Sample Theory

Dr. Rajesh Moharana

Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Outlines
 Census and Sample Surveys

 Principal Steps in a Sample Survey

 Methods of Sampling: Probability and Non-Probability samplings

 Merits and Limitations of Sampling

 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Introduction
When secondary data are not available for the problem under study, a decision
may be taken to collect primary data. The required information may be
obtained by following either the census method or the sample method.

Census Method:
 The census method is a systematic approach to collecting demographic,
social, and economic data about a population.
 Data are obtained from each and every unit of the population.
 This method aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate snapshot of the
entire population rather than relying on sampling techniques.
 The results obtained by the census method are likely to be more
representative, accurate and reliable.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. The effort, money and time
required to collect the information from all individuals of a population.
Instead, you select a sample.
Sampling
 Sampling is the process of obtaining information about an entire
population by examining a part of it. In other way, the process of
selecting a sample from a population is called sampling.
 A sample study is usually less expensive and produces results at a
relatively faster speed.
 It usually enables the estimation of the sampling errors and thus
assists in obtaining information about some characteristics of the
population.
 Sampling theory is the study of relationships existing between a
population and samples drawn from the population.
 Sampling theory deals with two types of problems, that is,
estimation and testing of hypothesis.
Population
Definition: A population is defined as a large collection of
individuals or attributes or numerical data. It is also known as a
universe.
• A population may be finite or infinite.
• A population may be real or hypothetical.
• The population of concrete objects is called a real population, i.e.,
if the population is known and is in existence at the time of
sampling then it is called a real population.
• A hypothetical population may be defined as the collection of all
possible ways in which specified events can happen. It is built up by
repeating the event any number of trials. For example, when a coin
is tossed any number of times, the populations of heads and tails
obtained is a hypothetical population. Another example of a
hypothetical population is the population of all values which the
bank rate can have in ten years time.
Some Basic Definitions related to Sample Theory

Definition-1: (Small and Large Samples)

 If the size of a sample is less than or equal to 30, then the sample is
said to be a small sample.
 If the size of a sample is greater than 30, then the sample is said to
be a large sample.

Definition-2: (Statistics and Parameters)

 A descriptive measure computed from the data of a sample is
called a statistics.
 The statistics of a population are known as parameters.
Methods of Sampling
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully
decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the
group as a whole. This is called a Sampling Method. There are two
primary types of sampling methods.

1. Probability Sampling: involves random selection, allowing

you to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
2. Non-Probability Sampling: involves non-random selection
based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily
collect data.
 Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

 Simple Random sampling  Convenience Sampling

 Systematic Sampling  Voluntary Response Sampling
 Stratified sampling  Purposive Sampling
 Cluster sampling  Snowball sampling
 Quota sampling
Simple Random Sampling
 In a simple random sample, every member of the population has
an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should
include the whole population.
 To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
chance.

Example: (Simple random sampling)

You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a
social media marketing company. You assign a number to every
employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a
random number generator to select 100 numbers.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but
it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: (Systematic Sampling)

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting
point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person
on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
Stratified Sampling
 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations
that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
 To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups
(called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity,
age range, income bracket, job role).
 Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how
many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use
random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: (Stratified Sampling)

The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want
to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you
sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random
sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a
representative sample of 100 people.
Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but
each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select
entire subgroups.
 If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each
sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample
individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above.
This is called Multistage Sampling.
 This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but
there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled
clusters are really representative of the whole population.
Example: (Cluster Sampling)
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the
same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to
select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
Convenience Sampling
 A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen
to be most accessible to the researcher.
 This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there
is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population,
so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are
at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: (Convenience sampling)

You are researching opinions about student support services in your
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students
to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather
data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you
at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students
at your university.
Voluntary Response Sampling
 A voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding
to a public online survey).
 Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as
some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than
others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary Response Sampling

You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of
students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely
to be those who have strong opinions about the student support
services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of
all students.
Purposive Sampling
 Purposive sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.
 It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to
gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make
statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific.
An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion
criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments.
Example: (Purposive Sampling)
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students
with different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on
their experiences with student services.
Snowball Sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to
recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.
The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of
knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on
participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias.

Example: (Snowball Sampling)

You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since
there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling
isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the
research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people
that she knows in the area.
Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined
number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
 You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called
strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These
units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming
your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes
up your sample.

Example: (Quota Sampling)

You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in
Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into
meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people.
Since the company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200
people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are
equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
groups. You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200
participants for each subgroup.
Principal Steps in a Sample Survey
By following these principal steps, researchers can conduct sample surveys effectively
and produce reliable data for analysis and decision-making.
 Define Objectives: Clearly define the objectives of the survey. Understand what
specific information you need to gather and why.
 Select Sampling Frame: Identify the population you want to study and create a
sampling frame, which is a list or database of all the individuals or elements within
that population. The sampling frame should be comprehensive and accurate to ensure
representative sampling.
 Choose Sampling Method: Select an appropriate sampling method based on the
characteristics of the population and the objectives of the survey. Common sampling
methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and
systematic sampling.
 Determine Sample Size: Determine the appropriate sample size needed to
achieve the desired level of precision and confidence for the survey results. Factors
to consider include the variability of the population, the desired margin of error, and
the level of confidence.
Principal Steps in a Sample Survey
 Design Survey Instrument: Develop the survey questionnaire or instrument.
Ensure that the questions are clear, unbiased, and relevant to the objectives of the
survey. Pre-test the questionnaire to identify any issues or ambiguities before
administering it to the sample.
 Select Sample: Use the chosen sampling method to select the sample from the
sampling frame. Ensure that the sample is representative of the population to allow
for valid inferences.
 Monitor Data Collection: Monitor the data collection process to ensure that it is
proceeding according to plan. Address any issues or discrepancies promptly to
maintain data quality.
 Data Entry and Cleaning: Enter the survey responses into a database or statistical
software for analysis. Clean the data by checking for errors, inconsistencies, and
missing values. Make any necessary corrections or adjustments.
 Data Analysis: Analyze the survey data using appropriate statistical techniques.
Calculate summary statistics, conduct hypothesis tests, and perform any other
relevant analyses to address the survey objectives.
Principal Steps in a Sample Survey
 Interpret Results: Interpret the survey results in the context of the research
objectives and the characteristics of the population. Draw conclusions based on the
data analysis and consider any implications for decision-making or further research.
 Report Findings: Prepare a report summarizing the survey findings, including
key results, conclusions, and recommendations. Present the findings in a clear and
understandable format, using tables, charts, and graphs as needed.
 Disseminate Results: Disseminate the survey results to stakeholders,
policymakers, or the public as appropriate. Ensure that the findings are
communicated effectively and accurately to inform decision-making and promote
transparency.
Merits and Limitations of Sampling
Merits:

 Cost-Efficiency: Sampling can be more cost-effective than conducting a census,

especially when dealing with large populations. It requires fewer resources in terms
of time, money, and manpower.
 Time-Saving: Sampling allows researchers to collect data more quickly compared
to a census. This is particularly advantageous when time constraints are present or
when timely information is needed.
 Feasibility: Conducting a census may be impractical or impossible in certain
situations, such as when the population is too large or dispersed. Sampling makes it
feasible to study such populations by selecting a representative subset.
 Accuracy: When done correctly, sampling can provide accurate estimates of
population parameters. With appropriate sampling techniques and sample sizes,
researchers can minimize sampling error and achieve reliable results.
Merits and Limitations of Sampling

Merits:
 Resource Allocation: Sampling enables researchers to focus their resources on
collecting detailed information from the selected sample, rather than spreading
resources thinly across the entire population. This allows for more in-depth analysis
and exploration of research questions.
 Ease of Data Collection: Collecting data from a sample is often more
manageable and less burdensome than attempting to collect data from an entire
population. It reduces logistical challenges and allows for more efficient data
collection processes.
Merits and Limitations of Sampling
Limitations:

 Sampling Bias: One of the primary limitations of sampling is the potential for
sampling bias. If the sample is not representative of the population, the results may
not accurately reflect the population characteristics. Various forms of bias, such as
selection bias and non-response bias, can affect the validity of the findings.
 Sampling Error: Sampling error is inherent in any sampling method and arises
due to the variability that occurs when different samples are selected from the
same population. While sampling error can be minimized through proper sampling
techniques and adequate sample sizes, it cannot be entirely eliminated.
 Complexity of Sampling Designs: Designing an appropriate sampling strategy
requires careful consideration of various factors, such as the sampling frame,
sampling method, and sample size. Complex sampling designs may increase the
likelihood of errors and require expertise in survey methodology.
Merits and Limitations of Sampling

Limitations:

 Difficulty in Sample Selection: In some cases, it may be challenging to obtain

a representative sample, especially when the population is heterogeneous or lacks a
comprehensive sampling frame. This can lead to practical difficulties in sample
selection and may compromise the validity of the study.
 Limited Precision: Sampling introduces variability into the estimates obtained
from the sample. While statistical techniques can quantify and account for this
variability, there is typically less precision in estimates derived from a sample
compared to a census.
 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Sampling Errors:
Sampling errors occur due to the inherent variability that arises when collecting data from a
sample rather than the entire population. These errors result from differences between the
characteristics of the sample and the population it represents. Sampling errors are quantifiable
and can be estimated statistically. They can be minimized by using appropriate sampling
techniques and increasing the sample size. Common sources of sampling errors include:
 Random Sampling Variation: Even with a random sampling method, there will be
variability in the characteristics of different samples due to chance. This variation leads to
differences between sample estimates and population parameters.
 Undercoverage: Undercoverage occurs when certain segments of the population are not
represented or are underrepresented in the sample. This can happen if the sampling frame is
incomplete or if certain groups are less likely to participate in the survey.
 Sampling Bias: Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not truly representative of the
population, leading to systematic errors in the estimates. This can occur due to factors such as
non-response bias, where certain groups are more likely to participate or respond to the
survey than others, or selection bias, where the sampling method disproportionately includes
or excludes certain segments of the population.
 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Non-Sampling Errors:
Non-sampling errors are errors that occur in the survey process but are not related to the
sampling itself. These errors can arise at any stage of the research process, from data collection
to data processing and analysis. Unlike sampling errors, non-sampling errors are often more
difficult to quantify and can be more challenging to identify and correct. Common sources of
non-sampling errors include:
 Coverage Errors: Coverage errors occur when the sampling frame does not accurately
represent the target population. This can happen if certain segments of the population are
excluded from the sampling frame or if the frame is outdated or inaccurate.
 Measurement Errors: Measurement errors occur when there are inaccuracies or
inconsistencies in the way data is collected or recorded. This can include errors in
questionnaire design, interviewer bias, respondent misunderstanding or misreporting, or
errors in data entry or coding.
 Processing Errors: Processing errors occur during data processing and analysis, such as
errors in data cleaning, coding, or statistical analysis. These errors can result from human
error, software glitches, or programming mistakes.
 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
Non-Sampling Errors:

 Non-Response Errors: Non-response errors occur when selected individuals or units

refuse to participate in the survey or are unable to be contacted. This can lead to biased
estimates if non-respondents differ systematically from respondents in key characteristics.
 Response Errors: Response errors occur when respondents provide inaccurate or
misleading information, either intentionally or unintentionally. This can happen due to social
desirability bias, memory recall errors, or misunderstanding of survey questions.
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