Chapter 5: Signal Encoding

Techniques

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Encoding Techniques
• Digital data, digital signal
• Analog data, digital signal
• Digital data, analog signal
• Analog data, analog signal

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 Digital Data, Digital Signal
• Digital signal
—Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
—Each pulse is a signal element
—Binary data encoded into signal elements

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Terms (1)
• Unipolar
—All signal elements have same sign
• Polar
—One logic state represented by positive voltage the
other by negative voltage
• Data rate
—Rate of data transmission in bits per second
• Duration or length of a bit
—Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit

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 Terms (2)
• Modulation rate
—Rate at which the signal level changes
—Measured in baud = signal elements per
second
• Mark and Space
—Binary 1 and Binary 0 respectively

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Interpreting Signals
• Need to know
—Timing of bits - when they start and end
—Signal levels
• Factors affecting successful interpreting of
signals
—Signal to noise ratio
—Data rate
—Bandwidth
—Synchronization

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 Comparison of Encoding
Schemes (1)
• Signal Spectrum
—Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth
—Lack of DC component allows AC coupling via
transformer, providing isolation
—Concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth

• Clocking
—Synchronizing transmitter and receiver
—External clock
—Sync mechanism based on signal

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Comparison of Encoding
Schemes (2)
• Error detection
—Can be built in to signal encoding

• Signal interference and noise immunity

—Some codes are better than others

• Cost and complexity

—Higher signal rate (& thus data rate) lead to higher
costs
—Some codes require signal rate greater than data rate

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 Encoding Schemes
• Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
• Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
• Bipolar -AMI
• Pseudoternary
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester
• B8ZS
• HDB3

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Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
• Voltage constant during bit interval
—no transition, i.e. no return to zero voltage
—in general, absence of voltage for zero,
constant positive voltage for one
—More often, negative voltage for “1” value
and positive for the “0”
—This is NRZ-L

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 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
• Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
—Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
—Data encoded as presence or absence of
signal transition at beginning of bit time

—Transition denotes a binary 1

• (low to high or high to low)
—No transition denotes binary 0

—An example of differential encoding

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NRZ

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 Differential Encoding
• Data represented by changes rather than
levels
—More reliable detection of transition rather
than level
—In complex transmission layouts it is easy to
lose sense of polarity

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NRZ pros and cons

• Pros
—Easy to engineer
—Make good use of bandwidth
• Cons
—dc component
—Lack of synchronization capability
• Used for magnetic recording
• Not often used for signal transmission

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 Multilevel Binary
• Use more than two levels
• Bipolar-AMI
—“0” represented by no line signal
—“1” represented by positive or negative pulse
—“1” pulses alternate in polarity
—No loss of sync if a long string of “1”s (“0”
still a problem)
—No net dc component
—Lower bandwidth
—Easy error detection
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Pseudoternary
• “1” represented by absence of line signal
• “0” represented by alternating positive
and negative
• No advantage or disadvantage over
bipolar-AMI

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 Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

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Trade-Off for Multilevel Binary

• Not as efficient as NRZ
—Each signal element only represents one bit
—3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
—Receiver must distinguish between three levels
(+A, -A, 0)
—Requires approx. 3dB more signal power for
same probability of bit error

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 Biphase
• Manchester
—Transition in middle of each bit period
—Transition serves as clock and data
—Low to high represents one
—High to low represents zero
—Used by IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD, i.e. Ethernet)

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Manchester Encoding

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 Biphase
• Differential Manchester
—Mid-bit transition is clocking only
—Transition at start of a bit period represents
zero
—No transition at start of a bit period
represents one
—Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
—Used by IEEE 802.5 (token ring)

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Differential Manchester
Encoding

BTW: does anything seem wrong here?

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 Biphase Pros and Cons
• Con
—At least one transition per bit time and possibly two
—Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
—Requires more bandwidth
• Pros
—Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
—No dc component
—Error detection
• Absence of expected transition

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Modulation Rate

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 Scrambling
• Use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
• Filling sequence
—Must produce enough transitions to sync
—Must be recognized by receiver and replace with
original
—Same length as original
• No dc component
• No long sequences of zero level line signal
• No reduction in data rate
• Error detection capability
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B8ZS
• Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
• Based on bipolar-AMI
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+
• If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+-
• Causes two violations of AMI code
• Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
• Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all
zeros

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 Data Encoding
• HDB3 - (High Density Bipolar 3)
— Commonly used in Europe and Japan
— Similar to bipolar AMI, except that any string of four zeros is
replaced by a string with one code violation

— Rules:
• replace every string of 4 zeros by 000V
– V is a code violation
• this might result in DC components if consecutive strings of 4
zeros are encoded -- in this case the pattern B00V is used
– B is a level inversion and
– V is the code violation

• general rule: use patterns 000V and B00V such that the
violations alternate, thereby avoiding DC components

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B8ZS and HDB3

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 Test your understanding and see solutions on next slide
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ-L

NRZI

[Link]

Pseudoternary

Manchester

Differential
Manchaster
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0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

NRZ-L

NRZI

Bipolar-AMI
(most recent
preceding 1 bit has
negative voltage)

Pseudoternary
(most recent
preceding 0 bit has
negative voltage)

Manchester

Differential
Manchester
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Figure 5.2 Digital Signal Encoding Formats

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 Test your understanding and see solutions on next slide
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipol.
AMI

B8ZS

HDB3

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1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipolar-AMI

0 0 0 V B 0 V B

B8ZS

0 0 0 V B 0 0 V B 0 0 V

HDB3
(odd number of 1s
since last substitution)

B = Valid bipolar signal

V = Bipolar violation

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Figure 5.6 Encoding Rules for B8ZS and HDB3 Sequence 5

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 Digital Data, Analog Signal
• Public telephone system
—300Hz to 3400Hz
—Use modem (modulator-demodulator)
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PSK)

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Amplitude Shift Keying

Hal96 fig 2.18

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 Amplitude Shift Keying

• Amplitude Modulation
—carrier frequency
—signal to be modulated
—spectrum

Hal96 fig 2.18

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How does ASK work?

vc (t ) = cos ω c t
1 2 1 1
vd (t ) = + {cos ω 0t − cos 3ω 0t + cos 5ω 0t − ...}
2 π 3 5
v ASK (t ) = vc (t ) ⋅ vd (t )
1 2 1
cos ω c t + {cos ω c t ⋅ cos ω 0t − cos ω c t ⋅ cos 3ω 0t + ...}
=
2 π 3
Now, we know that
2 cos A cos B = cos( A − B) + cos( A + B)

Therefore we have: 1
v ASK (t) = cos ω c t
2
1
+ {cos(ω c − ω 0 )t + cos(ω c + ω 0 )t
π
1
− [cos(ω c − 3ω 0 )t + cos(ω c + 3ω 0 )t] + ...}
3

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 Frequency Shift Keying

Hal96 fig 2.19

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Frequency Shift Keying

• Frequency Modulation
—different carrier frequencies
—signal to be modulated
—spectrum

Hal96 fig 2.19

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 How does FSK work?
vFSK (t ) = cos ω1t ⋅ vd (t ) + cos ω 2t ⋅ vd ' (t )
The two carriers are ω1 and ω2 and vd ' (t ) = 1 − vd (t )

1 2 1
vFSK (t ) = cos ω1t{ + (cos ω 0t − cos 3ω 0t + ...)}
2 π 3
1 2 1
+ cos ω 2t{ − (cos ω 0t − cos 3ω 0t + ...)}
2 π 3
Therefore we have:

1 1
vFSK (t ) = cos ω1t + {cos(ω1 − ω 0 )t + cos(ω1 + ω 0 )t
2 π
1
− cos(ω1 − 3ω 0 )t + cos(ω1 + 3ω 0 )t + ...}
3
1 1
+ cos ω 2t + {cos(ω 2 − ω 0 )t + cos(ω 2 + ω 0 )t
2 π
1
− cos(ω 2 − 3ω 0 )t + cos(ω 2 + 3ω 0 )t + ...}
3
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Phase Shift Keying

Hal96 fig 2.21

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 Phase Shift Keying

• Phase Modulation
—phase of carrier defines data
—two versions
• phase coherent
• differential
—spectrum

Hal96 fig 2.21

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How does PSK work?

Carrier and bipolar data signal
vc (t ) = cos ω c t
4 1 1
vd (t ) = {cos ω 0t − cos 3ω 0t + cos 5ω 0t − ...}
π 3 5
vPSK (t ) = vc (t ) ⋅ vd (t )
4 1
= {cos ω c t ⋅ cos ω 0t − cos ω c t ⋅ cos 3ω 0t + ...}
π 3

With the usual simplification 2 cos A cos B = cos( A − B ) + cos( A + B ) we get:

1
vPSK (t ) = {cos(ω c − ω 0 )t + cos(ω c + ω 0 )t
π
1
− cos(ω c − 3ω 0 )t + cos(ω c + 3ω 0 )t + ...}
3

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 Phase Shift Keying

• Multilevel Phase Modulation Methods

—use multiple phases
—e.g. 4-PSK or quadrature phase shift keying QPSK
• (0o,90o,180o,270o)
—4-PSK phase-time diagram

—4-PSK phase diagram

—16-QAM phase diagram

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Spread Spectrum

• Spread spectrum digital

communication systems
—developed initially for military
• spread the signal to make it hard to jam
• became known as “frequency-hopping”
• switches through a pseudo random
sequence of frequency assignments

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 Data Signaling

• Transmitting on Analog Lines

—If we use existing telephone lines (PSTN) we
have to consider that they were created for
voice with effective bandwidth from 300Hz to
3400Hz or total of 3000Hz.

—We have to concern ourselves with two forms

of data.
• Analog data
• Digital data

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Modulation Techniques

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 Amplitude Shift Keying
• Values represented by different amplitudes of
carrier
• Usually, one amplitude is zero
—i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
• Susceptible to sudden gain changes
• Inefficient
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• Used over optical fiber

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Binary Frequency Shift Keying

• Most common form FSK is binary FSK (BFSK)
• Two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• High frequency radio

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 Multiple FSK
• More than two frequencies used
• More bandwidth efficient
• More prone to error
• Each signalling element represents more than
one bit

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FSK on Voice Grade Line

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 Phase Shift Keying
• Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent
data
• Binary PSK
—Two phases represent two binary digits
• Differential PSK
—Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather
than some reference signal

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Binary PSK

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 Quadrature (four-level) PSK
• More efficient use by each signal element
representing more than one bit
—e.g. shifts of π/2 (90o)
—Each element represents two bits
—Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one
amplitude
—9600bps modem use 12 angles, four of which have
two amplitudes
• Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
—also called “orthogonal QPSK”
—Delay in Q stream

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Example QPSK
• signals
π
11 s(t) = A cos(2 πfc t + )
4
3π
01 s(t) = A cos(2 πfc t + )
4
€ 3π
00 s(t) = A cos(2 πfc t − )
4
€ π
10 s(t) = A cos(2 πfc t − )
4
€

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 QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
1 1
QPSK signal: s(t) = I (t) cos 2 πfc t − Q(t) sin2 πfc t
2 2

binary 1 and 0
€

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Examples of QPSF Waveforms

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 Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
• Bandwidth
—ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit rate
—FSK bandwidth is larger. Why?
—Note the difference in the derivation of the math in
Stallings compare to the previous arguments based
on the spectrum.
• In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK
and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and
FSK

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Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
• QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
• Combination of ASK and PSK
• Send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
—Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
—Each carrier is ASK modulated
—Two independent signals over same medium
• binary 0 = absence of signal, binary 1 = carrier
• same holds for path that uses the shifted carrier
—Demodulate and combine for original binary output

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 QAM Modulator
QAM signal: s(t) = d1 (t) cos 2 πfc t + d 2 (t) sin2 πfc t

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QAM Levels
• Two level ASK
—Each of two streams in one of two states
—Four state system
• Essentially this is a four level ASK
—Combined stream in one of 16 states
• 64 and 256 state systems have been
implemented
• Improved data rate for given bandwidth
—Increased potential error rate

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 Analog Data, Digital Signal
• Digitization
—Conversion of analog data into digital data
—Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L
—Digital data can then be transmitted using code other
than NRZ-L
—Digital data can then be converted to analog signal
—Analog to digital conversion done using a codec
—Pulse code modulation
—Delta modulation

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Digitizing Analog Data

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 Sampling theorem
• If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all the
information of the original signal
—in short: sample with rate more than twice the
highest signal frequency
—e.g. Voice data limited to below 4000Hz, thus, require
8000 sample per second
—the samples are analog samples
• think of a slice of the signal
—the signal can be reconstructed from the samples
using a lowpass filter

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PAM and PCM

• Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
—“get slices of analog signals”
• Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
—“assign digital code to the analog slice”
—n bits give 2n levels, e.g. 4 bit give 16 levels
• Quantizing error
—error depends on granularity of encoding
—it is impossible to recover original exactly
• Example
—8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps

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 PCM Example

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PCM Block Diagram

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 Nonlinear Encoding
• Quantization levels not evenly spaced
• Reduces overall signal distortion
• Can also be done by companding

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Effect of Non-Linear Coding

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 Typical Companding Functions

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Delta Modulation
• Analog input is approximated by a staircase
function
• Move up or down one level (δ) at each sample
interval
• Binary behavior
—Function moves up or down at each sample interval

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 Delta Modulation - example

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Delta Modulation - Operation

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 Delta Modulation - Performance
• Good voice reproduction
—PCM - 128 levels (7 bit)
—Voice bandwidth 4khz
—Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCM
• Data compression can improve on this
—e.g. Interframe coding techniques for video

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Analog Data, Analog Signals

• Why modulate analog signals?
—Higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
—Permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
• Types of modulation
—Amplitude
—Frequency
—Phase

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 Analog
Modulation

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Summary
• looked at signal encoding techniques
—digital data, digital signal
—analog data, digital signal
—digital data, analog signal
—analog data, analog signal

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