TERM 2 SCIENCE

STD 7
3.1 Matter

3.2 Energy

3.3 Chemistry

4.1 Force

4.2 Levers
@TZ
5.1 Static Electricity

5.2 Current Electricity

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HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one.

• This is called heat transfer

There are three methods of heat transfer

- Conduction - Convection - Radiation

1. CONDUCTION

• This is the way heat moves mainly through solids.

• It is passed by hot particles to cooler ones

• Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids

• Materials that conduct heat quickly are said to be good conductors of heat and those that do not conduct
heat well are said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat.

Examples of good Conductors of Heat Examples of Insulators

• Non-metals are very poor conductors of

• Metals are good conductors of heat heat
• Silver and copper are the best conductors • Glass • Wood • Rubber • Plastic
BUT lead is a poor conductor of heat

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The following diagram is of a set-up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts heat;

Observation

• The pin fell first from the aluminum rod, then copper, steel
and took longer to fall from the glass rod.

Conclusion

• Different materials conduct heat at different rates.

• Aluminum is the best conductor followed by copper and

then steel while glass is a poor conductor of heat.

• It can also be, noted that metals are good conductors of

heat while non-metals are poor conductors.

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BUILDING MATERIALS

 It is important for people who build houses and other buildings to know which materials are good
conductors of heat and which are insulators.
 Good conductors are needed to transfer heat from one place to such as in stoves and radiators.
 Good conductors used in building includes:
 Metals such as cooper, aluminium, iron and steel but except lead
Materials that are insulators:
 Insulators are needed to keep heat away from some places.
 They keep buildings cool in summer and warm in winter and to keep water hot in water systems.
 Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or gain
within them.

 In buildings, insulation depends on;

- The type of materials used for roofing

- The presence of ceiling

- Thickness of the walls

Below is a comparison of different houses

Observations

• The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with ceiling.

• The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with double walls.

• Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with thatched roof.

Conclusion

 Material that are, suitable for insulation in a building, include,

- Thatch: thatched houses are cool in summer and warm in winter. Thatch prevents heats from escaping
and going through.
- Air: many buildings have double walls with an air space between the walls. On hot days this helps to
keep buildings cool by stopping heat from being conducted into the building. In winter, the air space
keeps the room warm by stopping heat from being conducted out.

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- Plastic: plastic sheets are put underneath roof sheets to keep sun’s heat out during summer and to
keep heat inside during the winter. Polystyrene foam is used between brick walls or around stove and
hot water tanks to keep them hot and to prevent the heat from damaging other materials around them.
- Fiberglass: blankets of fiberglass are laid on the ceiling of buildings to keep the sun’s heat out in
summer and to keep heat in during winter. Some buildings have internal walls made of two layers of
boards with fiberglass placed between them for insulation.
- Wood: it is a good conductor of heat which is often used for inside of walls of buildings. Some
ceilings are made of wood.
- Asbestos: roofs made of asbestos sheet keeps the sun’s heat out to keep the house cool in summer.
(Asbestos is dangerous to people’s heath as it can cause lung cancer).
- Bricks, cement and clay: good insulators and do not let heat through. Therefore, keeps buildings cool
in summer and warm in winter.

2. CONVECTION

• This refers to the movement of heat through fluids (gases and liquids).

• That is the movement of heat through liquids and gases.

• If a fluid is
heated, hot
particles become
less dense and
move to the top
of the liquid.

• While cold
ones with high
density sinks to
the bottom.

• This creates convectional currents which carries heat around the fluid.

A HEAT RETAINER BOX

- This is a box or container in which we place food that has been half cooked.

- Inside the box, the food is kept at the same temperature so that it carries on cooking without any
further heating. This saves fuel and money.

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RADIATION

• This is the movement of heat through an empty space (vacuum).

• Unlike conduction and convection, there are no particles involved in movement of heat through
radiation. Example:

- Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation.

• Radiation of substances is, described in terms of heat absorption and emission.

Absorption of heat

• This refers to, the rate at which heat is taken into an object.

• Different surfaces absorb heat at different rates.

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The set-up below is of an activity to investigate absorption of heat by different surfaces.

Observation

• The dull black colour recorded higher

temperatures while the one that is bright
silver in colour, recorded lower
temperatures.

Conclusion

• Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas silvery or light coloured
surfaces are poor absorbers of heat.

• This is because lightly coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards.

ABSORPTION OF HEAT

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Emission of heat

• This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding.

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate emission of heat by different surfaces.

Observations

• The side with a black or dull surface feels warmer than the one with white or bright.

Conclusion

• Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright
coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat.

• This is because white or bright coloured surfaces reflected heat inwards.

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REFLECTION OF HEAT

USES OF REFLECTION

a) A vacuum flask

- It is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold for a long time.
- It does this by preventing heat loss or gain by conduction, convection and
or radiation.
- It is made up of very thin glass that is silvered to make it shiny. The heat
in liquids is reflected back into the liquid, so there is no heat loss from
radiation.
- The flask is closed with a stopper so there can be no heat loss through
convection current in the air.
- The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.
- A plastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.

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b) A car engine cooling system

• This helps cool the car engine and prevent it from

‘knocking’ or damaged due to overheating.

• The cooling system also uses conduction, convection

and radiation to cool the engine

• The cylinders conduct heat to water.

• Heat from water, move by convection to the radiator.

• The radiator (black in colour) radiates heat to the

surrounding.

 Some car owners prefer to drive white cars because the white paint reflects most of the light and heat
that falls on it, thus keeping the inside of the car cool.

c) The roofs of buildings

Many roof buildings are painted with shiny aluminium paint. The shiny surface reflects most of the
sunlight and heat that falls on it, thus keeping the inside of the building cool.

LIGHT AND THE EYE

• Light is a form of energy that enters our eyes and causes a sensation called sight.

• This means that without light, we will not be able to see anything.

SOURCES OF LIGHT

• Sun • Fire flies • Burning candle • Lit torch • Burning fire etc…

LUMINOUS OBJECTS

• These are sources of light that release their NON- LUMINOUS OBJECTS
own light.
• Sources that do not produce their own light.
Examples
Examples
- Sun
- Fluorescent bulb
- Fire flies
- Moon
- Stars
- Mirror

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THE HUMAN EYE

• The eye is an organ

for seeing.

• For us to see an
object light rays
strikes the object and
the object reflect the
rays into our eyes.

• The image is,

formed into the retina
and sent to the brain
for interpretation.

Functions of the main parts of the eye

1. CORNEA  It controls the size of the pupil and how

much light goes into the eye.
 The clear part of the eye. It’s hard and it
protects the eye. 4. THE PUPIL
 The opening in the middle of the iris.
 The cornea refracts light rays towards the  It allows light to enter the eye.
lens
2. THE WALL OF THE EYE BALL 5. THE LENS
 Consists of three layers  Elastic, rubbery and a transparent convex
a) Sclera: the outer layer. It’s hard and lens. It is held by ligaments in place. The
white and it protects the inside parts. ligaments can stretch or contract. This
b) Choroid: the middle layer. It’s soft makes the lens look at far or close objects by
and black and contains all blood changing its shape.
vessels.  The lens focuses light rays into the retina.
c) Retina: the inner layer. Light
sensitive layer which contains 6. CILIARY MUSCLES
nerves that enable us to see.  It controls the shape or thickness of the lens.
3. THE IRIS 7. THE YELLOW SPOT
 A ring of muscles that opens and closes. The  The most sensitive part of the retina.
coloured part that one can see from the front  It forms the brightest images of what we see.
of the eye.

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8. RETINA 11. EYE LID
 It acts as a screen where images are formed.  It protects and cleans the eye.
 The nerves in the retina change the images  There moisture from tear glands. When the
to nerve impulses. eyelids opens and closes it smears this liquid
all over the eye ball keep it moist and to
9. OPTICAL NERVE wipe away dust and dirt.
 It transmits impulses to the brain for
interpretation. 12. THE FRONT AND REAR CHAMBERS:
10. THE BLIND SPOT The spaces between the cornea and the lens,
 A spot where the optic nerve goes out of the and the space behind the lens are filled with
eye. It is not sensitive to light and no image liquid-almost like a thin jelly. If the liquid
can be formed here. leaks out, the eye becomes soft like a ball
with no air.

HOW THE PUPIL CHANGES IN DIFFERENT LIGHT CONDITIONS

 The retina is very light sensitive; it can be easily damaged if the light that falls on it is too bright.

 There must be enough light coming through the lens so that on can be able to see.

 The size of the pupil changes depending on light intensity. The iris controls its size.
 This is to protect the eye from damage by too much light and to allow enough light to enter the eye.
 When one is in bright light, the iris relaxes to reduce the size of the pupil. This reduces the amount of
light entering the eye. It contracts to increase the size of the pupil when one is in the dark to increase
the amount of light entering the eye.

The diagram below shows how the pupil appears when one is in bright light and when in the dark:

Accommodation of the eye

 This means the ability of an eye lens to change shape or thickness to focus images on the retina.
 The thickness of the eye lens is, controlled by the ciliary muscles.
 When looking at a closer object ciliary muscles contract and squeeze the lens, which make it thick.
 This makes the less have a short focal length.
 When looking at a distant object, the muscles relax and release the lens from pressure.
 This makes the lens thin and the focal length long.

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EYE DEFECTS AND DISEASES

EYE DEFECTS

1. SHORT SIGHT (MYOPIA)

• A short-sighted person can see near objects very well BUT cannot see distant objects clearly.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;

• Short sightedness can be corrected with a concave lens in spectacles.

2. LONG SIGHT (HYPERMETROPIA)

• A long-sighted person can see distant objects clearly BUT cannot see near objects clearly.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;

• Long sight is corrected with the use of convex lens in spectacles.

3. ASTIGMATISM

• It is an eye defect where by a person cannot focus vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;

• Can be corrected through the use of cylindrical lens i.e. special combination of convex and concave lenses in
spectacles.

EYE DISEASES

1 .CATARACT 2. TRACHOMA

Cause; Cause;

• It is caused by too much exposure to Ultra • It is caused by bacteria called Chlamydia

Violet Light (UV light) trochomotis.

• It damages the protein in the eye lens and this Signs;

makes the lens cloudy.
• Repeated itchy eye infections.
Signs:
• These infections can lead to blindness.
• Clouded, blurred or dim vision

Treatment;
Treatment;
• The lens can be replaced by surgical operation.
• Through the use of antibiotics and improved
hygiene.

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3. RETINAL DETACHMENT • The person has difficulties in seeing objects at
night.
Cause
Treatment
• The retina becomes separated from the back of
the eyeball. • Diet rich in vitamin A is needed. e.g. carrots
and orange coloured vegetables.
• This may be due to injury or it may just
happen. 5. GLAUCOMA

Signs; Cause;

• Flashes of light are seen • Increase of pressure in the eye ball which
damages the optic nerve.
REMEDY
• It is the second cause of blindness in Africa.
• Surgery to reconnect the retina
Signs:
4. NIGHT BLINDNESS
• Person experiences patchy loss of vision or
Cause reduced clarity.

• Lack of vitamin A in the diet. Treatment;

• Vitamin A is needed to make the pigment that • Surgery and medication to reduce the pressure
detects light in the retina. and the cause of increased pressure.

Signs;

FACTORS THAT MAY CAUSE BAD EYE SIGHT/VISUAL IMPAIRMENT.

a) Loss of accommodation

- It happens when the lens of the eye can no longer adjust so that a person can see far objects
as clear as closer ones.

- It happens when the lens has lost its elasticity and cannot be flattened for far vision or more
curved for closer vision.

- It often happens when people get older. It cannot be cured but special spectacles can correct
it.

b) Infection

- Bacteria can infect eyelids and then eyeballs. This causes the cornea to become damaged so
that light cannot pass through.

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c) Cataracts

- It is formed when the lens or part of the lens becomes milky; as a result less light enters the
eye and becomes hard for someone to see.

- In some serious cases the lens becomes completely opaque and no light passes through,
making a person blind.

- An operation can be done to remove the lens or to replace it.

d) Trachoma

- A serious infection of the thin membrane covering the cornea which then forms a scar tissue
that prevents light from passing into the eye.

- Infections can be caused by flies, dirt and poor hygienic conditions.

e) Detached retina

- It happens when the retina is torn away from the choroid layer at the back of the eye which
can be caused by diseases or by a bad bump to the head. The retina will not be able to
produce images.

f) Diseases
- Diseases such as diabetes can cause eyesight to become weak
g) Severe head injuries:
- These can damage the optic nerve or the retina and cause poor eyesight or even complete
blindness.

THE EAR
 The ear is an organ for hearing.
 It helps us keep our balance.
 Its parts maybe grouped as outer, middle and inner ear.
o The earflap, ear canal and eardrum make the outer ear.
o The hammer, stirrup and anvil make the middle ear
o While the cochlea and the auditory nerves make the inner ear.

PARTS OF THE EAR

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE EAR.

1. The outer ear

a. Ear Flap or pinna

• It collects sound waves from air and directs it into the ear canal.
b. Ear Canal
• It directs sound to the ear drum. There is usually some wax in the ear canal.
c. Ear Drum
• It vibrates when sound enters the ear. The ear drum vibrates back and forth.
• It also makes the small bones to vibrate.
2. The middle ear
d. 3 Small Bones (Ossicles): Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup
• The vibrations from the ear drum are small and amplified or strengthened by the small bones.
e. Eustachian Tube
• It helps balance pressure inside the ear and outside the ear by allowing air in and out of the
ear. It runs from the middle ear to the throat.
f. The oval window
 It is a membrane that closes off the middle ear from the inner ear.
 It vibrates from the movements of the 3 small bones.
3. The inner ear
It is filled with a liquid. Has 3 main parts.
g. The semi-circular canals
 Curved canals that point in 3 different directions. They contain a liquid.
 When the body or head moves, the liquid pushes against the side that is down. This sends a
signal to the brain that tells that tells it if the body is upright or not.
 They keep the body balanced and prevent it from falling over.
h. Cochlea
 It is filled with a liquid and it has very small nerve ending.
 Vibrations from the oval window pass into the liquid and nerve endings pick up the vibrations
and sent them to the hearing nerve.
i. Auditory nerve or Hearing nerve

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  It transmits electrical signals to the brain for interpretations. The brain tells us what we
hear.

How Do We Hear

• Sound waves are collected by the ear flap / pinna and passed into the ear canal.
• The ear canal (is a passage) channels sound waves to the eardrum.
• The ear drum then vibrates from the sound waves that strike it.
• The vibration is later passed on to the small bones and they magnify or enlarge the vibrations
and carry it to the oval window.
• The oval window will then vibrate and causes vibrations in the liquid inside the cochlea.
• These vibrations will stimulate the nerve endings in the cochlea.
• This produces nerve impulses.
• The nerve impulses will then be carried by the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.

THE AUDIBLE FREQUENCY

FREQUENCY

• Refers to the number of vibrations.

• It is measured in Units called Hertz. (Hz)
• The audible frequency of human beings is 16Hz (minimal) to 20 000Hz (maximum).
• As people grow older, they usually lose some hearing. They lose the ability to hear very high
pitched sounds.

AUDITORY RANGE FOR SOME ANIMALS

1. Dogs 2. Bat
• The auditory frequency for dogs is • Their minimal frequency is 60 Hz
high as 50 000 Hz. and maximum is 200 000 Hz or
• They can hear sound of special more.
whistles which humans cannot hear. • These birds use echo to find things
in darkness.

Hearing Impairment

• Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one
or both ears.

Signs of hearing impairment

• Loss of balance • Tinnitus (ringing in the ear)

• Hearing loss • Impaired speech

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Causes of hearing impairment

a) Accidents or injury to the ear f) Hardening of the ear drum or oval window
 Sound waves cannot get through  These membranes become
to the middle ear. hardened and cannot transmit
b) Damage to the ear drum sound vibrations properly. It is
 Sharp objects and too much caused by old age or by very
noise can damage the ear drum. loud noise.
If damaged, sound cannot pass g) Blockage of the ear canal
to the middle ear.  The wax in the ear canal can
c) Damage to the 3 small bones become so thick and hard that
 When damaged, they cannot sound vibrations cannot get
transmit or magnify sound through. It leads to poor
vibrations. hearing.
d) Damage to the nerves h) Diseases
 When they are damaged, a  If a pregnant woman gets
person cannot hear at all or have rubella (German measles) in the
poor hearing. early stages of pregnancy, the
e) Infection to the middle ear unborn baby will be harmed.
 An infection can cause the small The most common result is
bones to be damaged and cause complete deafness.
poor hearing or deafness.
Preventing hearing impairment

• Wearing ear muffs • Cure chronic infections such as ear

• Immunize children against infections as early as possible.
infections. • Do not poke your ears with hard
objects.

Safe and healthy care for ears

• Ears should be cleaned carefully. • Wear protective clothing (ear muffs)

• Do not poke your ears with hard and when using very loud machinery.
sharp objects. • Do not listen to loud music with
• Wax build up in the ear should be headphones.
removed by a doctor or qualified
person,

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
What is a chemical reaction?

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- A chemical reaction is a process by which two or more substances combine chemically to produce a
completely new substance.

Signs of a reaction include;

• change in temperature (either increase or decrease)

• Bubbles of a gas and flames.
• The new substance produced cannot be changed back to its original form
• Completely new substance is formed
• Colour change.

REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

REACTANTS PRODUCTS

• These are chemicals which are used in a • This refers to what is formed during a chemical
reaction to form a new substance. reaction.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Temperature

• Increasing temperature increases the rate of a

chemical reaction.
• This is because increase in temperature increases the
rate at which particles move and collide.
• Likewise, a decrease in temperature decreases the
rate of chemical reactions.
• This is why food rots easily in high temperatures but
stay longer in cold temperatures.

2. Surface area

• Particles with smaller grains react faster than those

with larger grains.
• That is a powered substance would react faster than
those in lumps or with larger grains.
• This is because in powdered substances the total
surface area exposed for reactions is great.

3. Concentration of reactants

• The higher the concentration the less time taken for

reactants to react.
• The lower the concentration, the more time taken for
reactants to react.

4. Catalysts

 A catalyst is a chemical that speed up a chemical

reaction without itself being changed.
 It is never used up in the reaction. A
catalysed reaction is faster than the one not catalysed.

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