UNIT 1

Introduction to
Microprocessor
CPU
Components, Architecture & Bus Organization
Learning Objectives Unit 1 – Introduction to Microprocessor

01 Define a microprocessor and describe its role in computing systems

02 Identify and explain the core components: ALU, Registers, Control & Timing

03 Understand the function and types of System Buses (Data, Address, Control)

04 Explain microprocessor system organization with bus architecture

What is a Microprocessor?

Definition: A microprocessor is an integrated circuit (IC) that contains the functions of a central
processing unit (CPU) of a computer on a single chip.

Fabrication Speed
🔬 Made using VLSI technology on silicon wafer
⚡ Operates at millions to billions of cycles/sec

Word Size Applications

🔢 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit processors
💡 PCs, embedded systems, smartphones, IoT
Architecture of Microprocessor
Core Components of a Microprocessor
Control &
ALU Registers
Timing
Arithmetic & Logic Unit High-Speed Storage Control Unit

Performs all arithmetic (+, −, ×, ÷) Small, ultra-fast storage locations Directs the operation of all CPU
and logical (AND, OR, NOT, XOR) inside the CPU. Hold operands, components. Generates timing
operations. The computational results, addresses, and control signals and control signals to
heart of the CPU. information during processing. coordinate instruction execution.
Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU Block Diagram

What does the ALU do?
The ALU performs two categories of operations on binary data:
Input A Input B

Arithmetic Logical

• Addition ( A + B ) • AND
ALU Control
Signals
• Subtraction ( A − B ) • OR Arithmetic & Logic Operations
• Multiplication ( A × B ) • NOT (Complement)
• Division ( A ÷ B ) • XOR (Exclusive OR)
• Increment / Decrement • Shift & Rotate

Output / Result
Registers
High-speed temporary storage inside the CPU

Program Counter Instruction Register Accumulator

PC Holds address of the next IR Holds the currently executing ACC Stores intermediate results of
instruction to be fetched and instruction fetched from
ALU operations
executed memory

Memory Address Register Memory Data Register Stack Pointer

MAR Holds address of memory MDR Temporarily holds data being

SP Points to the top of the stack in
location to be read from or
transferred to/from memory memory for subroutine calls
written to
Control & Timing Unit

Roles of the Control Unit Instruction Execution Cycle

FETCH

• Fetches instructions from memory

• Decodes instruction opcode to determine operation DECODE
• Generates control signals to direct ALU, registers & I/O Repeat

• Manages the instruction execution cycle

• Synchronizes all CPU operations using clock signals EXECUTE

STORE
⏱ Clock Signal: The crystal oscillator generates the clock. All CPU
operations are synchronized to its pulses.
System Bus
The communication pathway connecting the CPU, Memory, and I/O devices

Data Bus
Carries actual data between CPU, memory, and I/O. Width determines
Width: 8/16/32/64-bit | Direction: Bidirectional how much data is transferred per cycle.

Address Bus
Width: 16/20/32/64-bit | Direction: Unidirectional (CPU
Carries the address of the memory location or I/O port. Width determines
→ Memory) addressable memory space.

Control Bus
Carries control and timing signals: R/W, clock, interrupt, reset, I/O or
Width: Varies | Direction: Bidirectional memory select, etc.

💡 A 16-bit address bus can address 2¹⁶ = 65,536 (64K) memory locations. A 32-bit bus addresses 4 GB.
Microprocessor System with Bus Organization

CPU Legend:

Memory Address Bus

ALU
(RAM / ROM)
Data Bus

Control Bus
Registers

I/O
Control Unit
Devices

Address
Bus
Data Bus
Key Insight: All communication betweenControl
the CPU, Memory, and I/O in a microprocessor system passes through the system bus.
The CPU is the bus master — it initiates allBustransfers.
The Three Buses — In Detail

• Transfers actual data/instructions between components

• Bidirectional — CPU can read from or write to memory
Data Bus
• Width = word size of the processor (e.g., 8085 → 8-bit)
• More bits = more data per transfer = faster throughput

• Carries the memory address CPU wants to access

• Unidirectional — flows only from CPU to memory/I/O
Address Bus
• n-bit address bus → 2ⁿ unique memory locations
• Example: 8085 has 16-bit address → 64KB addressable space

• Carries control/status signals to manage the bus

• Signals include: RD (Read), WR (Write), INT, RESET, ALE
Control Bus
• Memory Read/Write, I/O Read/Write, Interrupt lines
• Ensures correct direction and timing of data transfers
The Three Buses — In Detail
Unit 1 — Summary
Microprocessor: ALU:
An IC containing the CPU on a single chip; processes instructions Handles all arithmetic and logical computations; takes two inputs
using fetch-decode-execute cycle and outputs a result based on control signals

Registers: Control Unit:

Internal CPU storage (PC, IR, ACC, MAR, MDR, SP); much faster Directs all CPU operations; decodes instructions; generates
than RAM; hold working data & addresses control signals; synchronizes with clock

Data Bus: Address Bus:

Unidirectional (CPU→mem); carries memory address; 2ⁿ
Bidirectional; carries actual data; width = word size of processor
locations with n-bit bus

Control Bus:
Bidirectional; carries RD/WR/INT/ALE signals; manages bus timing and direction