Houseflies

38
 [Link] and lapping type Honey bees

[Link] type Butterflies and moths

III Other types

1. Mask type Naids of Dragonflies

2. Degenerate type Maggots of Diptera

MANDIBULATE TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS

 Those insects feeding on solid food material such as leaves, fruits, tree bark.
I) CHEWING AND BITING TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS
E.g. Grass hopper, Cockroach, Beetles, Lepidopterous larvae

(a) Labrum:

 It is a single unpaired that forms the upper lip of the mouth cavity.

39
  It protects the mandibles and helps in closing of the mouth cavity and guides
the food in to mouth or hold the food material while feeding.
 Labrum hangs down from the clypeus through a clypeo-labral suture.
 The inner surface of labrum is lined by small lobe like epipharynx, which is the
taste organ.

(b) Mandibles:

 These are the paired, unsegmented, and strongest and sclerotized structures
called first pair of jaws.
 They are attached to the head capsule by means of two joints known as
ginglymus and condyle.
 They possess teeth like molars and incisors that help in the process of cutting
the food material.
 Each mandible is moved by powerful Abductor and adductor muscles.
(c) Maxillae:

 These are paired and also known as second pair of jaws.

 These are homologous structures with basal triangular ‘cardo’, middle
rectangular ‘stipes’ and the lateral ‘palpifer’ bearing maxillary palpi and lobe
like inner ‘lacinia’ and outer ‘galea’. Maxillary palps possess olfactory and
gustatory sense receptors and function as sensory organs. These Galea and
lacinia helps in holding the food material along with the mandibles.

(d) Labium:

 It is known as lower lip and is also called as second maxillae. It closes the
mouth cavity from below.
 It is divided in to proximal prementum. centralmentum and distal
submentum Prementum has three terminal lobes.
 Near the base of pre mentum, on either side lobe like ‘palpiger’ is present
which bears labial palps. The median pair is ‘glossae’ and outer ‘paraglossae’
together called ligula that function mainly as gustatory sense organs.

(e) Hypopharynx:

 It is a tongue like structure situated between labrum and labium and ducts of salivary glands
open on or near its base. The function of hypopharynx is to mix saliva with the food
material.

40
 HAUSTELLATE TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS
 Those insects feed on liquid food material such plant sap, fruit juice, blood etc
1. PIERCING AND SUCKING TYPEOF MOUTH PARTS

 e.g.: plant bugs, mosquitoes

They are mainly adopted for piercing the tissues and sucking either plant sap or the nectar or blood
from the host

a) Labrum :
 Labrum is modified into a small flap like structure at the base of rostrum.

b) Mandibles & maxillae:

 Mandibles and maxillae are modified in to sharp needle like stylets.
(Four in numbers)
 The mandibular stylets form the outer pair and possess serrated
margins at their tip.
 The maxillary stylets forms the inner pair having smooth curved tips
and combining together enclosing a food channel.
 The food channel is divided in to an upper cibarium and lower
salivarium with the help of the grooves present inside the maxillary
stylets. Salivarium is used for releasing the saliva and cibarium is
used for sucking the sap.
c) Labium :
 Mouth parts are represented by rostrum/beak/Proboscis which is a
modification of Labium.
 It acts as a pouch for protecting the mandibular and maxillary stylets.
 Rostrum has sensory hairs at its tip for sampling the food and
locating spot for piercing.

41
 d) Hypopharynx :
 The hypopharynx is modified in to a pharyngeal pump and is
situated at the tip of the food channel.

 Feeding Mechanism:
 At rest proboscis is always held parallel to ventral side of insect body.
 During feeding the rostrum shot out, stylets released and rostrum looped
behind to allow the stylets to penetrate plant tissues.
 Mandibular stylets by their sliding movement puncture a hole in plant
tissues. Then maxillary stylets are pushed inside.
 Saliva is injected through salivary channel to dilute the cell sap, dissolve the
cell wall.
 Then suck the contents (sap/ blood / nectar) through cibarium with the action
of pharyngeal and cibarial muscles.

2. RASPING AND SUCKING TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS E.g. Thrips

 Insect like thrips lacerate the epidermis of plant parts and suck the
oozing cell sap.
 These are called asymmetrical type, since right mandible is rudimentary
or reduce or absent whereas the left mandible is modified in to a
mandibular stylet hence left mandible is present.
 Maxillae are modified in to maxillary stylets which are mainly useful
for sucking the sap that is released outside due to the rasping of tissues
by the left mandible.

3. SPONGING TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS: - e.g.: housefly

42
 a) Labrum:
 It is represented by labrum epipharynx.
 It forms stylet.
 It is born on anterior face of haustellum.
b) Mandibles: They are entirely absent.
c) Maxillae: They are represented by a pair of maxillary [Link]
palpi are 1-3 segmented
d) Labium :
 These mouthparts are represented by proboscis formed from the
labium.
 The proboscis is divided into a basal rostrum, middle haustellum and
adistallabellum.
 The labellum is a sponge like structure. It is traversed by a number
of narrow transverse channels called pseudotrachea which
converge at one point in the centre of the labellum. From this point,
the food enters in to food channel which is formed by the labrum-
epipharynx and hypopharynx.
e) Hypopharynx:
 It is also modified into stylet like structure and is present on
haustellum.

 Feeding Mechanism:
 During feeding, the proboscis is pressed over the food material.
 The pseudo trachea gets filled with the food material by the capillary action
which converges at one point in the centre of the labellum.
 From this point, the food enter in to food channel which is formed by the
labrum- epipharynx and hypopharynx and is sucked up from the central
point in to the oesophagus.

4. CHEWING AND LAPPING TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS:e.g.: honey bees

43
  The labrum and mandibles are biting type whereas maxillae, labium and
hypopharynx combine together to form a sucking proboscis.
a) Labrum: It is narrow plate attached to clypeus.
b) Mandibles: The mandibles are dumbbell shaped, used for molding wax and
squeezing the nectar.
c) Maxillae :
 Both maxillae are modified and suspended from head.
 They are articulated through like cardo to which is attached stipes.
 The maxillary palpi are very small or reduced and it is peg like
structure articulating with stipes.
 The cardo of maxillae unite with submentum of labium forming an
inverted “V” shaped lorum.
 Galea and lacinia attached at the lorum.
d) Labium :It is also called as proboscis and consist of following parts;
 Submentum (lorum),mentum, prementum, labial palp and glossa.
 Glossae are provided with long hairs and a small spoon shaped lobe,
called flabellum or bouton at its apex.
 Two paraglossa are cup like structure situated at the base of glossa.
e) Hypopharynx: It is vestigial or reduces.
Feeding Mechanism:
 When at rest the mouthparts are folded down beneath the head.
 During feeding they become straight and shot out glossae and lick
the nectar with the help of flabellum.
 The glossal toung thus smeared with nectar is rapidly retracted
between labial palp and galeae.
 As a result the nectar is squeezed off and deposited in a small cavity
formed by paraglossae and sucked in by the capillary action of
pharyngeal pump.
5. SIPHONING TYPE OF MOUTH PARTS: e.g.: Moths and Butterflies.

44
  These are specially modified for taking nectar from the flowers.
 The galea of maxilla form into a slender, hollow, tubular structure which remains
as an elongated coiled proboscis underneath the head during non -feeding.
 Mandibles are totally absent.
 The labrum and maxilla palpi are reduced.
 Labium is modified in to a small basal plate possessing 3 segmented labial palps.
 The food channel is formed by the fusion of both the galeae.
 The nectar will be sucked from the flowers through muscular action

THORAX:

 An insect thorax is divided into three parts: the prothorax (pro=first), mesothorax
(meso=middle), and metathorax (Meta=last).
 Each segment consists of hardened plates, or sclerites. Dorsal sclerites are called nota
(singular notum), lateral sclerites are called pleura (singular pleuron), and ventral sclerites
are called sterna (singular sternum).
 The terga of thoracic segments are called notum.
 The dorsal sclerites of pro-, meso- and meta-thoracic segments are called as pronotum,
mesonotum and metanotum.
 Each thoracic segment contains one pair of legs.
 Wings are found only on the meso- and metathoracic segments, and are together called as
pterothorax. Prothorax never bears wings and varies in size.
 The pronotum is the dorsal sclerite of the prothorax and the pronotum of grasshopper;
cockroaches, beetles and bugs are enlarged.
 Cockroaches have pronotums that extend forward over the head.
 Scarab beetles and other beetles may also have unusual pronotums.
 Treehoppers have some of the most bizarre pronotums of all insects.

45
  In winged insects the meso and Meta thoracic segments which bears wings known as
pterothorax.
 Meso and Meta Pleuron is divided in to anterior episternum and posterior epimeron by
pleural suture.
 Two pairs of spiracles are present between pro and meso, and meso and meta thoracic
segments.

INSECT LEG

 Insect legs are paired; hollow more or less cylindrical and jointed outgrowth of
thoracic segments. They are the important locomotory organ.

Components of Insect Leg

46
  Insect leg mainly consists of 5 parts viz.

1. Coxa: It is the functional basal segment and it is rigidly fixed to thorax.

2. Trochanter: It is very small and the second segment. It is articulated with coxa and
fixed to femur.

3. Femur: It is the largest, strongest segment and is articulated with the tibia..

4. Tibia: It is equal or more than the length of the femur, articulated with tarsus.

5. Tarsus: it is the largest segment of the leg and usually devided into sub segments
tarsomeres. The number of tarsomeres vary from 1-5. The tarsus at its end consists of
pretarsus which is in the form of a pair of claws and cushion like pulvilli. In between
the claws, if there is lobe like structure, it is known as “arolium” as in Orthoptera (grass
hopper) and if it is bristle like structure, it is called “embodium” as in Diptera.

 Legs of Larvae: Prolegs

 Thoracic legs mean true legs and abdominal legs mean Pseudo legsor false leg of
larvae. There are two to five pairs.
 Abdominal legs are thick, fleshy and unsegmented and the tip (Planta) bear hooks called
crochets, which help in cling the plant surface.

MODIFICATIONS OF LEGS IN DIFFERENT INSECTS

Type Legs modified Example purpose

Cursorial All legs Blister beetle, wasp Walking

Ambulatorial All legs Cockroach Running

Saltatorial Hind legs Grasshopper , gryllids Leaping and jumping

Fossorial Front legs Mole crickets, dung rollers Digging

Raptorial Front legs Preying mantids Preying (grasping )

47
Natatorial Hind legs Water beetle, water bugs Swimming

Scansorial All legs Head louse clinging

Prehensile All legs Dragon flies Catching prey,

basketForming type

Antennal Front legs Honey bee For cleaningantennae

cleaning legs

Pollen basket Hind legs Honey bee For collectingpollen

and brush type and cleaning the
body

INSECT WINGS

 Based on the presence or absence of wings, class insecta is divided into two subclasses;
1. Apterygota &
2. Pterygota

48
 The primitive apterygotes are wingless. E.g.: Silver fish and spring tails.
 Secondarily wingless insects: Among pterygotes, some insects in their advanced stage of
growth (Adult) shed the wings e.g. Bed bugs, head louse.
 Based on the degree of development of wings the insects may be classified into three forms;
1) Macropterous,
2) Brachypterous &
3) Apterous.
 The insect wings may sometimes possess some pigmented spot near coastal margin known
as pterostigma or stigma as in Odonata (dragon flies and damsel flies).

Fig. Insect wing areas

 A typical insect wing is triangular with three margins and three angles.
 The anterior margin strengthened by the costa is called coastal margin and the
lateral margin is called apical margin and the posterior margin is called anal
margin
 Three angles are,
o Humeral angle: between body wall and costal margin
o Apical or outer angle: between costal and apical margin
o Anal angle or tornus : between apical and anal margin
 Wings area are;
 The surface area of typical insect wing is divided in to two portions i.e. Remegium
and Vannal Area.
 The anterior (upper) part of the wing towards coastal margin where more no of
longitudinal veins are present is called remigium.
 The posterior part of the wing where veins are sparsely distributed is known as
Vannal Area, which is called as clavus in forewings and vanus in hindwings.
 Jugum is the inner most portion of the wing that is cutoff from the main wing by
jugal fold.

49
  Wings are very thin broad leaf like structures strengthened by a number of hollow
narrow tubular structures called veins.
 Arrangement of veins on wing surface is known as Wing venation, which consists
of two types of veins;

1. Longitudinal veins: Extend from base of the wing to the margin. They may be convex
(∩) or concave (U)

2. Cross veins: That interlinks the longitudinal veins.

Fig. Hypothetical wing venation

Longitudinal veins:
1. Costa (C): It forms the thickened anterior margin of the wing (costal) and isun-
branched and is convex
2. Sub costa (Sc): It runs immediately below the costa always in the bottom ofa trough
between C and R. The two branches of SC are Sc1 and Sc2 and is concave
3. Radial vein (R): It is the next main vein, it divided in to two branches R1 and Rs
(Radial sector). R1 goes directly towards apical margin and is convex; Rs is
concave and divided in to 4branches, R2, R3, R4, and R5.
4. Media (M) It is divided in two branches 1. Media anterior (MA) which is convex
and2. Media posterior (MP) and is concave. Media anterior is again divided into
MA1 and MA2. Median posterior is again divided in to MP1, MP2, MP3, and MP4.
5. Cubitus (Cu): Cubitus is divided into convex CU1 and concave CU2. CU1 is again
divided into CU1a and CU1b.
6. Anal veins (A): These veins are convex. They are individual un-branched, 1-3 in
number.1 or 2 jugal veins (unbranched) are present in the jugal lobe of the forewing

50
Cross veins: - Small veins often found inter connecting the longitudinal veins are
called cross veins.

 Humeral cross vein (h): between costa and subcosta.

 Radial cross vein (r): between radius and radial sector.
 Sectorial cross veins (s): between sub branches of radial sector.
 Radio medial cross vein (r-m): between radius and media.
 Medical cross veins: between branches of media.
 Medio-cubital veins: between media and cubitus.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WINGS

1. Tegmina: Forewings are leathery and tough. They are protective in function. They
protect the membranous hindwings. They are not used for flight.e.g.: forewings
wings of cockroach, grasshopper
2. Elytra: The wing is heavily sclerotised without clear venation. Wing is tough and it
is protective in function. They protect the membranous hind wings and abdomen.
e.g.: Forewings beetles and weevils.
3. Hemelytra: The base of the wing is thick like elytra and the remaining half is
membranous. They are not involved in flight and are protective in function. e.g.:
Forewings of bugs.
4. Membranous: Naked thin with clear venation. e.g.: Both the wings of Dragonflies,
bees and wasps, Hind wings of grasshopper, beetles,cockroach, both fore wings and
hind wings of (wasp, bees, dragonfly and damselfly).
5. Scaly wings: Wings thin, membranous but covered with unicellular scales all over
the surface. Scales are responsible for colour. e.g.: Both the wings of moths and
butterflies.
6. Fringed wings: Wings are highly reduced with reduced venation. The wings are
fringed with long marginal hairs giving a feather like appearance e.g. both the wings
of thrips
7. Fissured wings: Forewings are longitudinally divided twice forming a fork like
structure whereas hindwings are divided twice in to three arms. All the forks
possess small marginal hairs.e.g: Both the wings of plume moth
8. Halteres: In houseflies the hind wings are modified into small microscopic
structures/ knobbed vibrating organs called haltere. They are divided in to three
regions namely scabellum, pedicel and capitellum. They act as balancers. E.g.
Hind wings housefly and front wings, male stylopids, mosquito and male scale
insect.
9. Pseudohalteres: They are short and modified in to pseudohalteres which are
dumbbell shaped. Eg: Front wings of Strepsiptera

51
Wing Coupling Apparatus and Mechanism:

 During flight, both the wings of insects are kept together by different inter-locking
small structures. These inter-locking structures are called wing coupling apparatus.
They are of different types: Jugum type, Frenulum & Retinaculum type, Amplexiform
& Humuli type

Jugum:

 Examples: Primitive Lepidopterous Insects.

 The anal margin of the forewing possesses a small lobe (jugum lobe or jugum) at its
base called fibula-, projects behind hind-wings, which rests upon the surface of the
hind wing.
 Sometimes a spine is present on costal surface of hindwings. In this manner the
wings become inter locked.

Frenulum & Retinaculum type:

 Examples: Moths.
 The hind wing possesses a bristle like structure called frenumlum at its humeral
angleand the fore wing possesses a hook-like structure called “retinaculum”, on the
anal side.
 During flight the Frenulum passes beneath the retinaculum and thus both the wings
are kept together

52
Amplexiform type:

 Examples: Butter flies.

 In this type the anal margin of the front wing and costal margin of the hind wing
enlarge to overlap each other.
 Due to this over lapping both the wings are kept together.

Hamuli type:

 Examples: Wasps and Bees.

 In this type the costal margin of hind wings posses a row of hooks called Humuli.
 The Humuli catch the upward fold of front wings and thus both the wings are kept
together.

Wing Adaptations and Modifications:

Wing Type Photos Modifications and Examples

• Membranous wings
Membranous are
thin & more or less
transparent , but
some
are
Damsel Fly (Odonata) darkened.
• These wings are with
highly developed venation.
• They are useful for
flight.

Dragon fly Termites

Examples: Hind wings of
Grasshopper, Dragonfiles
and damselflies (order
Odonata), lacewings (order
Neuroptera), flies (order
Green lacewing
Diptera), bees and wasps
(order Hymenoptera),
termites (order Isoptera)

53
54
55
ABDOMEN:

 In typical insect, abdomen consists of eleven segments.

 The abdomen contains the reproductive organs and the majority of the organ systems.
 The dorsal and ventral abdominal segments are termed terga (singular tergum) and sterna
(singular sternum), respectively.
 Spiracles usually can be found in the conjunctive tissue between the terga and sterna of
abdominal segments 1-8.
 In Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants), the first abdominal segment is transferred to thorax
and closely attached/fused to metathorax to form mesosoma, hence the thorax looks like
four segmented. The 1st abdominal segment thus transferred is referred as propodaeum.
The 2nd abdominal segment is long called petiole or pedicel, where as the other abodmenal
segments are enlarged, collectively called gastor.
 Reproductive structures are located on the 9 th segment in males (including the aedeagus,
or penis, and often a pair of claspers) and on the 8 th and 9th abdominal segments in females
(female external genitalia copulatory openings and ovipositor).
 The ovipositor is the egg-laying device found only in female insects. In some insects, the
ovipositor is highly modified and conspicuous. In others, the apparatus may be needle or
blade-like. Parasitic wasps (order Hymenoptera) use their ovipositors to insert eggs or
small larvae into or onto a host. The stingers of bees and many wasps are modified
ovipositors that have lost the egg-laying ability. Crickets and katydids (order Orthoptera)
have needle-like and blade-like ovipositors, respectively.

Blade-like ovipositor Needle-like ovipositor Needle-like ovipositor

On katydid (order Orthoptera) on parasitic ichneumonid Order, Orthoptera: Field cricket, female,
Wasp (order Hymenoptera) Gryllus pennsylvanicus

 In Collembola, abdomen is six segmented.

 Abdominal segments are divided in to three categories.

56
 o 01-07 segments pre genital segments
o 08-09 segments genital segments
o 10-11 segments post genital segments

 Appendages of abdomen–
1. Non reproductive appendages –
a) Cerci –They are present on 11th segment in most of the insects. It is present in male
cockroach, silverfish, grasshopperCerciusuallyact as tactile organ or sound
receptors in grasshopper. They become a part of male genitalia in caddis fly. In
earwigs, cerci are modified into defensive organ.
b) Prolegs in insect larvae- The larvae of Lepidoptera bear five pairs of abdominal
legs called Prolegs on 3rd 4th 5th 6th and 10th segments. These Prolegs bear spines
like structures called crochets, on terminal ends to grip the plant surfaces. In case
of larvae of sawfly there are eight pairs of Prolegs but are without crochets.
c) Abdominal gills- It is present in aquatic insects for respiration. eg. Nymph of
odonata.
d) Cornicles: Aphids have a pair of short tubes known as cornicles or siphonculi
projecting from dorsum of fifth or sixth abdominal segment.
 They permit the escape of waxy fluid which perhaps serves for protection against
predators.
2. Reproductive appendages –
 It includes abdominal Segments from 1 to 7 are pregenital segments, 8th and 9th are
known as genital segments as they form genital appendages i.e. ovipositor in
females and aedeagus or penis in males. 10thand11thsegments are known as
postgenital segments. These organs are specially concern with mating in male and
deposition of eggs in females. They are collectively called as external genitalia or
gonapophysis.
o Male external genitalia-The9th sternum bears two styli and pair of claspers
which help to hold female during copulation. The aedeagus lies between
claspers.
o Female external genitalia-It has a special egg laying organs called ovipositor for egg
lying on 8th and 9th [Link] ovipositor of house fly& fruit fly is called
pseudoovipositor

57
 CHAPTER THREE

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS

3.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Describe Anatomy and Physiology of Insects

 Explain internal morphology
 Explain the functions of the different parts of insects

[Link] DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breaking down of food into smaller components,
to a form that can be absorbed, for instance, by a blood stream. Digestion is a form of
catabolism.
 Digestion is the process by which the food is broken down hydrolytically into simpler
components, which can be absorbed or assimilated by the animal.
 The process of digestion is brought about in a digestive tract or alimentary canal in insect.
 Digestive system of insect consists of Alimentary canal and Salivary glands.

58
 Alimentary canal: It is a long, muscular and tubular structure. The alimentary
canal in insects extends from mouth to anus which is divided in to three parts,
foregut, midgut and hindgut.
 The areas proceeding to foregut are pre-oral food cavity and buccal cavity. These
parts are not the part of gut, but are important to understand.
 The Pre-oral food cavity: is the space lying between the mouth parts and the
labrum and is not a part of the gut. In insects with mandibulate mouthparts this
space is divided by the hypopharynx in to an anterior or dorsal cibarium and a
posterior or ventral salivarium. Cibarium is a small pouch for the temporary
storage of food or modified into sucking pump in hemiptera. Salivarium also
undergo modification to form the salivary syringe of the hemiptera and silk
regulator in the lepidoptera larvae.
 Buccal cavity: is the oral part of the stomodaeum (foregut). It is not structurally
differentiated from the pharynx.

1. Foregut (stomodaeum):
 Foregut arises as an anterior ectodermal invagination.
 Foregut is lined on its inside with the cuticular intima, produced by a single layer
of epithelialcells, which are flattened and unspecialized and with distinct
boundaries.
 The function of foregut is to receive the food from the mouthparts and to pass it to
the midgut. The pharynx and the oesophagous achieve these activities.
 In the foregut, initial breakdown of large food particles occurs, mostly by saliva.
The fore gut (It is also known as the Stomodaeum) is generally considered to consist
of four sections: The Pharynx, The Esophagus, The Crop and The Proventriculus.
i. Pharynx: Behind the mouth a well musculated organ called Pharynx is
present which pushes the food into esophagus. Pharynx also acts as a
sucking pump in sap feeders. It is the region between the mouth and
esophagus. It concerned with ingestion and back word flow of food.
ii. Esophagus: It is a narrow Simple tube of the foregut through which the
foods get transported from pharynx into the crop.

59
 iii. Crop (Ingluvies): It is a sac like structure which is a dilated form and
mainly serves the purpose of storage of food material. In honey bees crop
is called as honey stomach where nectar conversion occurs.
iv. Gizzard (Proventriculus): It forms the last portion of foregut. This consists
of the cuticular intima layer modified in to teeth like denticles that help for
grinding the food material. It is found in solid feeders and absent in fluid
feeders or sap feeders.
 Stomodeal valve or cardiac valve:
 After gizzard the foregut forms into a stomodeal valve or cardiac valve which is
surrounded by gastric (or) hepatic caecae.
 This prevents backward movement of food. Foregut opens in to midgut through
stomodael / cardiac valve.

Proventriculus

2. Midgut (Ventriculus or mesenteron or stomach),(Middle)

 Endodermal in origin. Is concern with;
i. Secretion of Enzymes,
ii. Digestion of food,
iii. Absorption of food.
 An endodermic cell does not secrete intima but instead of that secretes delicate
membrane called Peritrophic membrane.
 Midgut consists of an inner delicate layer called peritrophic membrane secreted
by the epithelial cells. The peritrophic membrane protects the tender epithelial cells

60
 of the midgut from abrasion by hard food particles. Present in solid feeders and
absent in sap feeders.
 The midgut is a long tube it carries eight small blunt tubes known as gastric or
hepatic or enteric caeca. It increase the surface area of malpighian tubules and
they are secretary and absorptive in function.
 Filter chamber:
 This is a characteristic arrangement of the midgut in hemipteran insects (fluid
feeders).
 This is closely bound to either posterior part of midgut or the anterior hindgut and
Malpighian tubules.
 Filter chamber enables the excess fluids including sugar in the food to pass directly
from the anterior part of the midgut to the hindgut without passing through the
middle portion of midgut thus preventing excessive dilution of haemolymph,
enzymes and facilitate better enzyme activity.

Filter chamber

 Pyloric valve or proctodeal valve: Present between midgut and hingut, which
regulate food flow.

3. Hindgut (Proctodaeum) (Posterior)

 Ectodermal in origin. Intima present.
 In termites, digestion takes place in colon of hind gut which secretes the enzyme
cellulase for digest the wood material rich in cellulose.

61
 Anterior end of the hindgut can be marked by the presence of a set of malpighian
tubules which are excretory in function.
 Hindgut is divided into 3 regions namely ileum, colon and rectum.
i. Ileum is a small intestine (or) tube like structure.
ii. Colon is a large intestine.
iii. Rectum - The rectum may sometimes get differentiated into rectal
papillae (or) pads which vary in number from 3-6. These are involved
in reabsorption of water, salts from the faecal (waste) matter.

 Salivary glands:-
 These are a pair of glands involved in the secretion of salivary juices.
 These glands present either sides of esophagus which open at the base of the
hypopharynx through small salivary ducts.
 In case of silkworm (or) lepidopteran larvae, the salivary glands produce silk and
anti-coagulants in blood suckers like mosquitoes.
 Digestive enzymes such as;
♠ Amylases–Helps for digestion of Starch.
♠ Lipases -Helps for digestion of Fats & Lipids.
♠ Proteases–Helps for digestion of Protein.
♠ Invertase – Helps for digestion of Sucrose. (Present in honey bees)
♠ Maltase - Helps for digestion of Maltose.
♠ Cellulase -Helps for digestion of Cellulose. (Present in termites)
 Three main groups of enzymes have been found in insects:
a) The carbohydrases (catalyse the breakdown of complex carbohydrates to
simple sugar) amylases and glycosidases.
b) The lipases (catalyse the breakdown of fats);
c) The proteases (catalyse breakdown of various proteins) - endopeptidases,
exopeptidases.

62
 3.3. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 In a closed system, blood is always contained within vessels (arteries, veins,
capillaries, or the heart itself).
 In an open system, blood (usually called hemolymph) flow freely within body
cavities where it makes direct contact with all internal tissues and organs.
 The circulatory system is responsible for movement of nutrients, salts, hormones,
and metabolic wastes throughout the insect's body and plays critical roles in defense
against parasites and microbes.
 The insect circulation system does not carry oxygen, so the blood does not contain
red blood cells as ours does.
 Hemolymph is usually green or yellow in color.

THE DIAPHRAGMS AND SINUSES:

 To facilitate circulation of hemolymph, the body cavity (Haemocoele) is divided

into three compartments (called blood sinuses) by two thin sheets of muscle and/or
membranes (dorsal and ventral diaphragms).
 The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary muscles of the heart and related
structures; it separates the pericardial (dorsal) sinus from the perivisceral sinus.
 The ventral diaphragm usually covers the nerve cord; it separates the perivisceral
sinus from the perineural (ventral) sinus. The ventral diaphragm is a continuous
layer, lying just above the nerve cord and divides the abdomen into two sinuses,
viz., perineural and perivisceral sinus. The ventral diaphragm is usually absent in
thorax of most insect larvae (except in some Hymenoptera), and most adult insects.
 Between the dorsal and ventral sinuses is the large visceral sinus containing
principal internal pairs of alary muscles composed of striated fibres and tissues
resembling elastic connective fibres, arise from the terga and spreadocet fanwise
over the surface of the dorsal diaphragm.
 The heart is maintained in position by these sedpusary filaments known as alary
muscles.

63
Dorsal Vessel:

 A dorsal vessel is the major structural component of an insect's circulatory system.

 This tube runs longitudinally through the thorax and abdomen, along the inside of
the dorsal body wall.
 In most insects, it is a fragile, membranous structure that collects hemolymph in the
abdomen and conducts it forward to the head.

64
  Haemolymph in insect body circulates mechanically in a posterior to anterior
direction by the action of a pulsatile organ, the dorsal vessel. Hence, the dorsal
vessel is the principle pulsatile organ.
 Dorsal vessel can be divided into Aorta and Heart

Aorta:

 The anterior dorsal vessel (often referred as aorta) is a simple unperforated tube,
which may end in a frontal sac, or open simply, or its anterior part may be modified
to divide into vessels supplying haemolymph to the antennae.
 The aorta lacks valves or musculature.
 Hemolymph bathes the organs and muscles of the head as it emerges from the aorta,
and then haphazardly percolates back over the alimentary canal and through the
body until it reaches the abdomen and re-enters the heart.

Heart:

 In the abdomen, the dorsal vessel is called the heart.

 Heart is divided segmentally into chambers that are separated by valves (ostia) to
ensure one-way flow of hemolymph.
 A pair of alary muscles is attached laterally to the walls of each chamber.
 Peristaltic contractions of the muscles force the hemolymph forward from chamber
to chamber. During each diastolic phase (relaxation), the ostia open to allow inflow
of hemolymph from the body cavity.
 The heart's contraction rate varies considerably from species to species-typically in
the range of 30-200 beats per minute. The rate tends to fall as ambient temperature
drops and rise as temperature (or the insect's level of activity) increases.
 The primitive (maximum) number of ostia appears to be 12 pairs (in Blattodea),
one in each of the thoracic segments and nine in the abdominal part of the dorsal
vessel. In Archaeognatha and Bombyx mori, prothoracic pair is absent while in
Dytiscus only eight pairs have been recorded. In most Lepidoptera there are 7-8
pairs of ostia, 5-6 in Collembola and only four in Musca. Extreme loss of ostia
occurs in some Hemiptera.

65
Accessory pulsatile organs:

 An insect consists of sac like structures called accessory pulsatile organs, which
are present at the base of the appendages such as wings, legs and antenna. They
pulsate independently and supply adequate blood to the appendages.

Circulatory system

Process of blood circulation:

 Heart mainly function as a pulsatile organ whose expansion and contraction leads
to blood circulation.
 It takes place generally in an anti-clock manner starting from posterior end to the
anterior end in a forward direction.
 Circulation of blood takes place in two phases due to the action of the alary muscles
as well as the muscles of the walls of the heart.

The two phases are;

1. Diastole: During which expansion of heart takes place.

2. Systole: Contraction of heart takes place.

1. Diastole:
 Expansion of heart (diastole) occurs, when the alary muscles that are spread fan
like over the heart and connected to the tergum get contracted.
 It results in increase of volume of heart and decrease in the area of pericardial
sinus.

66
  This creates a pressureon the blood in pericardial sinus forcing the blood to enter
into the heart through the Ostia.
 These ostia allow only the entry of blood from the sinus in to the heart and prevent
its backflow from the heart to the sinus.

2. Systole:
 Contraction of heart (systole) is brought about by the expansion of the alary
muscles as well as contraction of the muscles of the heart wall.
 This creates pressure on the blood within the heart leading to its forward movement
in to the aorta.
 From the aorta blood enters in to the head and flows back bathing the visceral
organs in the visceral sinus and neural cord in the perineural sinus.
 The short period of rest between diastole and systole called as diastasis.
 The rate of heart beat generally varies with the body temperature and physiological
conditions of the body which in turn differs between species (or) between stages of
the insects.

Properties of blood:
 Blood is colourless (or) green (or) yellowish with different types of haemocytes
and plasma. Green colour is due to chlorophyll dissolved in the plasma and red
colour is due to haemoglobin.
 Blood covers up 5 – 40% of the total body weight that vary with the sex and stage
(or) age of the insect.
 Insect blood contains proteins, lipids, sugars, organic acids, phosphates, pigments,
uric acid etc.
 The insect blood of phytophagous insect is rich in ‘K’ where as that of carnivores
is rich in ‘Na’.
 Specific gravity of the blood varies from 1.01 to 1.06.
Types of haemocytes: The haemocytes have been distinguished into
1. Prohaemocytes (small rounded cells with large nuclei, divide frequently to give rise
other type of cells).
2. Plasmatocytes (most abundant, phagocytic)
3. Granular haemocytes (phagocytic)
4. Cystocytes (coagulants, specialized granular haemocytes, often possess
phenoloxidaes)

67
 5. In addition to most common above, few other types such as oenocytoids, spherule
cells, adipohaemocytes may be present in some insects.
Functions of blood:-
 Transport of minerals or food materials: blood transports minerals, digested
products, hormones to different parts of the body.
 Secretion and metabolism: Some of the haemocytes are useful for the formation
basement membrane, formation of fat body, activation of prothocacic gland (which
produces moulting harmone, ecdysene). In some instances the cells themselves
break down to provide nutriment for other tissues
 Encapsulation: To protect from the large metazoan parasites, the haemocytes of
blood, become aggregated around the foreign body forming a capsule of 2-3 layers.
This leads to the death of the foreign bodies due to lack of O2 supply.
 Wound healing and coagulation: The plasmocyte extend their thread like
processes which join with those of other cells to form a cellular network. The
plasma coagulates in this network and the wound is effectively plugged until
epidermis regenerates.
 Phagocytosis: To get protection from microorganisms like bacteria, viruses and fungi, the
haemocytes completely engulf the foreign body and gets autolyzed.(This is the principal
function of haemocytes).

[Link] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 It is also called as tracheal system.

 In insects, exchange of gases takes place through tubular structures, called
trachea.
 They are distributed throughout the body collectively forming tracheal system.
 These trachea open outside on the body wall through small openings called
spiracles.
 Spiracles occur on the pleural surfaces of the body, one on either side of each
segment.

68
  The tracheas are divided into very fine branches known as tracheoles. They
supply oxygen to the body tissues. These tracheoles are formed in to cells called
‘tracheoblast’
 The tracheal system with functional spiracles is called the open tracheal system
and with non-functional spiracles is called closed tracheal system.
 Tracheas are fine elastic tubular structures which are ectodermal in origin.
 A spiral thickening throughout the length of the tube of trachea. These spiral
thickenings are known as ‘taenidia’ which give support to the trachea without
being collapsed when there is no air.

Structure of trachea

Differences between trachea and tracheoles

Trachea Tracheoles
These are large tubes running from spiracles. Fine tubes arising distally from trachea.

Taenidia present. Absent.

Intima layer is shed during moulting. Intima layer is retained, unchanged
during moulting.
Never become intracellular. Intracellular.
The intima layer consists of protein– chitin Chitin– protein matrix present,
matrix with resilin. resilin absent.

69
Tracheal trunks:

 The trachea coming from spiracles throughout the body join with those of
neighboring spiracles forming ‘longitudinal trunks’. Likewise, these tracheas by
combining with those coming from dorsal, lateral and ventral sides of the body
fuse to form transverse commissures and longitudinal connectives.
 All these in total form into dorsal trunk, lateral trunks which are two in number
and one ventral trunk.
 The dorsal trunk supply oxygen to proximal part of the body as well as to heart
whereas the ventral supplies to then central nervous system. The two lateral
longitudinal trunks spread tracheoles to alimentary canal, legs, gonads and
wings.
 Head do not contain spiracles, air is supplied through the first pair spiracles by means of
two main branches of the dorsal longitudinal trunk, where one branch supply O2 to eyes,
antenna, brain; other branch to mouthparts and muscles of the head.

Tracheal system (dorsal tracheal trunks)

Spiracles:
 They are the openings of the internal tubular trachea.

 Except in Diplura, in all the orders, spiracles are absent in prothorax and
distributed in meso, metathorax and abdomen.

 A total of 10pairs are present in general, 2 pairs in thorax and 8 pairs in

abdomen.

70
  Spiracles are situated on pleural surface. They consist of a small ring like
sclerite at opening called ‘peritreme’ leading to a cavity known as atrium.

 The closing and opening of spiracles is accompanied by atrial valve lined

with fibrous processes and form so called felt chamber which reduces water loss
in the absence of closing mechanism.

Structure of spiracle
Classification of Insects based on Number of Functional Spiracles:
 The respiratory system is classified depending upon the number and arrangement of
functional spiracles.
 The largest number of spiracles found in insects is ten pairs, two thoracic and eight
abdominal, and the respiratory system may be classified on the basis of the number and
distribution of the functional spiracles

71
Polypneustic : Atleast Holopneustic : 10 spiracles 1 Hymenoptera
8 functional spiracles mesothoracic, 1 metathoracic, 8 Bibionid larvae
on each abdomenal (1-8 abdomenal segments)
side
Peripneustic : 9 spiracles Larvae of Neuroptera &
1 mesothoracic, 8 abdomenal Lepidoptera
Hemipneustic : 8 spiracles Mycetophilid larvae
1 mesothoracic, 7 abdomenal

Oligopneustic: Amphipneustic : 2 spiracles Larva of diptera

1 or 2 functional 1 mesothoracic, 1 post-abdomenal Psychodid larvae
spiracles on Metapneustic : 1 spiracle Larvae of culicidae and tipulidae
each side
1 post-abdomenal
Propneustic : 1 spiracle, 1 Dipteran pupae
mesothoracic
Apneustic:
No functional spiracles
Aquatic insects and endoparasites Chironomid larvae
Apneustic doesnot implay that the insect has no tracheal system, but that the tracheae do not open
to the outside. Air enters the closed tracheal system by diffusion through the general body surface
or specialized extensions of the body known as gills brachide.
These non-functional spiracles open at ecdysis and permit the cast intima to be shed.
Hypopneustic:
In all the above types of respiratory systems the total of functional and non-functional spiracles
are equal to 10 pairs. In contrast to them the term hypopneustic is used to denote system in which
more pairs of spiracles have disappeared completely. Eg: Mallophaga, Siphunculata.

Other means of respiration in insects

 Integumental (cutaneous) respiration: In insects that do not have tracheae or that have
an imperfect or a secondarily closed tracheal system and are not provided with other
devices for respiration, the exchange or gases takes place directly through the
integument. The best known examples of insects having this type of respiration are
majority of collembola, protura, aquatic chironemidae and parasitic insect larvae which
live entirely submerged in the liquids or tissues of the hosts.
 Gills or Branchial Respiration: Tracheal gills: These are present in majority of aquatic
larvae are usually borne on the abdomen. These are filiform or more or less lamellate
organs which are well supplied with tracheae and tracheoles. In general good deal of
gaseous exchange takes place through these structures. In many cases these are only

72
 organs of respiration but in others these are accessory in function and co-exist with open
spiracles.
 Spiracular gills: These occur in pupae of some beetles and dipteran families. These are
extensions of spiracles or the cuticle immediately surrounding them to form long, partly
hollow processes. One or more pairs of spiracles usually form spiracular gills. These
structures are adopted both for aquatic and aerial respiration.
 Blood gills: These are found in larval trichoptera and diptera and are well developed in
larvae of chironemus. These are tubular and sometimes eversible. These derive their
name from the fact that these contain blood but not as a rule tracheae, although occasional
tracheoles may be present. These structures help in the absorption of water and inorganic
ions rather than respiration.
 Gaseous plastron: In some aquatic form of the family Denacinae and some of the
Hemiptera, there is a permanent thin layer of gas known as gaseous plastron held by
various means around the body surface. These insects never visit the surface throughout
their life history, because the volume of plastron (air film) remains constant and is
maintained in its position by various hydrofuge devices like hairs which are spaced so
closely together that water under normal pressure cannot enter these. The spiracles are
situated just below the plastron layer but the air itself does not enter the trachea. The
plastron acts as a physical gill through which the dissolved oxygen from the water enters
the plastron and then diffuses into insect system. Plastron type of respiration is found in
many insect eggs and pupae or aquatic insects.

3.5. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The nervous system functions as a link between the sense organs which respond to
various external and internal stimuli and the effectors organs such as muscles,
glands
 The sense organs include the structures with various sensilla that respond to sounds,
weather factors, smell etc.

73
 Nervous system consists of elongated cells which form the physiologically functional
elements that are known as neurons. These neurons carry the information in the form of
electrical impulses. It is a unit of nervous system.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
 The nerve cells are called neurons which are derived from ectoderm.
 Each neuron consists of a prominent nucleated cell body known as perikaryon (or)
soma and an elongated cytoplasmic thin fibre called the ‘axon’ extends to make
contact with other neurons or with effector organs, the muscles and group of small
branches called the ‘dendrites’.
 The axon gives lateral branches called collaterals. Both the axon and collaterals
end in fine fibrils known as terminal arborizations.
 The neurons get connected with each other by having a link between the terminal
arborizations of the axon of one neuron and dendrites of the soma of other neuron
through a ‘synapse’.

74
Classification of neurons:
I. Based on their structure:
1. Unipolar / monopolar: Most insect neurons are monopolar or unipolar, having only a single
projection from the perikaryon. This projection, or nuerite, subsequently branches to form the axon
and dendtrite. They are lying on the periphery of the ganglion. Have a single axon without
collaterals and dendrites.
2. Bipolar: The peripheral sensory cells are bipolar with short distal dendrite receiving stimuli
from environment and a proximal axon entending to the central ganglia (passing CNS without
synapse). Have either collaterals or dendrites in addition to axon.
3. Multipolar: Neurons have an axon with several collaterals and dendrites.

75
II. Based on function: 3 kinds of neurons.

1. Sensory / afferent: Present just beneath the integument and associated with
sensory organs. Carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous
system.
2. Motor / efferent neurons: Always unipolar / monopolar. Carry impulses from
central nervous system to the organs.
3. Association / internuntial neurons: Associated in between sensory and motor
neurons.
 The point at which neurons receive information from or convey to another neuron
is known as synapse. Synaptic gap is approximately 100 0A (20-25nm).
 Synapse:
 A gap between two neurons that functions as the site of information transfer from
one neuron to another.
 Synapse is the junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a
neuron and a muscle" nerve impulses cross a synapse through the action of
neurotransmitters"
 Synapses occurs where glial cells are absent and the axons lie very closed together,
their membranes being separated only by narrow synaptic gap.

76
 Nervous system can be grouped in to three;

1. Central nervous system (CNS)

2. Visceral or sympathetic nervous system
3. Peripheral nervous system

1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 Insect have a decentralized nervous system.
 The group of nerve cells or neurons is called ganglion.
 CNS consists of double series of ganglia joined together by longitudinal and
transverse fibers.
 Generally each body segment possesses a pair of ganglia, so closely united as they
appear to be one.
 The ganglia of adjoining segments are joined together by longitudinal fibers called
as connectives.
 The ganglia of same segment unite by transverse fibers called as commissures.
 CNS consists of brain (supraoesophageal/cerebral ganglion), sub-
oesophagealganglion and ventral nerve cord.

77
Brain (Supra-oesophageal ganglion):
 It is present in the head above the oesophagus in the head. It is formed by the union
of the ganglia of first 3 segments of the head. Brain is divided into protocerebrum,
deutocerebrum and tritocerebrum.
 Protocerebrum:
 It is also known as fore-brain. It is formed by the union of the ganglia of
preantennarysegment and forms the greater part of the brain. It gives nerve
connection to the compound eyes and ocelli. It is bilobed and continuous
laterally with the optic lobes.
 Deutocerebrum:
 It is also known as mid-brain. It is formed from the ganglia of antennary
segment and it gives nerve connection to the antenna.
 Tritocerebrum :
 It is also known as hind brain. It is formed by the union of ganglia of
intercalarysegment and is relatively small. It gives nerves to the labrum.

Sub-oesophageal ganglion:

78
 It is present in the head below the oesophagus in the head. It is formed by the union
of ganglia of the gnathocephalic segments. It gives nerves to mandibular,
maxillary, labialsegment, salivaryducts, part of cervical muscles in the neck
region and corpora allata.

Ventral Nerve Cord (VNC):

 Ventral nerve card consists of a chain of segmented ganglia connected by means of
longitudinal connectives and transverse commissures.
 In thorax, there are 3 ganglia. It controls the locomotory organs and gives nerve
connection to the legs and wings called thoracic ganglia.
 In abdomen, there are about 8 ganglia. Each ganglion gives off nerves to respective
segments.

Mechanism of impulse conduction

 Conduction of nerve impulse is mainly of two types-

1. Axonic- Electrical conduction through Na and K ionic movement

2. Synaptic- Bio-Chemical transmission (Acetylcholine production)
 In axonic conduction ionic composition varies between inside and outside of axon
resulting in excitable conditions, which leads to impulse conduction as electrical
response.

79
  In synaptic conduction neurochemical transmitters are involved in the impulse
conduction through the synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters and the type of reactions
helping in the impulse conduction are as follows.

Acetyl CO-A + Choline chlorideAcetylaseAcetyl choline

Acetyl Choline Esterase

Acetyl choline Choline + Acetic acid

3.5. THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 What is excretion?
 “It is simply removal of the unwanted metabolic end products or some of the
nutrients in excess form out of the body.”
 Why it is necessary?
 A constant maintenance of level of salt and water and also osmotic pressure in the
hemolymph.
 The organs of insect body, involved in the elimination of excess or unwanted
materials either toxic or not useful, are together known as excretory system.
The organs that are involved in the process of excretion are;

1. Malpighian tubules
 These are discovered by an Italian scientist, Marcello Malpighi in the year
1669, which were named after him by Heckel in 1820.
 The Malpighian tubules long, tubular structures which open proximally
in between midgut and hindgut and closed distally, floating freely in the
haemolymph.
 Malpighian tubules vary in their shape and size. They may be simple or
branched. Their number varies from 2-250 (2 in scale insect and 250 in
locust, 60 in cockroach, 6 in moths and butterfly, 4 in bugs ).
 Malpighian tubulesare absent in aphids and Collembola.

80
  In some of the insects such as caterpillars and coleopterans(Beetles &
Weevils), the distal ends of the Malpighian tubules get reattached to the
alimentary canal by opening in to the rectum of hindgut. This condition
is called ‘cryptonephridial condition’. Thecryptonephridial arrangement
is concerned with reabsorption of water from rectum.

 Functions of Malpighian tubules:

 This is the main organ of excretion and osmoregulation. It involved in regulation
of salt, water and nitrogenous waste material.
 Helps in the process of excretion or removal of waste products in order to regulate
the internal body environment by maintaining ionic and water balance.
 In case of glow worms (Fireflies), the distal ends of tubules produces light energy.

81
 It also helps in the storage of Ca necessary for the processes such as hardening of
puparium.
 In case of aphid lion the secretions of the tubules produce stalked eggs.
 In case of spittle bugs spittle around the immature stages is also a Malpighian
secretion.
2. Integument or body wall

 Through the process of moulting, insects remove the waste nitrogenous products,
i.e. they are deposited in the form of exuviae.
 In some insects, where respiration occurs through body wall, CO2 is removed
through integument as waste product (cutaneous respiration).

3. Tracheal system

 The respiratory tubes, the trachea which are distributed throughout the body,
function in elimination of CO2 through spiracles.

4. Rectum:
 Rectum plays an important role in excretion by reabsorbing the water from faeces.
5. Alimentary canal
 In some insects, the cells of midgut are known to have a role in regulation of the
haemolymph content, both inorganic ions and organic molecules.
 In Collembola and aphids, Malpighian tubules are absent. Epithelial cells, which
contain excretory products, are also shed along with exuviae at each moulting.
 Midgut of the termite, Reticulitermis falvipes harbour bacteria, which have an
ability to recycle uric acid nitrogen, representing a scavenging mechanism designed
to recover which would otherwise be lost by the excretion of uric acid. Evidence
also exists in support of fat body recycling of urate nitrogen in Periplaneta
americana. The midgut of Bombyx is capable of excreting some acid dyes.
6. Nephrocytes

 These are the special cells that sieve the haemolymph and are distributed in the
body cavity.

82
 Nephrocytes are cells that take up foreign chemicals of relatively high molecular
weight which Malpighian tubules may be incapable of dealing with.
7. Urate cells

 In some of the insects body cells which store urea or uric acid in the form of granules
are known as urate cells.
 Preserved uric acid can be utilized subsequently.
 These are present when Malpighian tubules are absent or may become
nonfunctional.
 In some of the insects such as cockroach, the waste material in the form of urea or
uric acid is stored throughout its life in the fat body cells without any harmful effect.
This phenomenon of storage of urea / uric acid in the fat body cells is called
‘storage excretion’ which is useful for supply of nitrogen, when insect feeds on
nitrogen deficient food.

8. Oenocytes

 These are large cells and are usually present near the abdominal spiracles. These
are the specialized cells of haemocoel involve in excretion.

9. Labial glands and

 These are seen in Collembola, Diplura, and Thysanura, open above the base of the
labrum through a common duct. These consist of an upper saccule followed by a
coiled labyrinth and have a gland, which opens into the outlet duct. They consists
of a sac like structures called ampulla that leads to a long coiled that open at the
base of labium in the head. This gland helps to remove ammonia.

10. Chloride cells

 These are the cells distributed on the body of aquatic insects such as larva ofmayfly
or stone fly. They absorb ions from salt water (body) and then excrete in to
surrounding medium to compensate the changes in the ionic concentration of
haemolymph.
 Excretory Products:

83
In insects, principle excretory product is Uric Acid. Ammonia is the primary end product
of the nitrogen metabolism, but it is highly toxic except in extreme dilutions. Consequently
ammonia is only excreted in any quantity by insects with an ample supply of water. But,
for most terrestrial insects water conservation is essential and the loss by excretion must be
reduced to a minimum. Hence, it is necessary to produce a less toxic substance than
ammonia so that the less water is required for its safe elimination. The substance produced
is uric acid, which is relatively harmless, and is also highly insoluble. As a result it tends
to crystalline out of solution and can be retained as a solid, non-toxic waste substance for
long periods. Further, uric acid contains less nitrogen. Most insect excrete 80-90% of their
nitrogen as uric acid.

3.6. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 The insect endocrine system produces neurohormones as well as hormones that
control molting, diapause, reproduction, osmoregulation, metabolism, and muscle
contraction.
 Hormone is a chemical signal sent from cells in one part of an organism to cells
in another part (or parts) of the same individual. They are often regarded as
chemical messengers. Although typically produced in very small quantities,
hormones may cause profound changes in their target cells. Their effect may be
stimulatory or inhibitory. In some cases, a single hormone may have multiple
targets and cause different effects in each target. There are at least four categories
of hormone-producing cells in an insect’s body:
 Endocrine glands — secretory structures adapted exclusively for producing
hormones and releasing them into the circulatory system.
 Neurohemal organs — similar to glands, but they store their secretory product in
a special chamber until stimulated to release it by a signal from the nervous system
(or another hormone).
 Neurosecretory cells — specialized nerve cells (neurons) that respond to
stimulation by producing and secreting specific chemical
messengers. Functionally, they serve as a link between the nervous system and the
endocrine system

84
  Internal organs — hormone-producing cells are associated with numerous organs
of the body, including the ovaries and testes, the fat body, and parts of the digestive
system.
 Together, these hormone-secreting structures form an endocrine system that helps
maintain homeostasis, coordinate behavior, and regulate growth, development, and other
physiological activities.
 There are two types of secretory structures occur in insect.

1.) Exocrine glands:

 It is a ducted glands and discharge their secretions outside the body.

 E.g. Wax glands, Lac glands, Mandibular glands, Maxillary glands, Labial glands,
Silk glands, Repugnatorial glands, Attractant glands and Poison glands.

2.) Endocrine glands:

 It is a ductless glands and their secretion (hormones) usually diffusing into the
blood which transports them to all parts of the body.
 Insect endocrine system is structurally and functionally integrated with nervous
system. It is also called as secretory system.
 They secrete hormones which travel in the blood to various organs of the body
coordinating their long term activities.
 Endocrine organs are of two types,
A. Neuro-secretory cells in the central nervous system.
B. Specialized endocrine glands such as
i. Corpora cardiaca
ii. Corpora allata
iii. Prothoracic glands
iv. Weismann’s Ring:
A. Neurosecretory cells:
 These are typical neurons with secretory activity.
 They produce hormones which act directly on effector organs which in turn are
stimulated to secrete hormones.
 They occur in the mid region of brain and central nervous system.
85
 The secretions of neurosecretory cells are called brain hormone or activator
hormones.
 Large number of neurosecretory cells may be present in the nervous system and are
three types.
a) Median NSC of the brain (PTTH hormone),
b) Lateral NSC of the brain: - They Stimulate protein synthesis, control water
loss and Oocyte development and activity. And
c) Ventral NSC of the other ganglia (ventral nerve cord):
 These secretions are known to concern with activity, water regulation.
B. Corpora cardiaca:
 They are paired structures, lying in close association with neurosecretory cells of
brain.
 Each corpus cardiacum is transversed by neurosecretory axons from the brain.
Neurosecretions from brain, on reaching corpus cardiacum, is stored and
periodically released into the blood.

C. Corpora allata:

 They are glandular bodies, usually situated one on either side of the Oesophagous.
 Under the influence of brain hormone, corpora allata secretes Juvenile hormone
(JH) or neotenin which regulates metamorphosis or yolk deposition on eggs in
insect.
 JH helps to keep the insect in young stage only.
 It is also called as Juvenile hormone (JH) or neotenin.

D. Prothoracic glands:

 It is also known as ecdysial glands.

 They are twoin number and placed mostly in prothoracic region.
 Prothoracic glands secrete moulting hormone (MH), called Ecdysone under the
influence of brain hormone.
 Moulting hormone helps in insects in the initiation and process of moulting.

E. Weismann’s Ring:

86
  It is found in housefly, flesh fly and blow fly.
 A Small ring like structure present behind the brain and around the aorta, supported
by tracheae.
 It contains three types of glandular cells homologous with other endocrine glands.

3.7. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Myology: Is the study of the muscular system, including the study of the structure,
function and diseases of muscle. The muscular system consists of skeletal muscles
& visceral muscles which contracts to move or position parts of the body.
 Muscles power all the movements, external and internal, in insects. All insect
muscles are striated, like vertebrate cardiac and skeletal muscle. Insect muscles
show high levels of homology to these vertebrate muscles in their structure, protein
content, contractility, and regulation.
 Each muscle is made up of a number of fibers, which are long, usually multinucleate cells
running the length of the muscle. The characteristic feature of muscle fibres is the
presence of myofibrils, these are embedded in the cytoplasm i.e Sarcoplasm and extend
continuously from one end of the fibre to the other. The fibrils are long serial arrays of
contractile units known as Sarcomeres.
 Insect muscles are mostly translucent, colorless, or grey, though the flight muscles
often show a yellowish or brown.
 In most skeletal muscles, especially those of the appendages, one end of the muscle
is attached to a movable part.
 Insects possess two to three times the number of muscles than humans possess.

HUMANS INSECTS

1. Cardiac muscle type 1. No cardiac muscle type

2. Smooth muscle type 2. No smooth muscle type

3. Striated muscle type 3. Yes, striated muscle type

4. Myotendonous connections 4. Myocuticular connections

Functions of the Muscular System

87
1. Support of the body.

2. Helps maintain posture.

3. Movement of the limbs and ovipositor.

4. Movement of the wings.

5. Movement of the viscera.

6. Locomotion.

7. Closure of spiracles.

8. Operation of various pumps such as cibarial pump and the pumping of the poison
glands.

9. Generation of heat by ‘shivering’.

 TYPES OF MUSCLES BASED ON MORPHOLOGY

1. Cardiac muscles: - not found in insects.
2. Smooth muscles: - not found in insects.
3. Striated muscles: - found in insects.
 The only muscle type found in insects is striated muscle. Insects do not have
cardiac or smooth muscle types.

88
 TYPES OF MUSCLES BASED ON LOCATION
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Visceral muscle
a. Alary muscle
b. Dorsal blood vessel
c. Alimentary canal, including the crop
d. Reproductive organs and ducts
e. Venom glands
f. Organs of defense
g. Malpighian tubules
 The structure of skeletal muscles of insects

The skeletal muscles have a complex structure, which have:

i. The fibrous contractile system

ii. The mitochondria
iii. The tracheal and nervous supply
iv. The membrane systems

89
 v. Variations in the histology and ultrastructure of these components are
associated with functional differences between different groups of muscles.

Types of Skeletal Muscles

A. Cephalic Muscles, The principal muscles of head may be divided into:-

1. Cervical Muscles: - These control the movement of head.

2. Muscles of the Mouthparts
3. Muscles of Antennae

B. Thoracic Muscles, The principal Thoracic Muscles may be divided as follows:-

1) Longitudenal 2) Sternal
3) Dorsoventral 4) Leg Muscles 5) Pleural

C. The Abdominal Muscles

➢ Longitudenal
➢ Transverse

D. Muscles Of Flight, The flight movements are caused by three sets of muscles, the
direct, indirect and accessory.

 Degeneration of Musculature
 Degeneration of the flight muscles occur after sexual maturity in many spp. In
queen ants and termites due to degeneration of flight muscles reproduction is
promoted by releasing amino acids that can be used in egg formation. The alate
forms of aphids also undergo flight muscles histolysis after settling on their host
plants.
 These changes and accompanying hypertrophy of the fat body and resumption of
embryo development in the ovaries are caused by hormonal changes.
 Degeneration of the indirect flight muscles also occurs in adult females of
Dysdercus spp where it coincides with oocytes growth and is under endocrine
control.

90
  Interesting changes take place in the segmental muscles of the abdomen of
Rhodnius spp which undergo periodic regressive and regenerative changes
associated with the moulting cycle.

3.8. THE SENSE ORGANS AND PERCEPTION

The sense organs in an insect body are distributed on different parts and respond to a given stimulus
such as light, sound, touch, chemicals etc.

The sense organs may be classified as;

1. Photoreceptors (or) Visual organs- To detect light energy.

2. Auditory receptors (or) organs of hearing- To detect sound waves.

3. Chemoreceptor’s which respond to chemicals- To detect smell and taste.

4. Mechanoreceptor/Tactile receptors which respond to touch- To detect mechanical force

5. Thermoreceptor – To detect heat.

1. Visual organs or photoreceptors: These are two types, Compound eyes and Simple eyes.

 Compound eyes: These organs possess the ability to perceive light energy and able to
produce a nerve impulse. The compound eyes may be completely absent in insects like
Protura or they may remain reduced in endoparasitic Hymenoptera. The compound
eyes are present on either side of the head capsule of an adult insect and also in the
nymphs of Exopterygota.
 These are a pair and consist of number of individual units (or) facets called ommatidia.
Function is to gather light.

Classification of Compound eyes based on image formation;

 Apposition eyes: These are active during day time (diurnal insects);e.g.: butterflies
 Superposition eyes: These are active during evening and night time (Nocturnal insects);
e.g.: moths
I. Simple eyes (or) ocelli: These are of two types

91
  Dorsal ocelli: Seen in nymphs and adults of hemimetabolous insects and adults of
Holometabola. Dorsal ocelli are represented by fenestrae in cockroach. It perceive light
to maintain diurnal rhythm.
 Lateral ocelli:Also known as stemmata. These are present on the lateral sides of the head
of Endopterygote larva. It helps to detect form, colour and movement.

2. Auditory organs (or) organs of hearing:

Insects are provided with structures (or) organs that are able to perceive the sound waves (or) the
aquatic water currents. Among the organs of hearing, the auditory hairs, tympanal organ and
Jhonston’s organ are important.

 Auditory hairs :

These are present on the body of insects such as larvae of Lepidoptera which are developed from
the modified epidermal cells. These respond to the sounds of air (or) water currents mediated by
the hair sensillae (or) trichoid

 Tympanal organ :

Tympanum is present one on either side of the 1st abdominal segment of short horned
grasshoppers, on the base of foretibia in long horned grasshoppers and crickets, and on thorax or
abdomen in Lepidoptera.

 Jhonston’s organ:

It is present on the pedicel of antennae and functions asan auditory organ responding to air (or)
water currents. They are absent in Collembola.

 Pilifer of hawk moths (sphingid moths):

A unique auditory organ, sensitive to ultrasonic frequencies is found in the head of several
species of Sphingidae.

3. Mechanoreceptor: (detect mechanical force)

 Trichoid sensilla: Hair like sense organ. Sense cell associated with spur and seta. These
cells are sensitive to touch and are located in antenna and mouthparts.

92
  Campaniform / Dome sensilla:These cells are sensitive to pressure and located in legs
joints and wing bases.
 Chordotonal organ:The specialized sensory organs that receive vibration are subcuticular
mechanoreceptors called chordotonal organ.

4. Chemoreceptors: (detect smell and taste):

It contains sensilla with one pore (uniporous) or more pores (multiporous).

 Uniporous chemoreceptors mostly detect chemicals of solid and liquid form by contact
called gustatory receptorsand located in antennae.
 Multiporous chemoreceptor’s detect chemicals in vapour form at distant by smell called
olfactory receptors and located in mouth and tarsi.

5. Thermoreceptor – (detect heat)

Present in poikilothermic insects and sensitive to temperature changes. E.g. Bed bugs.

3.9. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The reproductive system is divided in to two parts namely, internal genitalia and
external genitalia.
 The internal genitalia serve to the development of germ cells. The external genitalia
accomplish the union of two sexes and enable the female to deposit eggs.
 Female reproductive system
 The main functions of the female reproductive system are egg production and storage of
male's spermatozoa until the eggs are ready to be fertilized.
 It consists of;
 A pair of ovaries which possess number of ovarioles,
 A pair of oviducts,
 A common oviduct / Median oviduct,
 Spermathecal,
 A pair of accessory glands and
 Bursa copulatrix/copulatory pouch/genital chamber/vagina

93
1. Ovaries:

 These are the prominent visceral organs present on the either side of alimentary
canal.
 These are paired in structured mainly covered with fat body and trachea.
 Each ovary consists of eight ovarioles or egg tubes. It consists of 3 parts namely;
Terminal filament, Egg tube, Pedicel.
 The functions of ovary are production of eggs or ova and storage of male's
spermatozoa.
 Types of ovarioles:-
 Based on the presence or absence of nutritive cells and their location
ovarioles are categorized in to two;
i. Panoistic - In these, the nutritive cells are absent. e.g.: Odonata, Dictyoptera,
Orthoptera and Ephemeroptera
ii. Meriostic - They contain trophocytes / nutritive cells which vary in their position.
Based on the position of trophocytes Meriostic ovarioles are classified into;

• Polytrophic - e.g.: Mecoptera, Dermaptera, Psocoptera

• Acrotrophic (Teletrophic) - e.g.: Hemiptera and Coleoptera

94
2. Lateral oviducts: Proximal end of the ovarioles of each ovary join to form a lateral
oviduct on each side. Function is to transfer the eggs form ovary to the median oviduct.

3. Median Oviduct: Two lateral oviducts combine to form a median oviduct.

4. Vagina: (genital chamber) Median duct opens in to a tubular genital chamber or

vagina formed by invagination of body wall from VIII segment.

5. Bursa Copulatrix:

 In some insects the genital chamber or vagina develops a separate pouch called
Bursa Copulatrix in to which insects have two reproductive openings
 One is vulva for receiving the sperms open on VIII sternum and another one is
ovipore or gonopore on IX segment for discharging eggs. E.g.: Lepidoptera and
water beetles.

6. Spermatheca:

 It is a sac like structure consisting of a spermathecal gland and opens in to vagina

through spermathecal duct.
 This is mainly used for temporary storage of sperms.
 It also produces some fluids responsible for longevity of sperms cells for several
hours.

7. Accessory glands: (collateral glands)

 These are a pair structured which open in to the distal portion of vagina.
 They secrete the sticky substance responsible for the formation of ootheca of
cockroach, preying mantid and poisonous secretions in case of Hymenoptera.
 These sticky substances are useful for attachment of egg to the substrate on which
they are laid.
 Oogenesis-The process in which primary oocyte developed in to fully developed
ova is called oogenesis.

Difference between male and female reproductive system

Male reproductive system Female reproductive system

95
A pair of testes composed of follicles or A pair of ovaries which possess number of
sperm tubes. ovarioles.
A pair of vasa deferens. A pair of oviducts.
A common oviduct / Median oviduct.
Seminal vesicle.
A spermatheca.
Ejaculatory duct.
A pair of accessory glands.
Accessory glands.
Genitalia. (aedeagus or penis) Bursa copulatrix/copulatrix pouch/genital
chamber/vagina.

 Male reproductive system

 The main functions of the male reproductive system are the production and storage
of spermatozoa and their transport in a viable state to the reproductive tract of the
female.
 A male reproductive organ consists of;
 A pair of testes composed of follicles or sperm tubes
 A pair of vasa deferens,
 seminal vesicle
 Ejaculatory duct
 accessory glands
 Genitalia.

96
1. Testes:

 These are paired in structured &lie in visceral cavity above the alimentary canal.
 Each testes are well supplied with trachea and fat body tissues.
 Each testis consists of number of oval shaped structures known as follicles or
sperm tubes. Each follicle has a layer of epithelial cells.
 The entire follicle is covered by a peritoneal membrane whereas the testes are
completely enveloped within a coat known as scrotum.
 The functions of testes are production and storage of spermatozoa.

2. Vasa differentia:

 These are the long tubes formed by the union of vasa efferens which receives the
sperms from testis and allow their transport to the ejaculatory duct.

3. Seminal vesicles:

 Each vasa deferens becomes enlarged posteriorly to form a sac like structure called
seminal vesicle for storage of spermatozoa for some time.

4. Ejaculatory duct:

97
  Both the vasa deferens of the two testes unites posteriorly to form a common
median ejaculatory duct.
 The terminal section of ejaculatory duct is enclosed in a finger like invagination of
body wall called male copulatory organ or aedeagus or penis.
 The function of aedeagus is that ejaculate the spermatozoa into the female genital
tract.

5. Accessory glands:

 These are 1-3 pairs of glands which open in to the ejaculatory duct
 In most cases their secretion mix with spermatozoa. These glands are called
mushroom glands in cockroaches and mantid because of their appearance as
mushrooms.
 This secretion facilitates sperm transmission from male to female.

Types of Reproduction

1. Oviparity:

 Insects reproduce by laying eggs by the female which later hatch and produce the
young ones. e.g.: moths and butterflies. (Higher order insect)

2. Viviparity:

 It is the phenomenon of reproduction where the female gives birth to the young
ones instead of laying [Link] is classified in to 4 types.
i) Ovo-viviparity:
 Insects retain the eggs within the genital track until the eggs are ready to hatch (or)
giving birth to young ones. e.g.: Thysanoptera (Thrips)
ii) Adenoparous viviparity:
 It is a type of viviparity where the eggs have sufficient yolk, complete their
embryonic development and retain in the uterus. Eggs hatch and the young ones
get nourishment from special nourishment glands called milk glands.

iii) Pseudoplacental viviparity:

98
 It is a phenomenon where insect have eggs with little (or) no yolk. Hatching takes
place within the mother and the nourishment for the young one is received through
embryonic maternal structure called pseudoplacenta e.g.: Psocoptera,
Dermaptera, aphids etc.

iv) Haemocoelous viviparity:

 It is a type of reproduction where the eggs are retained within the haemocoel and
the embryonic development as well as the nourishment of young one takes place
through the transfer of nutrients from the haemolymph of mother. e.g:
strepsipterans & some larvae of cecidomyids (Diptera).

3. Parthenogenesis:

 It is the ability of the females to reproduce without fertilization / copulation with

males. This usually occurs due to the genetic characters, due to heredity, failure in
finding a mate, hormonal changes within the body and weather factors. . e.g.:
aphids.

4. Paedogenesis (or) Neoteny:

 It is a phenomenon where the immature insects or stages give birth to young ones.
This usually occurs due to the hormonal imbalance. Most of the insects which
reproduce by paedogenesis also reproduce by parthenogenesis. e.g.: cecidomyids.
(Mustad sawfly).

5. Polyembryony:

 It is a type of reproduction where insects reproduce by giving birth to two or more

young ones instead of a single one, as two or more embryos are produced from a
single egg. e.g.: endoparasitic Hymenoptera like platygaster.

6. Hermaphroditism:

 It is a type of reproduction where both male and female gonads are present in the
same individual. It may be a functional hermaphroditism as in case of Icerya
purchsi (scale insect)(or) nonfunctional as in case of stonefly, Perla marginata.

99
 7. Castration:

 It is a type of reproduction where the separation of the individuals occurs mainly

due to the development of the reproductive organs. The insects with well-developed
ovaries develop in to females (queens), the insects with well-developed testis
develop in to males (drones) and insects with underdeveloped ovaries develop in to
workers. e.g.: social insects such as honey bees.

CHAPTER FOUR

DEVELOPMENT AND METAMORPHOSIS

4.1. Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:

 Describe how insects grow

 Discuss the life history patterns and phases
 Identify effects of environmental factors on development of insects

[Link]
Once an insect hatches from the egg it is usually able to survive on its own, but it is small,
wingless, and sexually immature. Its primary role in life is to eat and grow. If it survives,
it will periodically outgrow and replace its exoskeleton (a process known as molting). In
many species, there are other physical changes that also occur as the insect gets older
(growth of wings and development of external genitalia, for example). Collectively, all
changes that involve growth, molting, and maturation are known as morphogenesis.

METAMORPHOSIS

 Metamorphosis is derived from Greek word ‘Meta’ = Change, ‘morph’ = form or

structure.
 Series of changes that takes place during the development of an insect from egg to
adult are collectively known as metamorphosis.

100
  Metamorphosis include three developmental processes namely, growth,
differentiation and reproduction which takes place in larval, pupal and adult
stages respectively.
 Eclosion: The process of hatching of eggs after fully development of
embryo called eclosion.
 Instar: It is the forms of the body during two inter moults. The larva is
known as first instar, immediately after hatching from egg, and as second
instar after first moult and so on
 Stadium: The interval or time period between two moults is known as
stadium.
 Exuviae: The skin shed during moulting process is known as exuviae. o
Imago (or) Adult: It is the final stage of insect with well-developed organs
for reproduction, which emerges out from pupal body.
 Sub-imago: It is a pre adult stage with fully developed wings but without
reproductive organs .E.g.: mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

Types of metamorphosis:

1. Ametamorphosis (Ametabolous)
2. Incomplete metamorphosis (Hemimetabolous)
3. Gradual metamorphosis: (Paurometabola)
4. Complete metamorphosis/Holometabolous
5. Hyper metamorphosis
1. Ametamorphosis:
 E.g.: Apterygote e.g.: silver fish, springtails.
 Insects do not undergo any metamorphosis.
 These insects have only three stages in their life namely egg, young ones and adult.
 The hatching insect resembles the adult in all respects except for the size and called
as juveniles.
 Moulting continues throughout the life
2. Hemimetabola: (Incomplete metamorphosis)
 E.g. Dragonfly, damselfly and may fly.

101
 These insects also have three stages in their life namely egg, naiads and adult.
Pupal stage is absent.
 The young ones are aquatic and are called as naiads.
 They are different from adults in habit and habitat.
 They breathe by means of tracheal gills.
 In dragonfly naiad the lower lip (labium) is called mask which is hinged and
provided with hooks for capturing prey. After final moult, the insects have fully
developed wings suited for aerial life.

3. Paurometabola: (Gradual metamorphosis)-

 E. g. grasshoppers, cockroaches, termites, true bugs, cicadas, and hoppers.

 It is also called as simple metamorphosis.
 The life cycle includes egg, nymph and adult stages.
 The nymph resembles the adult in all the characters except wings. Nymphs possess
wing buds which transform in to fully developed wings in adult stage.
 Both nymphs and adults share the same habitat.
 In these insects, wings develop externally and hence are also called as
Exopterygota.
 Pupal stage is absent hence, development is said to be direct and simple.

4. Complete or Holometamorphosis or indirect development:

 E.g. Butterfly, moth, Beetles, weevils, fly and bees.

 The life cycle includes four stages; egg, larva, pupa and adult.
 Larvae of butterflies are called caterpillar.
 Larva differs from the adult both in body structure and habits. Larva has both
thoracic and abdominal legs, sometimes legs may be absent in larva, whereas
adult has only thoracic legs.
 Compound eyes are absent in larva.
 Larva undergoes moulting to enter in to pupal stage from which the adult insect
emerges.

102
 Wings develop internally during the pupal stage and hence, they are called
Endoptreygotes.
5. Hypermetamorphosis:
 This is a peculiar type of development which consists of two or more types or forms
of larvae in the life cycle of insects.
 In majority of the cases the first larval, instar is campodeiform and the subsequent
larval forms depends on type and mode of life of the larva. E.g.: In blister beetle
(Meloidae; Coleoptera), the first larval instar is campodeiform followed by
scarabeiform larval type.

Larva/Nymph Nymph directly Young one undergo

directly becomes becomes adult pupal stage before
adult adult stage

No pupal stages Pupal stage absent Pupal stage present

All Apterygote Characteristics of Characteristic of

insects lower insect orders : higher orders :
Endopterygote
Exopterygote insects
insects

103
SIGNIFICANCE OF METAMORPHOSIS

i. It helps the insect to tide over unfavorable climate conditions by entering into
hibernation, aestivation and or diapauses.
ii. It helps the insect to accommodate growth by periodical shedding of their old
cuticle and by formation of new cuticle.
iii. It helps the insect to reduce or avoid competition for food amongst themselves by
either entering into inactive stage or by acquiring different feeding habits and
habitats.
iv. It helps the insect as a protective adaptation by a way of mimicry. i.e. resembles to
the nature.
v. It also serves as an important aspect in classification of insects.

SEASONAL ADOPTIONS

 Diapause: -
 It is the period of arrested growth or development in the life cycle of the
insects during which the physiological processes like differentiation and
reproduction are suspended. Diapause is represented by low rate of
metabolism, low O2 consumption, low body weight, low body water
content and vitamin deficiency in the blood. Diapause may occur in egg,
larva, nymph, pupa or adult stage.

 The occurrence of diapause during summer due to high temperatures is

known as “aestivation”
 Whereas the period of inactivity during winter due to low temperatures
known as “hibernation”.
 IMMATURE STAGES OF INSECTS
 Immature stages of exopterygote insects are known as Nymphs and endopterygote
insects are known as Larvae.

Differences between Larva and Nymph

[Link]. Larva Nymph

104
 1. It is an immature stage, of Endopterygotes. Immature stage of exopterygotes
2. It undergoes holometamorphosis It undergoes hemimetamorphosis
3. Body is vermiform which differs from the adult Body resembles the adult in all the
both in structure and feeding habits characters except wings
4. Consists of ocelli and reduced Antennae Have compound eyes and antennae

5. Possess both thoracic and abdominal legs Possess only thoracic legs.
6. The larva is different from adult in feeding habits Nymph resembles the adult in feeding
and behaviour habits and behaviour

7. The larva enters pupal stage No pupal stage

8. E.g.: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera Hemiptera, Orthoptera.

TYPES OF LARVA

1. Protopod larva: E.g.: Endoparasitic Hymenoptera.

 The larvae are partially developed. They possess well developed head and thoracic
segments but lack segmentation in the abdomen. They possess rudimentary
cephalic and thoracic appendages but no abdominal appendages. They have
partially developed digestive system and underdeveloped respiratory and nervous
systems.
2. Oligopod larva:
 Thoracic legs are well developed. Abdominal legs are absent. These are classified
in to two types’ viz., campodeiform and scarabaeiform.

Differences between Campodeiform and Scarabaeiform

Sr. Campodeiform Scarabaeiform

No.
1 The body is long and fusiform in shape Body is ‘C’ shaped
2 Body is dorso-ventrally compressed with Body is cylindrical or sub cylindrical,
sclerotized cuticle stout and fleshy in nature
3 Prognathous type of head Hypognathous type of head
4 Long thoracic legs Short thoracic legs

105
5 A pair of terminal abdominal processes (anal Absent
cerci) are present
6 These are active Inactive

7 Predatory in nature Phytophagous

8 e.g. grub of antlion /grub of lady bird beetle. e.g.: grub of rhinoceros beetle/white grub

3. Polypod larva (Eruciform larva):

 The larva possess well defined segmentation of the body with three pairs of thoracic
legs, 2-5 pairs of abdominal legs (3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 10th abdominal segment.
They are phytophagous and destructive.
 Different types of polypod larvae:
A. Hairy caterpillar larval body is fully covered with hairsE.g.: Red hairy caterpillar,
Castor hairy caterpillar
B. Sphingid caterpillar / larva the larva consists of a horn (or) hook on the dorsal
surface of 8th abdominal segment. E.g.: Gingelly death’s head moth
C. Looper: Only two pairs of abdominal legs present on 6th and last abdominal
segment during walking the insect body forms a complete loop like structure hence,
the name looper.E.g.: Mango looper.
D. Semilooper: e.g.: Castor semilooper First two pairs of abdominal legs (on 3 rd and
4 th segments) are reduced, hence a part of the insect body forms a small loop during
its movement E.g.: Castor semilooper.
4. Apodous larva:
 These are characterized by the absence of trunk appendages (or) legs. They possess
3 pairs of sensory papillae in the place of thoracic legs. They are usually derived
from Oligopod [Link] on the degree of development of the head capsule and
its appendages, these larvas are divided in to 3 types.
a) Eucephalous: e.g.: Sub order Nematocera of Diptera, Mosquito(Culcidae)
The larva consists of a well sclerotized head capsule.
b) Hemicephalous. e.g.: Brachycera of Diptera, robberflies (Asilidae) Larva
possess partially developed head capsule

106
 c) Acephalous e.g.: Cyclorrhapa of Diptera, Muscidae (houseflies)the larva
are characterized by the absence of head capsule and mouth parts are
represented by mouth hooks.

Appearance Larval Type Common Description Examples

Name

Eruciform Caterpillar Body cylindrical Moths and

with short thoracic butterflies
legs and 2-10 pairs
of fleshy
abdominal prolegs

Campodeiform Crawler Elongated, Lady

flattened body beetle,
with prominent lacewing
antennae and/or
cerci. Thoracic
legs adapted for
running
Scarabaeiform White Body robust and June
grub "C"shaped with no beetle,
abdominal prolegs dung
and short thoracic beetle
legs

Elateriform Wireworm Body long, Click

smooth, and beetle,
cylindrical with Flour
hard exoskeleton beetle
and very short
thoracic legs

Vermiform Maggot Body fleshy, House fly,

wormlike. No flesh fly
head capsule or
walking legs

107
  TYPES OF PUPA
 It is resting, inactive stage of the holometabolous insects and transitional phase
during which the wings are developed and the insect attain matured sexual organs.
The pupa is incapable of feeding, locomotion except in some cases where they
crawl (Neuroptera) (Aphid lion), e.g.: mosquitoes. Later it emerges as adult,
pupation may be takes place either in soil, or on the plant surface or within the
webs.

Pupae are divided on the following bases;

I. Based on the presence or absence of powerful mandibles

Decticous pupae Adecticous pupae

Possess relatively powerful Do not possess the mandibles but

mandibles which are used for escaping with the help of other appendages,
of the adult from the cocoon i.e. to break adults escape from the cocoon e.g.:
the cocoon. e.g.: Neuroptera Lepidoptera, Diptera.

II. Based on the attachment on the appendages (or) shape of the pupae

1) Exarate pupa: e.g.:Coleoptera

 The pupae have appendages which are free without any secondary attachment to
the body
2) Obtect pupa eg: Lepidoptera (moths)
 The pupae have appendages which are firmly pressed against the body and the pupa
is highly chitinized.
3) Coarctate: e.g.: Diptera (housefly)
 The pupa remains enclosed in a puparium formed by the last larval skin and the
pupa looks like a capsule or barrel.
4) Chrysalis: eg: butterflies
 It is an obtect type of pupa which has golden colouration and a stalk.

108
Appearance Pupal Common Description Examples
Type Name

Obtect None Butterflies

Developing appendages and moths
(antennae, wings, legs,
etc.) held tightly against
the body by a shell-like
casing. Often found
enclosed within a silken
cocoon.

Exarate None All developing Beetles,

appendages free and Lacewings
visible externally

Coarctate Puparium Body encased within the housefly

hard exoskeleton of the
next-to-last larval instar

Chrysalis None butterflies

It is an obtect type of pupa
which has golden
colouration and a stalk.

109
 CHAPTER FIVE

INSECT ECOLOGY

5.1. Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:

 Acquaint himself with the different aspects of interactions of insects with different
abiotic factors of ecosystem
 Understand influence of biotic Factors

5.2. Introduction
 The insect ecology is the scientific study of how insects, individually or as a
community, interact with the surrounding environment or ecosystem.
 Ecosystem, the basic functional unit of ecology, is composed of abiotic (non-living)
components of the environment and biotic (living) community both interacting with
each other.
 An insect being the member of the biotic community interacts with other living
members of the community as well as with the non-living (abiotic) components of
the environment.
 The outcome of these interactions is the population dynamics, the positive or
negative growth of the population. Hence the life system, existence, abundance, and
evolution of insects can be understood by the study of interactions between insects
and abiotic factors and insects and biotic factors and population dynamics.
 Insects are the dominant group of organisms on earth, in terms of both taxonomic
diversity and ecological function. Insects play significant roles in the ecology of the
world due to their vast diversity of form, function and life-style; their considerable
biomass; and their interaction with plant life, other organisms and the environment.
Since they are the major contributor to biodiversity in the majority of habitats,
except in the sea, they accordingly play a variety of extremely important ecological
roles in the many functions of an eco-system. Taking the case of nutrient recycling;

110
 insects contribute to this vital function by degrading or consuming leaf litter, wood,
carrion and dung and by dispersal of fungi.
 Insects form an important part of the food chain, especially for Entomophagous
vertebrates such as many mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles. Insects play an
important role in maintaining community structure and composition; in the case of
animals by transmission of diseases, predation and parasitism, and in the case of
plants, through phytophagy and by plant propagation through pollination and seed
dispersal. From an anthropocentric point of view, insects compete with humans;
they consume as much as 10% of the food produced by man and infect one in six
humans with a pathogen.

ECOLOGY RELATED TERMINOLOGY

i. Habitat is the place where the organism lives.

ii. Population denotes groups of individuals of any kind of organism. Insect populations
are groups of individuals set in a frame that is limited in time and space.
iii. Community in the ecological sense includes all the populations of a given area.
Community can also be defined as interacting ‘web’ of populations where
individuals in a population feed upon and in turn are fed upon by individuals of other
populations (Fig. 1)
iv. Ecosystem
 Ecosystem or ecological system is the functioning together of community
and the nonliving environment where continuous exchange of matter and
energy takes place.
 In other words ecosystem is the assemblage of elements, communities and
physical environment.
 Ecosystem is the ultimate unit for study in ecology as they are composed of
living organisms and the nonliving environment.
 Examples of natural ecosystem: Ponds, lakes and forests ecosystem

111
 v. Biosphere is the term used for all of the earth’s ecosystems functioning together
on the global scale.
Genes Cells Organs Organisms Populations Communities
c omPonents
+
N onli v i ng
c omponents Matter E nergy
B i osphere
= Biosystems
Gene Cell Organ Organism Population Ecosystem
System system system system system system

Figure. Flow of matter and energy in an ecosystem

Agroecosystem is largely created and maintained to satisfy human wants or needs.
It is not a natural ecosystem but is man-made. Agroecosystem is the basic unit of
pest management - a branch of applied ecology.
A typical agroecosystem is composed of
i. more or less uniform crop-plant population
ii. weed communities
iii. Animal communities (including insects)
iv. micro biotic communities
v. And the physical environment the react with.
 Unique features of Agroecosystem
 Dominated by plants selected by man
 No species diversity and no intraspecific diversity. Genetically uniform
 Phenological events like germination, flowering occur simultaneously
 Lack of temporal continuity - due to various agricultural operations carried
out by man like ploughing, weeding, pesticide application etc.
 Plants contain imported genetic material
 Nutrients are added
 Outbreak of pests, weeds and diseases occur frequently

112
 [Link] environment of an insect population consists

Biotic balance

 It is the condition of equilibrium in the population of animals. It is not a static

one but oscillating. The population level is determined by I. Reproductive
potential and II. Environmental Resistance.

I. Reproductive potential

 The ability of an insect to multiply in a given time in the absence of

environmental resistance. Factors that affect the reproductive potential are a)
initial population by fecundity. c) Length of developmental period and d) sex
ratio.
 Potential natality is the reproductive rate of the individuals in an optimal
environment. Survival rate depends on the feeding habits and protection
to young ones (eg. Viviparity). Generally insects with high reproductive rate
tend to have low survival rate and vice versa.
 Insect pests with high reproductive rate and low survival rate are called r
strategists named after the statistical parameter r, the symbol for growth
rate coefficient. Such pests succeed because of sheer numbers. E.g. Aphids.
 K strategists reproduce slowly but effectively compete for environmental
resources and so their survival rate is high. (K letter denotes flattened portion
of growth curve) eg. Codling moth of apple.
 Birth rate or natality is measured as the total number of eggs laid per female per
unit time. Factors determining birth rate are fecundity, fertility and sex ratio.
 Death rate or mortality denotes the number of insects dying over a period.
 Example of High reproductive rate
A single moth of Earias vitella (Bhendi fruit borer) lays about 200 eggs per
Female. Life cycle is completed in 1 month
After 1 month 200 adults

100 male+ 100 female

100 x 200 = 20,000 eggs
113
 After 2 month 10,000 x 200 = 2,000,000 eggs

After 1 year adults 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

(i.e., 2 followed by 24 zeroes)
If a single moth can produce this much, they will cover 24.32 above earth
surface in 1 year. But in reality only a fraction of progeny completes life cycle
due to environmental resistance.

II. Environmental Resistance.

 The sum total of all factors in on environment that tends to reduce the rate of
multiplication. Factors that affect the environmental resistance are a) Physical b)
nutritional, c) host plant and d) biotic.

a) Physical factors (Abiotic factor)

i. Temperature
 It has got a profound influence on the life cycle of insects. a) Temperature
influences on the rate of development (or) number of generation (eg)
Temperature is an important factor in the life of the bed bugs. The number of
generations passed through during a year is directly dependent on the ambient
temperature. As many as twelve generations occurs in the tropical and two in
cold climate. For the sugarcane stem borer, Chilo infuscatellus, the larval period
extend over 16-24 days in summer and 141-171 days in winter. b) Temperature
influences the fecundity and rate of egg production. (eg) Cabbage Diamond
backmoth lay more number of eggs at 18° C (larval temperature) than 22°C. c)
Temperature influences the rate of migration and dispersal. (eg) In Desert
lowest (Schistioceva gregaria), migration of swarms occurs at 17°C to 20°C.
 Zone of effective temperature. Normal life activities go on smoothly at a
specific temperature (or) at a specific range of temperature. This is called the
optimum temperature. The rate of chemical reaction within tissues is modified
by temperature. Metabolic processes are influenced by temperature and increase
with it upto a maximum and suddly decline at the upper lethal temperature. The
extreme temperature alters the insect and the insect entes into diapauses (resting

114
 stage). If the resting stage is due to low temperature, than it is called hibernation.
If the resting stage is due to high temperature, it is called Aestivation.
ii. Light
 The radiant energy, termed light is one of the most important ecological factors
affecting many aspects of the insect life. Several vital phenomena of the insect
biology (eg) feeding, growth, development, diapuse, survival and ethology are
profoundly influenced by light. Photoperiodism: Daily and seasonal duration of
light has profound effect on the production of sexual form in Aphids. Short day
length is influencing sexual forms, while long day length is influencing asexual
forms (parthenogenetic) viviparous reproduction. Photoperiods also influence
growth, metabolism and daily rhythm of activity (feeding, flying, mating and
oviposition). The light influences on the inception and completion of diapauses.
 Daily rhythm of activity: It has been observed that many species of insects are not
equally active throughout the 24 hr of the day. Some are primarily nocturnal (dark
active); other are diurnal (day active) and still other which are referred to as
crepuscular (dusk active) are active mainly at dawn and dusk.
iii. Relative humidity
 Termites are a group of insects for which atmospheric humidity is an important
ecological factor. They usually move towards a zone of high humidity, when
subjected to the slightest desiccation. Humidity is high, rice brown plant hopper
multiplication is more. Certain entomogenous fungi requires very high humidity for
multiplication and spread (eg) white halo fungus, Verticillum lecanii attack on
coffee green bug.
iv. Rainfall
 For normal emergence of adults rainfall is a must (also it is essential for pupation)
for insect like cutworms, Helicoverpa armigiera, Spodoptetra litura. If it is excess,
grubs like white grubs will come out of environment where they are subject to
predation. Excess rainfall control aphids and Diamond backmoth.
v. Wind
 It helps more in the dispersal of insect species besides interfering with their normal
feeding, mating and multiplication. (eg) with the help of wind current Helicorerpa

115
 adult moth fly upto 90 km. Another examples is the spreads of eriophyid mite in
coconut.
vi. Soil type
 Type of soil play a role in multiplication of insects. (eg) wireworms multiply even
in heavy clay soil (poor drainage) with lesser drainage, Whereas white grub
multiply very well in loose sandy soil (light) with better drainage.
vii. Water
 Standing (stagnated) water helps in multiplication of insect like mosquitoes.
Running streams are preferred by black flies and caddish flies.
viii. Tropographic factors
 Besides mountain, large areas under water viz., sea etc also act as physical for the
spread of the insect.
b) Nutritional factors
i. Availability of food regulate population abundance.
ii. Kind and quality of food influence life cycle.
iii. Host selection – monophagous, polyphagous – chemical factors in host selection.
c) Host Plant associated factors – rapidity of growth, foliage characteristics,
taste factors etc.
d) Biotic factor
 Biotic factors of the environment tend to modify the activities of insects.
Individuals within a population enter into varied interactions with each other
besides interacting with the adjacent population. These interactions may be
positive (or) negative according to whether it produces beneficial or harmful
effects on the interacting individual (or) population. In the positive interaction,
the individuals live adjusting with each other (Mutualism, commensalisms).
The negative interaction leads to competition, parasitism and predation.
i. Competition
 The active demand by two or more individuals of the same species of
population. (Intra specific competition) (or) members of two or more species at
the same trophic level (Inter specific competition) for a common resource (or)

116
 requirement that is actually limiting. Both intra specific and inter specific
competition contribute to the density and diversity of a population.
a) Inter specific competition
 Two competing species can’t exist in a same place for a long time. Inter specific
competition leads to competitive displacement. (e.g.) Mediterranean fruit fly in
Hawaii in 1940. The accidental introduction of oriental fruit fly replaces the
Mediterranean fruit fly. Competitive displacement between Nosema apis and
mite Acarapis woodi in Honeybee. Tribolium (red flour beetle) eliminate
oryzalphilus (saw toothed beetle) both are grown in same flour.
b) Intra specific competition
 If the common resource is abundance, no problem in the individual and if it is
limited competition occurs and superior abilities will survive in the end. (eg)
a)Aphid – dispersal. b) Cannibalism in American bollworm, Helicoverpa
armigera.
ii. Parasites and predator
 Interaction between predator and prey are different from the parasite and host
relationship in that the predator and prey maintain an equilibrium more dynamic
than the parasite and its hosts. The parasites in general, when the rate of
parasitization is high cause death and resultant elimination of the hosts. But a
predator never eliminates the prey completely. Parasite includes fungi, bacteria,
protozoa nematodes and other arthropods. Predator includes insect predators,
birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians that check the population.

117
 CHAPTER SIX

EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS

6.1. Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner will be able to:

 Explain briefly taxonomy of insect

 Explain Theories of classification
 Discuss about Significance of taxonomy
 Understand Classification (29 insect orders)

Generally three terms viz., taxonomy, systematics and classification are in use.
Taxonomy:

 The word finds its roots in the Greek taxis (meaning 'order', 'arrangement') and
nomos ('law' or 'science'). Taxonomy uses taxonomic units, known as taxa (singular
taxon). It was coined by A P De Candolle, a professor of Montpellier University in
France.
 Taxonomy is the theory and practice of classifying organisms into categories based
on similarities or differences, and describing of these systematically. Taxonomy is
the science of naming organisms.
 Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification.
 Taxonomy is the study of the principles of scientific classification.

Systematics:

 Systematics is the area of biology devoted to the classification of organisms.

 Originally introduced by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), who based his classification
system on physical traits, systematics now includes the similarities of DNA, RNA,
and proteins across species as criteria for classification.
 Systematics is the science of study of kinds of organisms, and of any and all
relationships among them, or science of diversity of organisms.
 Systematics is the study of the classification of organisms, and their historical
relationships, also known as phylogenetics.

118
Classification: It is the scheme of arranging organisms into different groups of systematic
study. Classification is the arrangement of organisms in to groups on the basis of their
relationships.

Insect Orders

Common Name & Wing character No. of Species

Taxonomic Name Examples Worldwide
Sub-Class : APTERYGOTA
(Wingless Insects with No True Metamorphosis)
1. Thysanura Silver fish -- 55
2. Diplura Pronged Bristletails -- 600
3. Protura Proturans -- 10
4. Collembola Springtails -- 3000

Sub-Class: PTERYGOTA
(Winged Insects with Incomplete or Complete Metamorphosis)
Super-Order: The Exopterygota
(Hemimetabolous insects with incomplete metamorphosis)
Exopterygota (Insects having simple metamorphosis)
Order 5: Ephemeroptera (May flies)
Order 6: Odonata (Dragon flies & damsel flies)
Order 7: Plecoptera (Stone flies)
Order 8: Grylloblattodea (Grylloblattids)
Order 9: Orthoptera (Locusts and grass hoppers)
Order 10: Phasmida (Walking sticks, leaf insects & stick insects)
Order 11: Dermaptera (Ear wigs)
Order 12: Embioptera (Web spinners)
Order 13 Dictyoptera (Cockroaches and mantids)
Order 14: Isoptera (White ants or termites)
Order 15: Zoraptera (Zorapterans)
Order 16: Psocoptera ( Psocids, book lice)
Order 17: Mallophaga (Bird lice)
Order 18: Siphunculata or Anoplura (sucking lice)
Order 19: Hemiptera (Plant bugs)
Order 20: Thysanoptera (Thrips)

Endopterygota (Insects having complex metamorphosis)

Order 21: Neuroptera (Ant lions and lace wings)
Order 22: Coleoptera (Beetles, weevils)

119
Order 23: Strepsiptera (Stylopids)
Order 24: Mecoptera (Scorpion flies)
Order 25: Siphonoptera (Fleas)
Order 26: Diptera (Flies, midges, mosquitoes)
Order 27: Lepidoptera (Moths and butterflies)
Order 28: Trichoptera (Caddis flies)
Order 29: Hymenoptera (Ants, bees, wasps)

The class Insecta is divided in to 29 orders (4 in Apterygota and 25 in Pterygota).

The class Insecta has two subclasses viz., Apterygota and Pterygota.

Sr. Apterygota Pterygota

No.
1 Primarily wingless insect Winged or secondarily
wingless insect
2 Metamorphosis is totally absent or slight present. Present
3 Mandibles articulate with head capsule at a single point. double
4 Pleural sulcus in thorax is absent. Present
5 Pregenital abdominal appendages Absent. present

The sub class Pterygota has two divisions viz.,Exopterygotaand Endopterygota

Character Exopterygota Endopterygota

Wing development External Internal
Metamorphosis Incomplete (Hemimetabola) or gradual Complete (Holometabola)
Pupal stage Absent Present
Immature stage Egg, Naiad or Nymph, Adult Egg, Larva, Pupa, Adult
No. of orders 16 09

The following is the example of Hierarchy for Honey Bee:

(Also note suffixes for various taxa)

Taxa Name of the Taxa Suffix for Taxa

Kingdom Animilia --
Phylum Arthropoda --
Class Insecta (Hexapoda) --
120
Subclass Pterygota --
Order Hymenoptera ptera
Superfamily Apoidae oidae
Family Apidae idae
Subfamily Apinae inae
Genus Apis --
Species dorsata --

STUDY OF INSECT ORDERS

1. ORDER: ORTHOPTERA (Orthos - Straight; Ptera-wings)

E.g. Grasshoppers, Locust, Katydids, Mole cricket, house and field cricket.

 Economic Importance: Majority of insects are phytophagous like grasshopper,

locust some create noisy loud sound.

Characters:

 Antenna is filiform
 Mouthparts are mandibulate.
 Head position is hypognathous.
 Prothorax is large and distinct.
 Legs are saltatorial type.
 Legs normally developed, or forelegs modified for digging (fossorial) as in mole
crickets or hind legs modified for jumping (saltatorial) as in grasshopper.

121
  Forewings are leathery, thickened and known as Tegmina and Hind wings are
membranous.
 Specialized stridulatory (sound-producing) organs are present. Usually males alone
can produce sound.
 Auditory or tympanal (hearing) organs are also well developed and are located on
either side of the first abdominal segment or at the base of fore tibia.
 Cerci are short and unsegmented.
 Metamorphosis is gradual. (simple or incomplete)(Egg – Nymph - Adult)
 Ovipositor is well developed in female on 7 & 8thabdominal sternum.
 Male genitalia on 9th abdominal sternum.

This order is sub divided into two suborders, viz., Caelifera and Ensifera.

Sr. Caelifera Ensifera

No.
1 Antennae are shorter than bodyless than 30 Antennae are longer than body more than
segments 30 segments
2 Tympanum is found on the lateral side of the Tympanum is found on the fore tibia.
first abdominal segment.
3 Diurnal(Active at day) Nocturnal(Active at night)
4 Feed on monocot plants Feed on dicot plants
5 Eggs laid in soil. Eggs laid in plant tissue
6 Ovipositor is short Ovipositor is more or less elongate.
7 Stridulatory organ (Femoro-alary type) Stridulatory organ (Tegminal)
8 Family: Acrididae: Short horned Families:
grasshoppers, Surface grasshoppersand 1. Tettigonidae:Long horned
locusts. grasshoppers, Katydids and bush crickets.
2. Gryllidae: House and
fieldCrickets.
3. Gryllotalpidae: Mole crickets.

2. ORDER: DICTYOPTERA (Dictyon - Network; Ptera – wings)

E.g. Cockroaches and Preying Mantid

122
  Economic Importance: Cockroaches are household pests and Mantid predatory in
habit

Characters:

 Head is usually hypognathous.

 Antenna is filiform/ cetaceous.
 Mouthparts are mandibulate type.
 Forewings are tegmina and Hind wings are large membranous.
 Prothorax with pronotum covering
 Cerci are short and many segmented.
 Fore legs is walking/raptorial type.
 Eggs are contained in an ootheca.
 Metamorphosis is gradual. (simple or incomplete)
 Female with reduce ovipositor on 7thabdominal sternum.
 Male genitalia on 9th abdominal sternum.
 Dictyoptera is divided into two suborders viz., Blattaria (cock-roaches) and
Mantodea (preying mantids). The important families are Blattidae and Mantidae.
Differences between Blattaria and Mantodea

Sr. Blattaria Mantodea

No.
1 Head is completely covered with Head is not covered with pronotum.
pronotum.
2 Two ocelli are present. Three ocelli are present.
3 Legs cursorial (All pairs) Fore legs is raptorial type.
4 Proventriculus with powerful teeth. Proventriculus not powerful teeth.
5 Eggs laid in ootheca Eggs laid in spaumaline

123
 6 Omnivorous Carnivorous
7 No mimicry found Mimicry found
8 Nymph not cannibalistic Nymph cannibalistic
Family: Blattidae- e.g. Cockroaches Family: Mantidae- e. g. preying mantids

3. ORDER: ODONATA (Odous - Tooth; anus – having),

E.g. Dragonflies and damselflies.

 Economic Importance: Adults are aerial predators. They are able to catch, hold
and devour the prey in flight. Naiads are aquatic predators. Adult predacious on
mosquitoes, Houseflies etc. and nymph feed on mosquito larvae.

Characters:

 Medium to large sized insects. They are attractively coloured.

 Head is Mobile and attached to slender neck
 Compound eyes are large. Three ocelli are present.
 Antennae is filiform
 Chewing and biting type of mouth parts
 Wings are membranous. Wings have a dark pterostigma towards the costal apex.
 Prothorax is reduced; meso and meta thorax is fused.
 Basket like legs present to catch prey in flight
 Abdomen is long and slender.

124
  Metamorphosis is incomplete with three life stages. The naiad is aquatic.
 Labium is greatly elongated, jointed and bears two hooks at apex. It is called mask.
It is useful to capture the prey.
 Respiration by means of rectal or caudal gills.
 Immature stage of Odonata is called “Naiads”
 There are three sub-orders. Anisoptera, Zygoptera and Anisozygoptera.
Differences between Anisoptera and Zygoptera

ANISOPTERA ZYGOPTERA

(Anisos = Unequal & Ptera = Wing) (Zygon = Equal & Ptera = Wing)
Adult Characters
1. Strong fliers 1. Weak fliers
2. Compound eyes large meet each other 2. Compound eyes button like, wide apart
(Holoptic) (Dichoptic)
3. Hind wings basally broader than 3. Both Pair equal with identical venation
forewings
4. Wings spread laterally at rest 4. Wings held at an angle above abdomen
NYMPH (Naid) CHARACTERS
1. Stout and robust 1. Weak and fragile
2. Rectal gills present 2. Caudal gills present
3. Jet propulsion Mechanism present 3. Absent
E. g. Dragonfly E. g. Damselfly

4. ORDERS: ISOPTERA (Iso - Equal; Ptera - wing)

E. g. Termites (White ants)

125
  Economic Importance: Termites are nature's scavengers. They convert logs,
stumps, branches etc, to humus. Many are injurious to crops, furniture and wood
works of buildings

Characters:

 They are ancient polymorphic, social insects living in colonies

 White, soft bodied insects.
 Antennae are short and moniliform.
 Compound eyes present in winged forms.
 Mouthparts are adapted for biting and chewing.
 Wings are membranous. Wings are present only in sexually mature forms during
swarming season.(Deciduous type)
 Tarsi are always 4 segmented
 Circi are short
 External genital organs are lacking in both the sexes.
 Metamorphosis simple or incomplete.
 Caste system: Following are the difference castes that are usually seen in atermite
colony.
 Workers is the damaging caste

A) Reproductives Cast;-
a) Primaryreproductive (King& Queen)
b) Supplementary reproductive
B) Sterile Cast;-
a) Workers
b) Soldiers

126
Important families:-
1. Termitidae- e.g. Termes spp, Odontotermes spp.
2. Kalotermitidae- e.g. Dry wood termites.
5. ORDER: THYSANOPTERA (Thysano: Fringed and Pteron: wing),

E.g. Thrips

 Economic Importance: Most of the thrips species belong to the family Thripidae
and are phytophagous. They suck the plant sap. Some are vectors of plant diseases.
Few are predators.

Characters:

 They are minute, slender, soft bodied insects.

 Mouthparts are rasping and sucking.
 Right mandible is absent Hence mouthparts are asymmetrical.
 Antennae short moniliform

127
  Fringed wings are present
 Prothorax is free and well develops.
 Abdomen is elongate with 10-11 segments, usually tapering posteriorly
 Cerci absent
 Metamorphosis is incomplete with inactive pupa like instars (Aberrant
hemimetabola)
 Parthenogenetic type of reproduction is very common and in many species males
are rarely seen.
 This order is subdivided into two suborders.
a. Terebrantia: Important family is Thripidae, e.g Onion Thrips
b. Tubulifera: Important family is Phaleothripidae e.g Olive Thrips

6. ORDER: HEMIPTERA (Hemi - half; Ptera – wing)

E.g. Bugs, Aphids, Whiteflies, Mealy bugs, Scales etc

Characters:

 Head is opisthognathous.
 Mouthparts are piercing and sucking type.
 Forewings (Hemielytra) are either uniformly thickened throughout distally
membranous.
 Cerci are always absent.
 Metamorphosis usually incomplete.
 Alimentary canal is suitably modified (filter chamber) to handle liquid food.
 There are two suboders viz., Heteroptera and Homoptera

Differences between Heteroptera and Homoptera

128
Sr. Heteroptera Homoptera
No. (Hetero-different; Ptera-wing) (Homo-uniform; Ptera-wing)
1 Head is porrect or horizontal Head is deflexed
2 Pronotum usually large Pronotum small and collar like
3 Forewings hemelytra Forewings uniform in consistency
4 Wings fold flat over the body atrest Wings held roof like over the body
5 Tarsi – 3 segmented antennae 4-5segmented Tarsi 1-3 segmented antenna 3-
10segmented
6 odoriferous glands arepresent wax glands are present
7 Herbivorous, predaceous orblood sucking. Herbivorous
8 Both terrestrial and aquatic Terrestrial
9 Honey dew secretion uncommon Honey dew secretion common
10 Important families of heteroptera Important families of homoptera
1. Cimicidae: (Bed bugs) [Link]: (Leaf hoppers or
2. Tingidae: (Lacewing bugs or Tingid bug) Jassids)
3. Miridae: (Plant bugs or Leaf bugs) 2. Delphacidae : (Delphacids)
4. Lygaeidae: Dusky cotton bug 3. Aleyrodidae: (Whiteflies)
5. Pyrrhocoridae: Red cotton bug 4. Aphididae: (Aphids)
6. Coreidae: Rice earhead bug,Tur pod bug, 5. Coccidae: (Scale insects)
7. Pentatomidae: (Stink bugs, Painted bug) 6. Kerridae: (Lac insect)
8. Belostomatidae: (electric light bugs) 7. Pseudococcidae: (Mealy bugs)

7. ORDER: NEUROPTERA (Neuron-nerve; Ptera - wings),

E. g. Green lace wings, Ant lions, Alder fly, Snake fly

 Economic Importance: Insects are predacious (on aphids, White flies, thrips) –beneficial,
Dobson flies called hellgrammites use for fish baiting.
Characters:
 They are soft bodied insects

129
  Antenna is filiform
 Mouthparts are chewing type in adults.
 Two pairs of similar membranous wings in rest form roof on abdomen
 Circi absent
 Larva is carnivorous, campodeiform
 Pupa is Exarate, decticous.
 Pupation takes place in a silken cocoon.
 Malpighian tubules are modified as silk glands.
 Abdomen without cerci.
 Metamorphosis complete type (Egg – Larva – Pupa - Adult)
 Classification: This order is subdivided into two suborders viz., Megaloptera and
Planipennia.
 Sub order: Planipennia:
1. Chrysopidae: (Green lacewings, Goldeneyes, Stink flies, Aphid lions)
2. Mantispidae: (Mantispidflies).
3. Myrmeleontidae: (Ant lions)
4. Ascalaphidae: (Owlflies)
8. ORDER: LEPIDOPTERA (Lepidos - scales; Ptera – wings)
E. g. Moths, Butterflies, Skippers

Characters:
 Head relatively small free with small neck. Compound eyes are relatively large; two ocelli
present one on each side close to the margins of compound eyes.
 Mouthparts in adults are of siphoning type. Mandibles are absent.
 Antennae are clubbed in buterflies and filamentous in moths
 Wings are membranous and scaly.
 Wings are coupled by either frenate or amplexiform type of wing coupling.
 Larvae are called caterpillars usually polypod-eruciform type.
 Two to five pairs of fleshy unsegmented prolegs are found in the abdomen. At the bottom
of the proleg, crochets are present.
 Pupa is generally adecticous and obtect
 Adults are harmless except fruit sucking moths.
 Undergo complete metamorphosis.

130
There are three sub-orders. Zeugloptera, Ditrysia, Monotrysia.

Sr. Zeugloptera Monotrysia Ditrysia

No.
1 Adults with functional Adults without functional Adults without functional
mandibles sometimes with vestigial mandibles
mandibles
2 Female bursa copulatrix Female with 1 or 2 genital Female with opening bursa
opening into common opening behind sternite copulatrix on sternite
oviduct
3 Female insects have one Female insects have two
pore. pores.

Important familyof suborder Ditrysia:-

Family: Noctuidae - This is the largest family in this order. E. g. Army worms, cutworms,
Spodoptera, Helicoverpa, Fruit sucking moth, Castor semilooper.
Family: Gelechidae– E. g. Potato tuber moth, Pink bollworm, Groundnut leaf miner,
Angoumois grain moth.
Family: Pyralidae–E. g. Cotton leaf roller, Jowar stem borer, Wax moth
Family: Pterophoridae–E. g. Tur plume moth
Family: Arctiidae–E. g. Hairy caterpillar
Family: Hesperiidae–E. [Link] skipper
Family: Shingidae–E. g. Sesamum and Sweet potato leaf eating caterpillar
Family: Papilionidae–E. g. Lemon butterfly
Family: Lycanidae–E. g. Anar caterpillar
Family: Pieridae–E. g. Cabbage butterfly
Family: Bombycidae–E. g. Mulberry silk worm
Family: Saturnidae–E. g. Tasar and Erri silk worm
Differences between moths and butterflies

Sr. Moths Butterflies

No.
1 Nocturnal in habit Diurnal in habit
2 Antennae either Pectinate or bi Pectinate Antennae Clavate type
plumose type
3 Ocelli Present Ocelli Absent
4 Mandibles Present Mandibles Absent

131
 5 Wing coupling Frenate type Wing coupling amplexiform type
6 Abdomen Large and stout Abdomen Comparatively small and slender
7 Obtect pupa within a cocoon Obtect pupa without cocoon.
8 At rest, wings held roof like on body At rest, wings held erect straight upward.

9. ORDER: HYMENOPTERA (Hymen - membrane; Ptera - wings.)

E. g. Wasps, bees, ants, sawflies, Parasitoids etc

 Economic Importance: Red ant, mustard saw fly are crop pest. Many insects are
beneficial parasitoids or pollinators
Characters:
 This is the most beneficial order in the class insecta comprising of parasites, predators and
bees involved in poliination and honey production. Most of them are social living
 Mouth parts are biting type modified for lapping or sucking
 Wings are membranous
 Wing venation is hamuli type.
 Abdomen is basally constricted. The first abdominal segment is called propodeum. It is
fused with metathorax. The second segment is known as pedicel which connects the thorax
and abdomen. Abdomen beyond the pedicel is called gaster or metasoma
 Larvae are known as grubs with well-developed head and usually apodous and eucephalous
 Pupa exarate and a cocoon is generally present
 Metamorphosis complete and complex also.
 Fertilized eggs develop into females and males are produced from unfertilized eggs.
 Males are haploid and females diploid

132
  This order is subdivided into two suborders; Symphyta and Apocrita

Differences between Symphyta and Apocrita

Sr. Symphyta Apocrita

No.
1 Abdomen is broadly joined to the thorax Abdomen is petiolated
2 Larva is a caterpillar and it belongs Larva is a grub and it belongs apodous
eruciform type eucephalous type
3 Stemmata are present Stemmata are absent.
4 Both thoracic and abdominal legs are Legs are absent
present
5 Ovipositor is saw like andsuited for Ovipositor is not saw like and is suited for
piercing the plant tissues piercing in parasitic groups or for
stingingin other groups.
6 Behavioural sophistication is less. Behavioural sophistication is more
7 They are phytophagous They are generallyparasitic
8 Important families: Important families:
Tenthredinidae : (Sawflies) Apidae : (Honey bees)
Vespidae: Wasps
Megachilidae: (Leaf cutter bees)
Formicidae: (Ants)
Braconidae : (Braconid wasps)
Trichogrammatidae: (Egg parasitoids)

10. ORDER: COLEOPTERA (Coleos - Sheath; Ptera-wing),

E. g. Beetles, Weevils

133
  Economic Importance: It is the largest order. It includes predators, scavengers and many
crop pests. They also damage stored products.
Characters:
 They are minute to large sized insects.
 This is the largest order in class insecta comprising about 1/3rd or 40% of the known
insect species.
 Mouthparts are chewing & biting type.
 Head position is prognathous type
 Antenna is usualy 11 segmented.
 Prothorax is large, distinct and mobile. Mesothorax and metathorax are fused with the
first abdominal segment.
 Forewings are horny or leathery known as elytrait is not used for flight. Hind wings are
membranous with few veins and are useful in flight.
 Legs well developed for walking, running.
 Cerci and a distinct ovipositor are absent.
 Metamorphosis is complete.
 Larvae are often called grubsit is campodeiform or eruciform.
 Pupae adecticous and Exarate
 This order is divided into four suborders, viz., Adephaga (devourers) and Polyphaga
(eaters of many things), Archostemata (wood feeders) and Myxophaga (Found in wet
places
Difference between Adephaga and Polyphaga

Sr. Adephaga Polyphaga

No.
1 Cicindelidae: (Tiger beetles) Meloidae: (Blister beetles, Oil beetles)
2 Dytiscidae: (True water beetles) Coccinellidae: (Lady bird beetles, Epilachna
beetle)
3 Carabidae: (Ground beetles) Scarabaeidae: (white grub, Dung beetles)
4 Cerambycidae: (Mango stem borer, Grape stem
girdler)
5 Bruchidae: (Pulse beetles, Seed beetles)
6 Tenebrionidae: (Rust red flour beetle)
7 Bostrychidae: (Lesser Grain borers)
8 Melolonthidae: (Chafer beetles, June beetles)

134
 9 Dynastidae: (Rhinoceros beetles)
10 Curculionidae: (Weevils, snout beetles)
11 Chrysomelidae : eg. Red pumpkin beetle

Differences between Beetle and Weevil

Sr. Beetle Weevil

No.
1 Mouthparts typically chewing type Mouthparts chewing type but modified into
snout like structure.
2 Both pairs of wings present. Hind wing absent.
3 Antennae capitates/ serrate/ Lamellate Antennae clavate
4 Tarsi 3 to 5 segmented Tarsi 4 segmented
5 Larvae oligopod Larvae apodous

11. ORDER: DIPTERA (Di-two; Ptera-wing)

E. g. Housefly, Fruit fly, Horse fly, Pod fly, Stem fly, Mosquito, [Link] fly, shoot
fly, gall fly

 Economic Importance: Considerable number of flies is predacious. some are act

as a vectors for transmission of disease, fruit flies, leaf miners, stem fly and root
maggots are crop pest
Characters:
 They are small to medium sized, soft bodied insects.
 Mouth parts sucking type usually forming a proboscis. In many they are piercing
and sucking and in others they are sponging type
 Antennae mostly 3 segmented and Aristate type

135
  Forewings are larger, membranous and used for flight. Hind wings are highly
reduced, knobbed at the end and are called halters.
 Prothorax and metathorax are small and fused with large mesothorax
 Metamorphosis is complete
 Larvae of more common forms are known as maggots. They are apodous and
acephalous (eruciform). Maggots mostly amphipneustic
 Pupa is generally with free appendages, often enclosed in the hardened last larval
skin called puparium. Pupa belongs to the coarctate type.
 Legs well developed, tarsus usually 5 segmented pulvilli and an empodium usually
present
 This order is sub divided in to three suborders; Nematocera (Thread-horn),
 Brachycera (Short-horn ), Cyclorrhapha (Circular-crack
Comparative characters of these sub-orders

Sr. Nematocera Brachycera Cyclorrhapha

No.
1 Antenna is long and many Antenna is short and Antenna is aristate in adult
segmented in adult. few segmented in adult.
2 Larval head is well Larval head is retractile Larval head is vestigial with
developed. into the thorax. mouth hooks.
3 Larval mandibles act Larval mandibles act Larval mouth hooks act
horizontally. vertically vertically.
4 Pupa is weakly obtect. Pupa is exarate. Pupa is coarctate.
5 Adult emergence is through a Adult emergence is The split results due to the
straight split in the thoracic through a straight split pressure applied by an
region in the thoracic region. eversible bladder ptilinum in
the head.
6 Pseudotrachae absent Pseudotrachae present Pseudotrachae present
7 Important families: Important families: Important families:
Culicidae: Mosquitoes Asilidae: Robber flies Syrphidae; Syrphid fly
Cecidomyiidae :Pady gall fly Tabanidae: Horse flies Tachinidae: Tachinid flies
Trypetidae: Fruit flies Muscidae: House fly
Agromyzidae: Tur pod
fly, Leaf miner

136