USKUDAR UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences

Department of Bioengineering

DISTILLATION: TYPES AND APPLICATIONS – A REVIEW

BEN216 KINETICS AND REACTOR DESIGN

DR. MEHDI PARTOVI MERAN

BAHAR GEZER170202001, ZEHRA YILMAZ170202002, ÜMMÜHAN AKBAL170202012 , GİZEM

KANAT170202022

[Link] report examines the distillation ,distillation types, process and applications. This will
enable the reader to understand the necessary things about the distillation. Distillation is a widely used
method for separating mixtures based on differences in the conditions required to change the phase of
components of the mixture. There are many types of distillation, such as simple, fractional, steam, vacuum
and zone. Also, distillation method which has a wide range of uses, plays an important role in science,
technology and industrial studies.

Contents
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Role of Raoult’s Law and Dalton’s Law .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
3. Why is it Impossible to Completely Purify a Mixture by Distillation? ............................................................................................................ 2
4. Types of Distillation ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
4.1 Idealized distillation model .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.2 Laboratory scale distillation ................................................................................................................................................................... 2
4.2.1 Simple Distillation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2
4.2.2 Fractional Distillation ................................................................................................................................................................... 3
4.2.3 Steam Distillation ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
4.2.4 Vacuum distillation....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2.5 Air-Sensitive Vacuum Distillation ................................................................................................................................................ 4
4.2.6 Short Path Distillation ..................................................................................................................................................................5
4.2.7 Zone Distillation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 5
4.2.8 Other Types .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
4.3. Azeotropic distillation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 9
4.4. Industrial distillation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10
5. Applications ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Scientific Uses...................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Water Purification ................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
 5.3 Alcoholic Beverages ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
5.4 Petroleum Products .............................................................................................................................................................................. 11
5.5 Perfume ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
5.6 Food Flavorings ................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
6. Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Conflict of interests ..................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12

meet the requirement of high-grade energy. The

energy consumption of the
1. Introduction
VRHP process can be significantly reduced
Distillation, a chemical process for separating the
because of the higher thermodynamic efficiency
components of a liquid mixture by boiling and
and less input of external heat (14). Separations
collecting condensed vapors. Chemists use
operations account for roughly 50–70% of the
distillation to purify compounds in solution or to
energy used in large-scale chemicals
separate mixtures of solutes. For example,
manufacturing (15).
different compounds have different boiling points.
This property means that a more volatile
compound will evaporate at a lower temperature 2. Role of Raoult’s Law and Dalton’s Law

than a less volatile compound. Distillation must be Raoult's law and Henry's law are expressions

well known in the chemical industry for that relate the vapor fugacity of a component in a

separation of liquid mixtures; it accounts for about solution to composition. When the solution is non-

95% of all liquid separations (9). Here, there is a ideal, Raoult's Law cannot be applied. For non-

large driving force for mass and heat transfer ideal solution, we must use Henry's Law (41).

between the top and bottom of the column Raoult's law assumes that a component

contributing to a large loss of energy. Under this contributes to the total vapor pressure of the

scenario, any contribution to reduce energy mixture in proportion to its percentage of the

consumption with the help of energy-efficient mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or

technologies will not only improve the economics succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction

but also socio-environmental welfare (10; 11; 12; multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one

13)It is important to note that distillation is not a component changes another component's vapor

chemical reaction but it can be considered as a pressure, or if the volatility of a component is

physical separation process. In the conventional dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the

distillation process, a lot of energy is inputted in law will fail (42).

the reboiler and most of the energy is discarded in Henry's Law predicts a linear equilibrium
the condenser. VRHP can raise the energy level to relationship. Still, most equilibrium relationships
are actually non-linear. Henry's Law is only
 2
applicable over a modest liquid concentration 4. Types of Distillation
range, especially when the solution is dilute.
4.1 Idealized distillation model
Distillation is the oldest and simplest procedure
It is a common misconception that in a liquid
for solvent purification, and it is also inexpensive.
mixture at a given pressure, each component boils
It is based on Raoult's law, which states that the
at the boiling point corresponding to the given
partial vapour pressure of a solvent is proportional
pressure and the vapors of each component will
to its mole fraction (43). The principles involved
collect separately and purely. This, however, does
in fractional distillation of liquid mixtures are
not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized
complex but can be seen by considering a system
models of distillation are essentially governed by
which approximately obeys Raoult's law. In most
Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that
cases, systems deviate to a greater or lesser extent
vapor-liquid equilibria are attained. When the total
from Raoult's law, and vapour pressures may be
vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding
greater or less than the values calculated (44).
the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas
throughout the bulk of the liquid. The idealized
3. Why is it Impossible to Completely
model is accurate in the case of chemically similar
Purify a Mixture by Distillation?
liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other
All the volatile components boil at the boiling
cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and
point of the mixture. The amount of a component
Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the
in the resulting vapor is based on its participation
mixture of ethanol and water (42).
to the total vapor pressure of the mixture. So, the
compounds with higher partial pressures can be 4.2 Laboratory scale distillation

concentrated in the vapors whereas the 4.2.1 Simple Distillation

compounds having low partial pressures can be Simple distillation is one of the simplest
concentrated in the liquid (3). It is impossible to distillation processes, in which the major
have totally pure component from the mixture via substance to be purified is evaporated together
distillation because of the component in the with impurities at an elevated temperature, and the
mixture cannot have zero partial pressure. At this resulting vapor is transferred to a container, where
situation, chemical separation must be applied if it condenses at a reduced temperature (45). The
the aim is ultra-pure products (1). There is no purification effect is due to the difference in
possibility of purify a mixture of compounds via composition between the liquid mixture to be
distillation completely but the samples of high separated and the vapor in equilibrium with it. The
purity can be obtained when one of the separation effect is usually assessed theoretically
components in the mixture has a partial pressure using the Rayleigh equation (46; 49). The
which is close to zero. applicability of this equation is limited by the
condition of complete mixing of the liquid. If
mixing is incomplete or there is no mixing, the
 3
substance purification efficiency is significantly can condense, reevaporate, and then recondense,
influenced by impurity diffusion in the liquid (50). essentially distilling the mixture over and over.
In contrast to the Rayleigh equation, the diffusion One theoretical plate is equivalent to one
model proposed in a previous study (50) allows vaporization-condensation cycle, which is
one to calculate the degree of purification of equivalent to one simple distillation. The more
substances. volatile liquids will gradually move towards the
top of the fractionating column, while lower
The distillation process involves the following
boiling liquids will stay towards the bottom,
steps: vaporization, condensation, and transfer of
giving a better separation between the liquids. The
the vaporized substance from the evaporation zone
vapor eventually reaches the condenser, where it
to the condensation zone. All three steps occur
is cooled and then drips into the collection vessel.
simultaneously and depend on each other in a
There are several ways of classifying the useful
closed vaporization–condensation system. The
fractions that are distilled from crude oil. One
evaporation rate in such a system is determined by
general way is by dividing into three categories:
the vaporization and condensation temperatures
light, middle, and heavy fractions. Heavier
and the hydraulic resistances of the vaporization
components condense at higher temperatures and
and condensation compartments and connecting
are removed at the bottom of the column. The
tube (51).
lighter fractions are able to rise higher in the
column before they are cooled to their condensing
temperature, allowing them to be removed at
slightly higher levels (16).

(Figure 1: A Simple Distillation Model.)

4.2.2 Fractional Distillation

In fractional distillation, a mixture of liquids is
boiled and the resulting vapors travel up a glass
tube called a "fractionating column" and separate. (Figure 2: Fractional distillation.)
The fractionating column is placed between the
4.2.3 Steam Distillation
flask containing the mixture and the "Y" adaptor,
Steam distillation is a process that aims to purify,
and is usually filled with glass or plastic beads,
separate, or isolate temperature-sensitive
which improves the separation between the liquids
compounds like natural aromatic compounds.
being distilled. Fractional distillation leads to a
Steam or water should be added to the distillation
better separation than simple distillation because
apparatus and with using the properties of
the glass beads in the fractionating column
immiscible, unmixable liquids, the process might
provide 'theoretical plates' on which the vapors
 4
be performed at lower temperatures (below the to those used to separate the lighter fractions in
components decomposition point). This method the atmospheric distillation process. The
performed by bubbling hot steam through the difference between the two physical separation
mixture which is a little heated to vaporize some methods is that atmospheric distillation occurs
of it. The vapor is condensed when the organic under atmospheric pressure, whereas vacuum
compounds are distilled because they have to be distillation occurs at a significantly reduced
immiscible with each other. After boil the pressure, thus reducing the boiling point of a
immiscible liquid using steam to heat, the steam substance. Hence, high boiling components can be
ensures that the temperature of the compounds boiled at lower temperatures, without the risk of
does not exceed their boiling point (2), as a result cracking. Vacuum towers are much shorter than
the vapor that condensed can collected. The atmospheric towers in order to minimize the
resulting fluid consists of two phases: organic pressure differential from top to bottom.
compound and water that being distilled. These Generally, the pressure used in vacuum distillation
compounds are separate due to the properties of is in the range of 50 to 100 mmHg, although some
non-mixing liquids and can be physically lubricating oil stocks may require even lower
separated by draining or using a separation funnel. pressure operating conditions. Fractions recovered
The method generally used for to isolate essential from the vacuum distillation process usually are
oils from natural products (eucalyptus oil from divided into gas oil, lubricating oil, and asphalt.
eucalyptus, citrus oil from lemon or orange peel, The combination of the atmospheric and vacuum
etc.), and steam stripping in petroleum refineries distillation processes is an important first step in
to separate organic compounds (6). The products converting crude oil into useful and economically
that are made with using steam distillation largely valuable products (52).
used in perfume and cologne production likewise
some cooking materials.

(Figure 4: Vacuum Distillation Model.)

(Figure 3: Sample photography for steam distillation.) 4.2.5 Air-Sensitive Vacuum Distillation
This technique is also very useful for compounds
which boil beyond their decomposition
4.2.4 Vacuum distillation temperature at atmospheric pressure and which
Vacuum distillation is the technique used to would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to
separate higher boiling fractions of crude oil. The boil them under atmospheric pressure. Some
underlying theory and the process are analogous compounds have very high boiling points. To boil
 5
such compounds, it is often better to lower the the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area.
pressure at which such compounds are boiled The process is worked in theory. When zone
instead of increasing the temperature. Once the heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the
pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the container then solid condensate with irregular
compound (at the given temperature), boiling and impurity distribution is forming. Then most pure
the rest of the distillation process can commence. part of the condensate may be extracted as
This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation product. The process may be iterated many times
and is commonly found in the laboratory in the by moving (without turnover) the received
form of the rotary evaporator. Air gap membrane condensate to the bottom part of the container on
distillation (AGMD) is one of the most important the place of refined matter. The irregular impurity
membrane distillation processes for extracting distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of
pure water from saline water. In the AGMD purification) increases with number of repetitions
configuration, as presented in Fig.3. a sluggish air of the process. Zone distillation is a distillation
gap is introduced between the membrane and the analog of zone recrystallization. Impurity
condensing surface which acts as a thermal distribution in the condensate is described by
insulation layer (17; 18)to minimize the heat known equations of zone recrystallization with
losses by conduction across the membrane. various numbers of iteration of process – with
replacement distribution efficient k of
4.2.6 Short Path Distillation
crystallization on separation factor α of distillation
Short-path distillation is usually treated as an
(77).
appropriate method to separate low-volatile and
heat-sensitive substances such as vitamins, 4.2.8 Other Types
pharmaceutical intermediaries, and high-vacuum
[Link] Catalytic Distillation
oils (53) (55). Distillation has two main styles: the
Catalytic distillation (CD) is a “green”
falling-film and the centrifugal style. For many
technology that aims to catalyze the reactants
thermally unstable organic substances, the
while being distilled continuously. CD is
centrifugal style still shows special advantages as
improving field that combine kinetics, catalysis,
the liquid film in a spinning cone is more uniform
and mass transfer to provide more selective and
and the residence time is just on the order of a few
energy efficient process easily. This reactor
tenths of that in a falling film (56), which
technology allows us to separate reactants and
effectively reduces the component decomposition
products via single distillation reactor or column.
(57).
The main function is, enlarged the yield of
4.2.7 Zone Distillation heterogeneous catalytic reactions (refining
Zone distillation is a distillation process in long gasoline, etc.). In the process, liquid reactants are
container with partial melting of refined matter in catalyzed while being heated inside the catalytic
moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in distillation column, and then the products directly
 6
begin to vaporize and are separated from the towards complete conversion and allowing high
initial solution. The newly formed products boiled selectivity (e.g. avoiding potential consecutive
out of the system quickly by catalyzing and reactions) due to the continuous removal of
heating the reactants at the same immediate products from the RD column (58). Among
.According to the Le Chatelier’s principle, new others, RD offers great advantages in costs
products formed from the reactants to replace the reduction by simplifying complex processes and
removed products continuously. In this situation, integrating the reaction and separation functions
the system cannot reach the equilibrium because into a single unit with reduced requirements (59).
of the system lose products continuously. The use of exothermic heat of reaction to drive the
liquid vaporization reduces the energy
requirement (60). There are also health, safety and
environmental improvements mainly because of
less emissions from plants, lower levels of
reactive hold-up and decreased risks of runaway
reactions (61) (62).

The implementation of RD is very appealing to

(Figure 5: Sample photography of Catalytic Distillation.)
other reactions involving reversible quaternary
The reactants are often more volatile than the systems (A + B ⇌ C + D) and ternary systems
products because of an internal recycling system (A + B ⇌ C and A ⇌ B + C). Some examples
(Reflux). The reflux transfers the concentrated include the hydration of cyclohexene to obtain
vapor back to the catalyst area, and also returns a cyclohexanol (63), dehydration of glycerol to
part of the condensed liquids to the column to acetol (64), isoamyl acetate production via
guarantee only the products with the lowest esterification of isoamyl alcohol and acetic acid
boiling points are captured (7). The applications (65) and diethyl carbonate synthesis via
are hydration of olefins, alkylations, transesterification of propylene carbonate and
esterifications, hydrolysis, aldol condensation, ethanol (66).
hydrogenation, desulfurization, and
oligomerization of olefins. Most of the CD
processes are related to the petroleum and
petrochemical industries (8)

[Link] Reactive Distillation

Reactive distillation (RD) is a process (Figure 6: Reactive Distillation Diagram Process
intensification technique that allows simultaneous Intensification.)

separation to take place when chemical reaction

occurs. RD gives benefits to equilibrium-limited
reactions by pulling the chemical equilibrium
 7
[Link] Extractive Distillation [Link] Pervaporation
Extractive distillation is one of the leading Pervaporation is an membrane separation
distillation processes for the separation of technology whose performance and selectivity
minimum- or maximum-boiling azeotropes and used for several applications. The applications
low-relative-volatility mixtures. Unlike azeotropic concerning end of pipe processes that incudes
distillation, the entrainer is fed at a different solvent recovery (dehydration of ethanol-water
location than the main mixture to be separated, solution, etc.). This method is important for
inducing an extractive section within the column. solvent dehydration because the selectivity of
For many years, only heavy entrainers were water is high with state of art membranes. Also it
supposed to be feasible, but intermediate, light, is ideal to measure a relatively small amount of
and heterogeneous entrainers are suitable as well. concentration range of water that has to move
Entrainer selection relies on knowledge of the from the solution. That is why it is preferred in the
residue curve map topology and the calculation of industry (34; 35; 36).
univolatility curves to analyze the volatility order
[Link] Flash Evaporation
of the mixture. In most cases, the achievable
Liquid will be overheated and thereby evaporated
product is a saddle point of the residue curve map.
when it enters into the environment with lower
A general criterion shows that the most or the
saturation pressure than that corresponding to its
least volatile component is recovered from a direct
initial temperature. This phenomenon is called the
or an indirect split-column configuration in the
flash evaporation (67). Due to strong evaporation
distillate or in the bottom stream, respectively.
behavior, flash evaporation is accompanied with
Batch or continuous operation is governed by the
phase changes during absorption of heats. It has
same entrainer selection rules, but the operating
been used in more and more fields, including
parameter value range for the entrainer-feed flow
seawater desalination (68), national defense (69),
rate ratio and the reflux ratio is different. The
health care (70) (71), aerospace (72), and
batch process also enables one to stir the still path
electronic industry (73). Vacuum and high-altitude
by changing the reflux policy during the
environments are a natural low-pressure
operation. We can see the mechanism of
environment. With this advantage, flash
extractive distillation in figure 1 below (78).
evaporation has been extensively used in the
aerospace field. Recently, aerospace technology
develops quickly. Aircrafts and spacecrafts have
extensive applications and important significances
in civil purpose, military purpose, and scientific
exploration. They have become the research
(Figure 7: Mechanism of the extractive distillation.) hotspot in the world. The former one includes
planes, helicopters, and supersonic bomber. The
latter one covers space shuttle, man-made earth
 8
satellite, manned spacecraft, space probe, and so
on. Air vehicles often serve in high altitude or
outer space. These spaces are tough environments
with low temperature and low pressure. In these
environments, air vehicles will experience high
temperature and high-speed frictions at running
through the atmospheric layers. These hostile (Figure 8: Membrane distillation.)
environments influence the safe and stable
Many different membrane distillation techniques
running of air vehicles significantly (74).
exist. The basic four techniques mainly differ by
[Link] Codistillation the arrangement of their distillate channel or the
Codistillation is distillation which is performed on manner in which this channel is [Link]
mixtures in which the two compounds are not are Direct Contact MD (DCMD),Direct Contact
miscible. In the laboratory, the Dean-Stark MD (DCMD),Vacuum MD (VMD) and Sweeping
apparatus is used for this purpose to remove water Gas MD (SWGMD).
from synthesis products. The Bleidner is another
[Link] Evaporation
example with two refluxing solvents (79).
Freeze distillation: Freezing distillation, or ,
[Link] Membrane Distillation ‘freezing concentration’ is a process in which a
Membrane distillation (MD) is a separation drink is frozen and then allowed to melt, removing
process in which only vapors are allowed to pass excess water from it. ‘Distillation’ is a bit of a
through a porous hydrophobic membrane. The misnomer, because nothing is heated—one might
separation is achieved because of the vapor say it’s rather the [Link] this process
pressure differences between the membrane both the concentration of the drink and the alcohol
surfaces. The membrane consists of so many pores content are increased. Contrary to regular
in which the pores cannot be wetted by the feed distillation, freezing distillation is considered legal
solution. In generation, one side of the membrane all over the world. The easiest method is to pour
directly contacts with hot saline water to form the the drink into a container, such as a plastic jug,
hot side. Another side of the membrane directly or and freeze it, either in the freezer or outdoors if
indirectly comes in contact with cold, fresh water you live somewhere cold. This may take up to a
to form the cold side. The vapor passing through few days (still faster than aging) but you can
the membrane condenses on the cold side to speed it up by freeze distilling in a number of
produce the distillate. A typical membrane smaller bottles. Once it’s frozen, let it slowly
distillation unit is shown in Figure (80). unfreeze and drip into another vessel. Remove
once most of what’s left in the jug is ice. Carefully
stir and have a sip or two. It’s hard to estimate the
gravity of the final product--it depends on how
 9
much water was removed, which in turn depends their production (21).Thermochemical methods to
on the temperature of the freezer, etc. If, however, convert biomass to liquid fuels are receiving
half of the volume of the drink is lost, a bit less increasing interest due to several reasons. These
than double of the original alcohol percentage will methods are capable of converting biomass to a
be retained. Do note that there’s only so much you wide range of products including gas, different
can do with freeze distillation—the end gravity range of liquid biofuels and even biochar (the
depends not on the count of times freezing solid residue), which has several applications such
distillation is done, but rather on the end as bioremediation and soil productivity
temperature (81). improvement (22; 23).

Rotary evaporation: Flow pattern inside and Dry distillation means the strong heating method
outside a rotating cylinder with a certain known to the solid material while shutting the air off. By
volume of liquid is a topic which is extensively applying this technique, organic matter
reported in the literature [11]. Rotary evaporation decomposes to gas or liquid and ultimately
is the process of reducing the volume of a solvent volatilizes and part of such gas or liquid remains
by distributing it as a thin film across the interior as a solid matter. In addition, thermochemical
of a vessel at elevated temperature and reduced methods are relatively feedstock-agnostic, easily
pressure. Most rotary evaporators have four major adaptable to process a range of moisture contents,
components: heat bath, rotor, condenser, and and easy to operate (24; 25; 26).
solvent trap. Its speed and ability to handle large
4.3. Azeotropic distillation
volumes of solvent make rotary evaporation a
Azeotropes are defined as the mixtures of
preferred method of solvent removal in many
liquids which boil at constant temperature like a
laboratories, especially in instances involving low
pure liquid and possess same composition of
boiling point solvents. Rotating cylindrical heat
components in liquid as well as in vapour phase.
pipes are used to cool electrical motors and cutting
Azeotropes are also called constant boiling
tools such as drill bits etc. However the heat pipes
mixtures because whole of the azeotropes changes
are generally closed off at its end with a fixed
into vapour state at constant temperature and their
volume of fluid inside them for operation (20).
components can not be separated by fractional
Dry distillation or destructive distillation: distillation. With the deterioration of the global
Lignocellulosic resources such as wood, environment, environmentally friendly ionic
agricultural residues and energy crops have liquids have received much attention as solvents
constructed the second generation biofuels which for separating azeotropes (27; 28; 29; 30). A
do not compete with the food industry, although common historical example of azeotropic
raw feedstocks are grown on arable land. Third distillation is its use in dehydrating ethanol and
generation biofuels refer to those derived from water mixtures. Azeotropes are of two types as
algae biomass and arable land is not essential in minimum and maximum boiling azeotrope;
 10
Minimum boiling azeotrope: For the solutions
with positive deviation there is an intermediate
composition for which the vapour pressure of the
solution is maximum and hence, boiling point is
minimum. At this composition the solution distills
at constant temperature without change in
composition. This type of solutions are called
minimum boiling azeotrope. Maximum boiling
(Figure 9: Diagram of a Typical Industrial Distillation
azeotrope: For the solutions with negative
Tower.)
deviations there is an intermediate composition for
which the vapour pressure of the solution is
5. Applications
minimum and hence, boiling point is maximum.
At this composition the solution distill`s at 5.1 Scientific Uses
constant temperature without the change in Concentration of Alcohol:Fermented grains can
composition. This type of solutions are called produce a maximum alcohol content of about
maximum boiling azeotrope. 16%, the upper limit of most beers and wines, as
the yeast organism used in fermentation cannot
4.4. Industrial distillation
survive in more concentrated alcoholic solutions.
Industrial distillation (75) (76) is typically
However, spirits such as gin, vodka, and rum
performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns
usually have an alcohol content of roughly 40%by
known as distillation towers or distillation
volume. Distillation is the method used to
columns with diameters ranging from about 65
concentrate fermented solutions and produce hard
centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from
liquors. A distillation of fermented grape juice is
about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the
commonly done in academic laboratories (82).
process feed has a diverse composition, as in
distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up Distilled Water: Access to clean, fresh water is a
the column allow for the withdrawal of different major problem facing the world today. In
fractions or products having different boiling countries neighboring the ocean, seawater
points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products desalination is sometimes used to provide the
(those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the country with drinkable water. Distillation is one of
top of the columns and the "heaviest" products the main methods sed to purify ocean water and
(those with the highest boiling point) exit from the works well since salt, microorganisms, and other
bottom of the column and are often called the components of seawater are non-volatile. The
bottoms. main disadvantage of distilling water is that the
process requires a lot of energy, and unless
engineered creatively, the economics can be a
major deterrent to using the method. Heat released
 11
from a power plant is often used to provide the use of natural ingredients, i.e. herbs, water and
energy for the distillation of seawater, and Saudi ethyl alcohol in the beverage, should not suggest
Arabia and Israel mainly use coupled power plants the formation of a hazardous waste during the
and distilleries to obtain roughly half the fresh production process. It was found, though, that the
water needed for their countries (82). waste contains heavy metals (31). The waste
which contained a significant concentration of
5.2 Water Purification
metals, such as Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cd and Cr is
Water purification is an process that aims to
considered hazardous, requiring treatment before
clean the dirty water that includes solved and
disposal (32).
dissolved materials and distillation helps us to do
the process. Scientists discovered an ideal water Part of the metal content is attributed to the
purification system that removes both types of the production process and another part to the
unvanted substances from the water. In this flavoring herbs and combined use of metallic pot
process an membrane used with using physical [Link] alcohol has a lower boiling point
barrier, a chemical process, optical process, or a than water, distillers can evaporate the alcohol
biological process. The water that cleaned can be (mostly) by itself, collect the vapors into a tube
used for the applications of supplying drinking and use cold temperatures to force the alcohol to
water, food processing, constructions, industrial condense back into [Link] standard methods
processes, swimming pool and other water based are simple and use a low-cost apparatus, but they
utilities (37). are time-consuming and require constant attention,
leading to low throughput (33).
Types of water filters include media filters,
screen filters, disk filters, granular ambient filters, 5.4 Petroleum Products
slow sand filter beds, rapid sand filters, cloth Distillation is the most widely used separation
filters, and biological filters such as algae technique in the petroleum industry.
scrubbers. Depending on the driving force for
Petrol: Petrol is a fuel which is a liquid state in
water filtration, granular ambient filters are
the fuel tank and in the fuel injectors (or
classified as gravity and pressure filters. The main
carburettor on older engines) and which is
differences between the two types of filters are the
nebulized with air before being injected into the
head needed to pass water through the ambient
combustion chamber. Petroleum is a mixture of
bed, the filtration rate, and the type of vessel used
organic compounds containing only two elements
to contain the filter medium (38).
[carbon and hydrogen].Oil naturally leaks to the
5.3 Alcoholic Beverages earth through fault lines and cracks in the rocks,
Incorrectly distilled or diluted spirits may contain accumulating to form tar, asphalt and pitch ponds.
fermentation by-products, such as methanol, and
The distillation test measures the percentage of
may cause very serious or even life threatening
vaporized fuel as the temperature increases. The
health problems when consumed excessively. The
 12
test result is a curve obtained under standardized isn’t practical. In those instances, steam is passed
conditions of temperature versus percentage of through the plant material to draw out the essential
evaporated fuel (Figure) wherein the different oils without burning the mixture. The steam is
sections of the curve allow us to interpret the then captured and condensed just as in normal
different behaviours of the product (83; 84) distillation (85).

5.6 Food Flavorings

Flavorings are substances that change or
improve the taste of food and can made with
distillation. They consist of a variety of natural
and human-made compounds and can consist of a

(Figure 9: Distillation curve of petrol.) single chemical, but more often they are complex
mixtures of compounds. The types of that are
Diesel:Diesel is any fuel that can be used in a
natural flavoring substances(obtained from plant
diesel engine. Diesel is produced by fractional
or animal raw materials.), nature-identical
distillation between 392° Fahrenheit and 662°
flavoring substances(obtained by synthesis or
Fahrenheit. Diesel has a higher density than
isolated through chemical processes.), artificial
gasoline and is simpler to refine from crude oil. It
flavoring substances(not identified in a natural
is most commonly used in transportation (84).
product intended for human consumption, not the
Asphalt:Asphalt is commonly used to make product is processed.) (39; 40).
roads. It is a colloid of asphaltenes and maltenes
that is separated from the other components of 6. Summary
crude oil by fractional distillation. Once asphalt is All in all, distillation is a mature separation technology
collected, it is processed in a de-asphalting unit, and will remain dominant in the near future. Despite
and then goes through a process called “blowing” the high energy requirements, distillation is a cost-
where it is reacted with oxygen to make it harden. effective method for separating large quantities of
Asphalt is usually stored and transported at around material into high purity products. During distillation
300° Fahrenheit (84). of a normal mixture the principal component with the
lowest boiling point distils first, followed by
5.5 Perfume
compounds with higher boiling points. Distillation can
One of the earliest uses of distilling was to make
also be used to separate a solution made of two or
perfume, which began around 3500 B.C. The
more liquids or fractions (miscible liquids). Also,
aroma from various plants and herbs is contained
distillation has many applications and these
in what are known as essential oils, which can be applications are used in most area of bioengineering.
extracted through distillation. However, many
aromatic plants tend to decompose at high
References
temperatures so separation by normal distillation 1. [Link]
 13
2. [Link] 30. R.H. Perry, D. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’
[Link] Handbook, McGrawHill Company Inc. New York, 1997,
3. [Link] chapter 15.
4. [Link] 31. A. Tsakiris, Potographia, Psychalos Publications, Athens,
[Link] 1994, pp. 9–29.
5. [Link] 32. A. Moutsatsou, L. Halarakis, S. Tsimas, P. Lillis, in:
and-steam-distillation Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of the
6. [Link] Chemical Societies of the South-East European Countries
d_resource/content/0/[Link] on Retention of Metals from a Distillation Waste by
7. [Link] Treatment with Sawdust, Vol. 1, Halkidiki, Greece, 1998,
8. Flora T. T. Ng, Garry L. Rempel, Catalytic Distillation, p. 501.
[Link] 33. W. Horwitz, G.W. Latimer, Official Methods of Analysis
9. G. Hewitt, J. Quarini, M. Morrell, More efficient of AOAC International, eighteenth ed. Gaithersburg,
distillation. Chem. Eng. 1999, 16-19 2005.
10. I. Dejanovic, L. Matijasevic, Z. Olujic, Dividing wall 34. Bart Van der Bruggen, Patricia Luis, Progress in Filtration
Column-a breakthrough towards sustainable distilling. and Separation, 2015
Chem. Eng. Process. 49, 2010, 559-580 35. Patricia Luis, Fundamental Modelling of Membrane
11. R. Premkumar, G.P. Rangaiah, Retrofitting conventional Systems, 2018
column systems to dividing-wall columns. Chem. Eng. 36. Endre Nagy, Basic Equations of Mass Transport Through
Res. Des. 87, 2009, 47-60 a Membrane Layer (Second Edition), 2019
12. I. Dejanovic, L.J. Matijasevic, I.J. Halvorsen, S. 37. A. Sreeramana,Concept of Ideal Water Purifier System
Skogestad, H. Jansen, B. Kaibel, Z. Olujic, Designing four- to Produce Potable Water and its Realization
product dividing wall columns for separation of a Opportunities using Nanotechnology, DOI:
multicomponent aromatics mixture. Chem. Eng. Res. [Link]
Des. 89, 2011, 1155-1167 38. Nikolay Voutchkov, in Pretreatment for Reverse Osmosis
13. N.V.D. Long, M. Lee, Review of retrofitting distillation Desalination, 2017
columns using thermally coupled distillation sequences 39. Flavoring exposure in food manufacturing, Brian D
and dividing wall columns to improve energy efficiency. Curwin, Jim A Deddens & Lauralynn T McKernan, Journal
J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 47, 2 2014, 87-108 of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology
14. W.F. Davidson, W.v.L. Campagne, Save by absorption volume 25, pages324–333(2015)
heat pumping, Hydrocarbon Processing 66 (1987) 30–32 40. [Link]
15. Adler, S. Beaver, E. Bryan, P. Robinson, S. and Watson, J. 41. J. Bevan Ott, Juliana Boerio-Goates, in Chemical
“Vision 2020: 2000 Separations Roadmap,” Ctr. for Thermodynamics: Advanced Applications, 2000
Waste Reduction Technologies, Amer. Inst. of Chem. 42. [Link]
Eng’s, New York City (2000). [Link]/file/Huiles-
16. R. Wolfson. (May 25, 2015) Energy, Environment and essentielles/alambics/Distillation_Wikipedia_En.pdf
Climate, 2nd ed. New York, U.S.A. Norton, 2012, pp. 97- 43. B. Buszewski, in Encyclopedia of Separation Science,
98 2000
17. Alkhudhiri, A. Darwish, N., Hilal, N., 2012. Membrane 44. Wilfred L.F. Armarego, Christina Chai, in Purification of
distillation: a comprehensive review. Desalination 287. Laboratory Chemicals (Seventh Edition), 2013
18. Alklaibi, A.M. Lior, N. 2004. Membrane-distillation 45. Gel’perin, N.I., Osnovnye protsessy i apparaty
desalination: status and potential. Desalination 171. khimicheskoi tekhnologii (Basic Processes and
19. J. Fluid Mech. , 7 ( 3 ) ( 1960 ) , s.340 – 352 Apparatuses in Chemical Technology), Moscow: Khimiya,
20. L. Lin, A. Faghri, Steady-state performance of a rotating 1981.
miniature heat pipe, J. Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 46. Devyatykh, G.G. and Elliev, Yu.E., Vvedenie v teoriyu
11 (4) (1997) 513–518. glubokoi ochistki veshchestv (Introduction to the Theory
21. Aylott, M.J. Casella, E. Tubby, I. Street, N.R. Smith, P. of Ultrapurification), Moscow: Nauka, 1981.
Taylor, G. 2008. Yield and spatial supply of bioenergy 47. Shiryaev, V.S., Pimenov, V.G., Lipatova, M.M.,
poplar and willow short-rotation coppice in the UK. New Evdokimov, I.I., Churbanov, M.F., Kirillov, Yu.P., and
Phytol. 178, 358–370. Kornoukhov, V.N., Removal of barium impurities from
22. Crit Rev Biotechnol (2014), pp. 1-14 selenium by vacuum distillation, Inorg. Mater., 2010, vol.
23. Falahati H, Tremblay AY. The effect of flux and 46, no. 3, pp. 314–317.
residence time in theproduction of biodiesel from 48. Vorotyntsev, V.M., Vorotyntsev, I.V., and Smirnov, [Link].,
various feedstocks using a membrane reactor. Fuel High purification of nitrous oxide by distillation, Theor.
2012;91.126–33. Found. Chem. Eng., 2010, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 249–253.
24. Aust Commodities, 14 (2007), pp. 212-220 49. Petukhov, A.N., Vorotyntsev, V.M., Shablykin, D.N.,
25. Geoscience Australia and ABARE. Australian energy Vorotyntsev, I.V., and Suvorov, S.S., Dependence of the
resource assessment. In: Department of Resources EaT, effective coefficient of separating a mixture of NH3–O2
editor. Australian Government, Canberra, Australia; and NH3–N2 on the rate of distillation, Russ. J. Phys.
2010. p. 358. Chem., 2013, vol. 87, no. 9, pp. 1570–1574.
26. Bioenergy IEA. From 1st-to 2nd-Generation BioFuel 50. Kirillov, Yu.P., Kuznetsov, L.A., Shaposhnikov, V.A., and
technoloGies. An overview of current industry and Churbanov, M.F., Effect of diffusion on the purification
RD&D activities IEA-OECD; 2008. of substances by distillation, Inorg. Mater., 2015, vol. 51,
27. Sep. Purif. Technol. 118 (2013), pp. 862-878 no. 11, pp. 1092–1096. doi 10.1134/
28. Appl. Clay. Sci. 39 (2008), pp. 78-85 S0020168515100088
29. R.E. Treybal, Liquid Extraction, McGraw-Hill Company 51. Kirillov, Yu.P., Shaposhnikov, V.A., Kuznetsov, L.A.,
Inc. New York,1963. Shiryaev, V.S., and Churbanov, M.F., Modeling of the
evaporation of liquids and condensation of their vapor
 14
during distillation, Inorg. Mater., 2016, vol. 52, no. 11, 73. W.-L. Cheng, W.-W. Zhang, S.-D. Shao, L.-J. Jiang, and D.-
pp. 1183–1188. doi 10.1134/S0020168516110066 L. Hong, “Effects of inclination angle on plug-chip spray
52. Flammable and Combustible Liquids, Eric Stauffer, ... cooling in integrated enclosure,” Applied Thermal
Reta Newman, in Fire Debris Analysis, 2008 Engineering, vol. 91, pp. 202–209, 2015.
53. G. A. Martı´nez, A. J. Gutie´rrez, H. S. Garcı´a, Ind. Eng. 74. P. L. Moses, V. L. Rausch, L. T. Nguyen, and J. R. Hill,
Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 11237. “NASA hypersonic flight demonstrators—overview,
54. C. Fang, W. Zhengfu, Z. Guanghua, H. Xiaosong, J. Food status, and future plans,” Acta Astronautica, vol. 55, no.
Eng. 2007, 79, 63. 3-9, pp. 619–630, 2004
55. Z. Kawala, P. Dakiniewicz, Sep. Sci. Technol. 2007, 37, 75. Perry, Robert H.; Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical
1877. Engineers' Handbook(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-
56. J. Cvengrosˇ, J. Lutisˇan, M. Micov, Chem. Eng. J. 2000, 07-049479-4.
78, 61. 76. Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.).
57. X. Ying, Z. Zhimin, Y. Depo, LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2013, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-034909-4.
53, 487. 77. [Link]
58. R. Baur A.P. Higler R. Taylor R. Krishna Comparison of [Link]/file/Huiles-
equilibrium stage and nonequilibrium stage models for essentielles/alambics/Distillation_Wikipedia_En.pdf
reactive distillation Chem. Eng. J. 76 2000 33 47 78. [Link]
59. A.A. Kiss Novel catalytic reactive distillation processes 0123868787000061
for a sustainable chemical industry Top. Catal. 2018 79. [Link]
60. J. Kaur V.K. Sangal Reducing energy requirements for 80. [Link]
ETBE synthesis using reactive dividing wall distillation mbrane-distillation
column Energy 126 2017 671 676 81. [Link]
61. Y.-T. Tang Y.-W. Chen H.-P. Huang C.-C. Yu S.-B. Hung blog/14791505-freezing-distillation
M.-J. Lee Design of reactive distillations for acetic acid 82. [Link]
esterification AIChE J. 51 2005 1683 1699 stry/Book%3A_Organic_Chemistry_Lab_Techniques_(Ni
62. W.D. Seider J.D. Seader D.R. Lewin Product and Process chols)/05%3A_Distillation
Design Principles: Synthesis, Analysis, and Evaluation 83. [Link]
2003 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. USA innovative-applications-and-modeling/distillation-basic-
63. B.-C. Chen B.-Y. Yu Y.-L. Lin H.-P. Huang I.L. Chien test-in-quality-control-of-automotive-fuels
Reactive-distillation process for direct hydration of 84. [Link]
cyclohexene to produce cyclohexanol Ind. Eng. Chem. crude-oil-oil-products/
Res. 53 2014 7079 7086 85. [Link]
64. C.-W. Chiu M.A. Dasari G.J. Suppes W.R. Sutterlin [Link]
Dehydration of glycerol to acetol via catalytic reactive
distillation AIChE J. 52 2006 3543 3548
65. D.R. González P. Bastidas G. Rodríguez I. Gil Design
alternatives and control performance in the pilot scale
production of isoamyl acetate via reactive distillation
Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 123 2017 347 359
66. G. Towler R. Sinnott Chemical Engineering Design:
Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process
Design 2012 Butterworth-Heinemann USA
67. H. T. Shin, Y. P. Lee, and J. Jurng, “Spherical-shaped ice
particle production by spraying water in a vacuum
chamber,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 20, no. 5,
pp. 439–454, 2000.
68. S. Goto, Y. Yamamoto, T. Sugi, T. Yasunaga, Y. Ikegami,
and M. Nakamura, “Construction of simulation model
for spray flash desalination system,” Electrical
Engineering in Japan, vol. 170, no. 4, pp. 9–17, 2010.
69. J.-X. Wang, Y.-Z. Li, H.-S. Zhang et al., “Investigation of a
spray cooling system with two nozzles for space
application,” Applied Thermal Engineering, vol. 89, pp.
115–124, 2015.
70. Z.-F. Zhou, B. Chen, R. Wang, and G.-X. Wang,
“Comparative investigation on the spray characteristics
and heat transfer dynamics of pulsed spray cooling with
volatile cryogens,” Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, vol. 82, pp. 189– 197, 2017.
71. J.-M. Tian, B. Chen, D. Li, and Z.-F. Zhou, “Transient
spray cooling: similarity of dynamic heat flux for
different cryogens, nozzles and substrates,”
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.
108, Part A, pp. 561–571, 2017.
72. W.-L. Cheng, W.-W. Zhang, H. Chen, and L. Hu, “Spray
cooling and flash evaporation cooling: the current
development and application,” Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 55, pp. 614–628, 2016.