COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

There are three components of a computer:

1) Input Unit
2) CPU (Central Processing Unit)
3) Output Unit

CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of: i) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

ii) Control Unit (CU)

iii) Memory Unit (MU)

Input Unit consists of devices used to enter data/commands in a computer system.

CPU is heart as well brain of a computer. The processing of data takes place in Arithmetic Logic
Unit. Function of control unit is to coordinate data & to control over all activities of a computer.
Memory unit stores data & sends results to the output unit.

Input Unit consists of devices used to enter data/commands in a computer system.

MEMORY UNIT

INPUT UNIT OUTPUT UNIT

CONTROL UNIT

ALU

Graphical Representation of Different Components of a Computer

Graphical Representation of a Computer
 INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES

Input devices bring information, data, and commands INTO the computer and output devices
bring informations OUT of a computer system.

Input Devices Output Devices

Keyboard Monitor

Mouse LCD

Joystick Printer

Scanner Plotter

Light Pen

Touch Screen

Input Devices

(a) Keyboard: It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers
and other characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.
(b) Mouse: The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and
select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands,
size windows, start programs etc.
(c) Joystick: The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction
the stick is moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed
by the cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games,
training simulators and controlling robots.
(d) Scanner: Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document
into the computer system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can
be fed into the computer. Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors
typically experienced during large data entry.
(e) Light Pen: It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite
like the mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select
any object on the screen by pointing to the object.
Output Devices

a) Monitor: Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to display information. The monitor is associated with a
keyboard for manual input of characters and displays the information as it is keyed in. It
 also displays the program or application output. Like the television, monitors are also
available in different sizes.
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to
display terminals also. Its advantages like low energy consumption, smaller and lighter
have paved its way for usage in portable computers (laptops)
c) Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output.
d) Audio Output: Sound Cards and Speakers: The Audio output is the ability of the
computer to output sound.

Types of Printers: Printer - A device that prints text or illustrations on paper.

There are different types of printers:

i) Dot matrix: A type of impact printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking
pins against an ink ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. Dot-matrix
printers are relatively expensive and do not produce high-quality output. However, they can
print to multi-page forms (that is, carbon copies), something laser and ink-jet printers cannot
do. The speed can vary from about 50 to over 500 cps characters per second. Print quality
is determined by the number of pins (the mechanisms that print the dots), it can vary from 9,
18 or 24 pins. Dot Matrix Printer use ribbon for ink
Dot-matrix printers are notorious for making a lot of noise.

ii) Ink-jet: Ink-jet printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching that
produced by laser printers. A typical ink-jet printer provides a resolution of 600 dots per inch,
although some newer models offer higher resolutions. Speed is determined by the DPI Dot
per inch .Ink-Jet Printers use Ink Cartridges. In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower
than that of laser printers. However, they are also considerably slower. Another drawback of
ink-jet printers is that they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive
copier paper. Because ink-jet printers require smaller mechanical parts than laser printers,
they are especially popular as portable printers. In addition, color ink-jet printers provide an
inexpensive way to print full-color documents.

iii) Laser: A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The
light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then
rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum.
Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure. This
is also the way copy machines work. Speed is given in Pages per Minute (PPM) the higher the
PPM the more pages they can print. Print quality is determined by the DPI Dot per Inch.
Laser Printers use Toner Cartridges.
 COMPUTER MEMORY

Units of Computer Memory: A bit is a binary digit, the smallest increment of data on a
computer. A bit can hold only one of two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical values of
off or on, respectively.

1 Bit = Binary Digit

8 Bits = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB(Giga Byte)
1024 GB = 1 TB(Terra Byte)
1024 TB = 1 PB(Peta Byte)
1024 PB = 1 EB(Exa Byte)
1024 EB = 1 ZB(Zetta Byte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yotta Byte)
1024 YB = 1 (Bronto Byte)

1024 Brontobyte = 1 (Geop Byte) Geop Byte is The Highest Memory Measurement Unit
Types of Computer Memory: Memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs
(sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent
basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.

Primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which function at high-speed
(i.e. RAM). Also known as main memory. It is inbuilt memory in the computer system. Primary
memory can be classified as: ROM & RAM

a) ROM: Read Only Memory. ROM is a permanent memory. It is also known as volatile
memory. It contains operating system & BIOS files. ROM is necessary for operating &
functioning of a computer.
b) RAM: Random Access Memory. RAM is a temporary memory. A random-access device
allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. It is the only memory
which is available to the user for typing, analysis etc. Larger the RAM more is memory
of the computer & more easy is the functioning of the computer. Unit of RAM memory is
MB.

Secondary memories additional memories that are not in built in the computer system. These
are physical devices used for data storage which offer higher memory capacity. Also known as
auxiliary memory.

Ex: i) Hard disc: 40 GB

 ii) CD (Compact Disc) Video disc, Audio disc, MP3: 700 MB

iii) DVD (Double Video Disc): 4 GB

iv) Floppy: 1.4 - 2.0 MB

v) Pen Drive: 1 GB to 16 GB
vi) Portable Hard Disc: 10-20 GB

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

Computer was discovered by Charles Babbage. First computer was in the form of Chinese
equipment i.e. ABACUS. The computer discoveries can be divided into following generations:

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes: The first computers used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second
generation of computers. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their
first-generation predecessors. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for
input and printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this
time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits: The development of the integrated

circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and
placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program
that monitored the memory.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors: The microprocessor brought the fourth

generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user. Microprocessors also moved out of
the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products
began to use microprocessors.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence: Fifth generation computing
devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond
to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable
overlap:

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality
monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
  Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather
forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations,
(animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and
analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). The best known supercomputer
manufacturer is Cray Research. The supercomputer developed by India is PARAM (Cidac Pune)

Personal computer

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. All
are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on
one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the
most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the
Internet. Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The
chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic components.
Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit boards and wiring. The
chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. There are two basic flavours of chassis designs–
desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two basic types. The
portable computers are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook
and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

DIFFERENT PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONAL COMPUTER

1) Personal Computer Extended Technology ( PCXT ) : XT - Extended technology
which came with hard disks ( First it was only with floppy drives based Personal
Computers)
2) Personal Computer Advanced Technology: (PCAT) AT: Advanced Technology (PC-
ATs had processor Intel 286 and Intel 386).

Brand Micro architecture

 Pentium
Pentium OverDrive
P5
Pentium MMX
Pentium OverDrive MMX

Pentium Pro

Pentium II
Pentium II Xeon
Pentium II OverDrive
Mobile Pentium II P6

Pentium III
Pentium III Xeon
Mobile Pentium III
Pentium III M

Pentium 4
Pentium 4 Extreme Edition
NetBurst
Pentium D
Pentium Extreme Edition

Pentium M
P6 based

Pentium Dual-Core

Core

Pentium Nehalem

Sandy Bridge
 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Property Hardware Software

Definition Devices that are required to store and Collection of instructions that
execute (or run) the software enables a user to interact with
the computer. Software is a
program that enables a
computer to perform a
specific task, as opposed to
the physical components of
the system (hardware).

Types: Input, storage, processing, control, System

and output devices. software, Programming
software,
and Application software.

Examples: CD-ROM, monitor, printer, video card, Adobe Acrobat, Winoms-

scanners, label makers, routers, and Cs, Internet Explorer ,
modems. Microsoft Word ,
Microsoft Excel

Function: Hardware serves as the delivery system To perform the specific task
for software solutions. The hardware of you need to complete.
a computer is infrequently changed, in Software is generally not
comparison with software and data, needed to for the hardware to
which are “soft” in the sense that they perform its basic level tasks
are readily created, modified, or erased such as turning on and
on the computer responding to input.

Inter dependency: Hardware starts functioning once To deliver its set of

software is loaded. instructions, Software is
 installed on hardware.

Failure: Hardware failure is random. Hardware Software failure is

does have increasing failure at the last systematic. Software does
stage. not have an increasing failure
rate.

Durability: Hardware wears out over time. Software does not wear out
over time. However, bugs are
discovered in software as
time passes.

Nature: Hardware is physical in nature. Software is logical in nature.

Classification of Software: Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally
stored data may have and play in a computer (or similar system).
1) System software: System software is computer software designed to operate
the computer hardware, to provide basic functionality, and to provide a platformfor running
application System software includes device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities,
and window systems.
Operating Systems: An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system
is an essential component of the system software in a computer system. Examples of popular
modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, GNU/Linux, OS X, QNX, Microsoft
Windows, Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these, except Windows and z/OS, share roots
in UNIX.
Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed, marketed, and
sold by Microsoft. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on
November 20, 1985 as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the
growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUI). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the
world's personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had
been introduced in 1984.
Popular Versions of Windows:

 Windows 8, for home, business desktops, and portable computers, released on October 26,
2012.
 Windows 7, for home, business desktops, and portable computers
 Windows Vista, for home and business desktops and portable computers
 Windows XP
 Windows 2000 (17 February 2000; version number: NT 5.0.2195)
 Windows 98
Programming software: Programming software includes tools in the form of programs or
applications that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other
programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple programs such
as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to
accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple hand tools to fix a physical object.
Programming tools are intended to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and they
may be combined in an integrated development environment (IDE) to more easily manage all of
these functions.
Application Software: Application software consists of programs that help users solve
particular computing problems. Application software is designed to address the need of a
particular organizational activity or function. Application software includes packaged software
such as word processing, spreadsheet, database, and programming languages such as BASIC,
COBOL, C, Visual Basic, and other commercial and custom software. Application software run
under System Software, and are made to do a specific task.

Ex: 1) Opera (Web Browser)

2) Microsoft Word (Word Processing)
3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet software)
4) MySQL (Database Software)
5) Microsoft PowerPoint (Presentation Software)
6) iTunes (Music / Sound Software)
7) VLC Media Player (Audio / Video Software)
8) World of War craft (Game Software)
9) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics Software)
 COMPUTER LANGUAGES

A computer language means, a set of rules and symbols used to operate a computer. Whatever
command we give to computer, it is first converted in its own language. A computer language is
also known as Programming Language. There are various types of programming languages.
These languages are used to write programs to tell the computer what to do. Users who write
these programs are called programmers. Each computer language has its own set of rules and
grammar. These are called the syntax rules of the language. This syntax rules should be followed
while writing a program.

These languages are classified under three categories:

 Low level language : a) Machine language b) Assembly Language

 High Level Language

Machine Level Language: A computer can understand only special signals, which are
represented by 1 and 0. These two digits are called binary digits. Computer understands program
written in binary digits. The language, which uses binary digits, is called the machine level
language.
Advantages: i) Fast processing: As the machine code instructions are directly understood by the
computer and do not require any translator, the program written in the machine language are very
fast and processed very quickly.

Disadvantages: i) Machine Dependent: As the internal design of the computer differ from one
computer to another; their machine codes are also different. So, the program designed for one
type of machine cannot be used for another type of machine.

ii) Error prone: As the programmer has to write all the instructions using 0's and 1's it is a very
cumbersome job, the chances of error prone codes are more in writing a machine level language
program.
 iii) Difficult to use: As machine language uses only 0 and 1 two symbols to represent all data and
instructions it is very difficult to remember the machine codes for the different commands.

Assembly Language: These languages use letters and symbols instead of binary digits. These
symbols are called Mnemonics. Programs written in assembly level languages are called
assembly codes. Assembly codes are translated into machine level language instructions.
Assembly level language is easier to understand than machine level language.
Advantages: i) Easy to understand: As compared to the machine language it is easier to
understand.
ii) Easy to remove errors: Because of the codes use English alphabets, it is easy to locate and
correct errors in an assembly language program.
iii) Easy to modify: As the program written in assembly language is easy to understand, it is easy to
modify this program as compared to the machine language program.

Disadvantage: i) Machine dependent: Assembly language is also considered as low level

language because its code is different for different kinds of machine, i.e., the assembly language
program is machine dependent program.

High Level Language: The high level languages are English like and easy to learn and program.
Advantages: i) Understandibility: Programs written in these languages are easier to understand
and read than those in assembly and low level languages.
ii) Debugging: Debugging simply means to remove errors in a program. Errors in programs
written in high level languages are easier to find and remove.

iii) Portability: Programs written for one machine can run on different machines with very minor
changes or no changes at all.

Examples: i) BASIC: Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instructions Code

ii) For Tran: Formula Translator

iii) COBOL: Common Business Oriented Language

iv) C++

v) ORACLE

vi) PLI

vii) PASCAL

viii) HTML: Hyper Text Machine Language. Language used in internet

 ix) FOCUS, Lisp, Perl, Python, and SAS etc.

Ada Ada was created in the 1970s, primarily for

applications used by the [Link] of
Defense. The language is named in honor of
Countess Ada Lovelace, an influential and
historic figure in the field of computing.

BASIC Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction

Code is a general-purpose language that was
originally designed in the early 1960s to be
simple enough for beginners to learn. Today,
there are many different versions of BASIC.

FORTRAN FORmula TRANslator was the first high

level programming language. It was designed
in the 1950s for performing complex
mathematical calculations.

COBOL Common Business-Oriented Language was

. created in the 1950s, and was
designed for business applications

Pascal Pascal was created in 1970, and was

originally designed for teaching
[Link] language was named in
honor of the mathematician, physicist, and
philosopher Blaise Pascal.

C and C++ C and C++ (pronounced “c plus plus”) are

powerful, general-purpose languages
developed at Bell Laboratories. The C
language was created in 1972 and the C++
language was created in 1983.

C# Pronounced “c sharp.” This language was created by Microsoft

around the year 2000 for developing
 applications based on the Microsoft .NET
platform

Java Java was created by Sun Microsystems in the

early 1990s. It can be used to develop
programs that run on a single computer or
over the Internet from a web server.

JavaScript JavaScript, created in the 1990s, can be used

in web pages. Despite its name, JavaScript is
not related to Java.

Python Python, the language we use in this book, is a

general-purpose language created in the early
1990s. It has become popular in business and
academic applications.

Ruby Ruby is a general-purpose language that was

created in the 1990s. It is increasingly
becoming a popular language for programs
that run on web servers.

Visual Basic Visual Basic (commonly known Microsoft programming language and
as VB) software development environment that
allows programmers to create Windows
based applications quickly. VB was
originally created in the early 1990s.

PROGRAM TRANSLATORS

There are 3 types of translators used for translating a program written in High level language or
assembly language to a form that the computer can execute (i.e., machine code). The three types
of translators are:
  Assemblers
 Compilers
 Interpreters.

1) Assembler: An assembler is used to convert assembly language programs into machine

code or language.

2) Compiler: A Compiler is a program that translates a high level language into machine
code or language.
Advantages of a Compiler: i) Fast in execution because compiler translates entire
content from one language to another language in a single stroke.

Disadvantages of a Compiler i) Debugging (Correcting errors) a program is much

harder. Therefore, not so good at finding errors.

iii) When an error is found, the whole program has to be re-compiled.

3) Interpreter: An Interpreter is also a program that translates high-level source code into
executable code. However, the difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that an
interpreter translates one line at a time and then executes it, no object code is produced
and so the program has to be interpreted each time, it is to be run.
Advantages: i) Good at locating errors in programs.

ii) Debugging is easier since the interpreter stops when it encounters an

error.

iii) Useful for learning purpose.

Comparisons between Compiler and Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter

1) Translates the entire source code into 1) Translates the source cede line by
machine code in one go when all the line, indicated errors at each step
syntax errors are removed, execution every line is checked for syntax error
takes place and then converted to equivalent
2) Has capability to store compiled code
machine code.
for future usage
3) More useful for commercial purposes. 2) Cannot retain object code.
4) Execution time is less.
5) Slow for debugging (removal of 3) More useful for learning purpose.
mistakes from a program).
4) Execution time is more
5) Good for fast debugging.