Unit III

Basic principle of inverter

Inverter power-electronics is a class of power conversion (or power conditioning) circuits that operates from a dc
voltage source or a dc current source and converts it into ac voltage or current. The inverter does reverse of what
ac-to-dc converter does. If input to an inverter circuit is a dc source, it is not uncommon to have this dc derived
from an ac source such as utility ac supply. For example, the primary source of input power may be utility ac voltage
supply that is converted to dc by an ac to dc converter and then ‘inverted’ back to ac using an inverter. The final ac
output may be of a different frequency and magnitude than the input ac of the utility supply

Series inverter
Below is the block diagram Fig 01 of series inverter.

Fig 01 Block diagram of series inverter

In series inverter, the commutating elements L and C are connected in series with the load. This constitutes a series
RLC resonant circuit. The Two SCRs are used to produce the halves (positive and negative half cycle) in the output.

Fig: 02 Circuit diagram of series inverter

In series inverter circuit diagram shown in Fig.02, comprises of the commutating elements L and C are connected
in series with the load along with series RLC resonant circuit. The Two SCRs are used to produce the halves
(positive and negative half cycle) in the output.

In the first half of the output currents when SCR X1 is triggered it will allow the current to flow through L1, and
load, and C2 thus charging. The capacitor C1 which is already charged at these instant discharges through SCR1,
L1 and the Load. Hence 50% of the current is drawn from the input source and 50% from the capacitor. Similarly
in the second half of the output current C1 will be charged and C2 will discharge through the load, L2 and SCR2,
Again 50% of the load current is obtained from the DC input source and rest from the capacitor. The SCRs X1 and
X2 are alternatively fired to get AC voltage and current.
Parallel inverter
A parallel inverter (also known as a push-pull or center-tapped inverter) is a type of power electronic circuit that
converts DC power into AC power using a specific arrangement of switching devices and a transformer. Its name
comes from the commutating capacitor being connected in parallel with the load.

Fig 03: Parallel inverter system

The functional flow of a basic parallel inverter system consists of the following blocks:
DC Input Source: Typically a battery or solar panel providing the primary energy.
Series Inductor: Placed between the DC source and the transformer to maintain a constant current flow and prevent
the capacitor from discharging into the source.
Switching Unit: Two thyristors or transistors that are triggered at alternating intervals to create the switching action.
Center-Tapped Transformer: The primary winding is split into two halves. Current flows through each half
alternately to create an alternating magnetic flux.
Commutating Capacitor: Connected across the transformer's primary winding. It stores energy to turn off
(commutate) the active switch when the other is turned on.
AC Output/Load: The secondary side of the transformer where the final AC square wave is delivered to the load

The single phase parallel inverter circuit consists of two SCRs SCR1 and SCR2, an inductor L, an output
transformer and a commutating capacitor C. The output voltage and current are Vo and Io respectively. The function
of L is to make the source current constant. During the working of this inverter, capacitor C comes in parallel with
the load via the transformer. So it is called a parallel inverter.

Fig 04: single phase parallel inverter circuit

Single phase voltage source inverter
A single-phase square wave type voltage source inverter produces square shaped output voltage for a single-phase
load. Such inverters have very simple control logic and the power switches need to operate at much lower
frequencies compared to switches in some other types of inverters. The first generation inverters, using thyristor
switches, were almost invariably square wave inverters because thyristor switches could be switched on and off
only a few hundred times in a second. Currently switches like IGBTs are much faster and used at switching
frequencies of several kilohertz. Power circuits of these topologies are shown in Fig. 5 and 6 for further discussions.

Fig 5: A1 phase half bridge VSI

Fig 6: A1 phase full bridge VSI

The input dc voltage (Edc) is constant and the switches are lossless. In half bridge topology the input dc voltage is
split in two equal parts through an ideal and loss-less capacitive potential divider. The half bridge topology consists
of one leg (one pole) of switches whereas the full bridge topology has two such legs. Each leg of the inverter
consists of two series connected electronic switches shown within dotted lines in the figures. Each of these switches
consists of an IGBT type controlled switch across which an uncontrolled diode is put in anti-parallel manner. These
switches are capable of conducting bi-directional current but they need to block only one polarity of voltage. The
junction point of the switches in each leg of the inverter serves as one output point for the load.
In half bridge topology the single-phase load is connected between the mid-point of the input dc supply and the
junction point of the two switches (in Fig. 5 these points are marked as ‘O’ and ‘A’ respectively).
The switches Sw1 and Sw2 assumed to be controlled mechanical switches that open and close in response to the
switch control signal. The switches Sw1 and Sw2 are turned on alternately with duty ratio of each switch kept equal
to 0.5, the load voltage (VAO) will be square wave with a peak-to- peak magnitude equal to input dc voltage (Edc
) . Fig. 5 shows a typical load voltage waveform output by the half bridge inverter. VAO acquires a magnitude of
+0.5 Edc when Sw1 is on and the magnitude reverses to -0.5 Edc when Sw2 is turned on. Fig5. also shows the
fundamental frequency component of the square wave voltage, its peak-to-peak magnitude being equal to 4/πEdc.
The two switches of the inverter leg are turned on in a complementary manner.
For a general load, the switches should neither be simultaneously on nor be simultaneously off. Simultaneous turn-
on of both the switches will amount to short circuit across the dc bus and will cause the switch currents to rise
rapidly. For an inductive load, containing an inductance in series, one of the switches must always conduct to
maintain continuity of load current. In case of inductive load has been considered and it has been shown that the
load current may not change abruptly even though the switching frequency is very high. Such a situation,demands
that the switches must have bi-directional current carrying capability.

Fig7: Square wave load voltage output by half-bridge inverter

Three phase bridge inverter, Applications

3-phase bridge type VSI with square wave pole voltages has been considered. The output from this inverter is to be
fed to a 3-phase balanced load. Fig. shows the power circuit of the three-phase inverter. This circuit may be
identified as three single-phase half bridge inverter circuits put across the same dc bus. The individual pole voltages
of the 3-phase bridge circuit are identical to the square pole voltages output by single-phase half bridge or full
bridge circuits.
The three pole voltages of the 3-phase square wave inverter are shifted in time by one third of the output time
period. These pole voltages along with some other relevant waveforms have been plotted in Fig. 8.

Fig 8: Three phase voltage source inverter (VSI) feeding a balanced load
The horizontal axis of the waveforms in Fig 8 has been represented in terms of ‘ωt’, where ‘ω’ is the angular
frequency (in radians per second) of the fundamental component of square pole voltage and ‘t’ stands for time in
second. In Fig8. the phase sequence of the pole voltages is taken as V AO , VBO and VCO. The numbering of the
switches in Fig 8. has some special significance vis-à-vis the output phase sequence.

Fig 9: Voltage waveforms of output by three phase square wave voltage source inverter

The pattern of the switches shown in Fig 9. are seen that numbering the switches turn on in the sequence: Sw1,
Sw2, Sw3, Sw4, Sw5, Sw6, Sw1, Sw2, ….and so on. The switching cycle time is 360 degrees (2π radians), each
switch conducts for 1800 by turning on of the adjacent switch is staggered by 60 degrees. The upper and lower
switches of each pole (leg) of the inverter conduct in a complementary manner. To reverse the output phase
sequence, the switching sequence may simply be reversed.
The conduction of the switch pattern, at any time three switches conduct. It could be two from the upper group of
switches, which are connected to positive dc bus, and one from lower group or vice-versa (i.e., one from upper
group and two from lower group). According to the conduction pattern indicated in Fig. 9 there are six combinations
of conducting switches during an output cycle:- (Sw5, Sw6, Sw1), (Sw6, Sw1, Sw2), (Sw1, Sw2, Sw3), (Sw2, Sw3,
Sw4), (Sw3, Sw4, Sw5), (Sw4, Sw5, Sw6). Each of these combinations of switches conducts for 60 0 in the sequence
mentioned above to produce output phase sequence of A, B, C.
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
UPS is an electrical device used to provide emergency electrical power to different electrical loads in the case of a
main power supply failure. A UPS or uninterruptible power supply uses batteries and supercapacitors to store
electrical energy and delivers this stored electrical energy when the main input power supply fails. However, a
typical UPS battery can supply electrical power for a short duration. Hence, UPSs are mostly used as short run time
backup power sources for small loads.
In addition to supplying emergency electrical power to the loads, a UPS also protects sensitive equipment such as
computers, data centers, TV sets, industrial process control and monitoring systems, and many other electronic
devices.
A UPS is commonly used with computers that keep running a computer for a short time, about 15 to 30 minutes,
after the failure of supply mains. Therefore, it prevents the sudden turn off of the computer and loss of data in the
system, and other system failures. These days, there are several types of UPS systems available in the market. Some
smart UPS systems are also available that come with software components that enables us to automate the switching
function of the backup supply when we are away from the computer system.
Components of a UPS system.
Battery: The battery works as the energy storage unit in the UPS system. It provides the stored electrical energy for
a sufficient amount of time during main power failure.
Rectifier or Charger Circuit: It converts the supply voltage of 240 VAC into 12 V (or any other battery voltage) DC.
It supplies this rectified DC power to the battery for storage.
Inverter: It converts the DC output power of the battery into ac power to supply the load during mains power failure.
Static Switch: It is a semiconductor device such as a thyristor which transfers the load from the utility to the inverter
(and the inverter to the utility) without any interruption in the power supply to the load.
Primary Function of a UPS
When there is any failure in the main power supply from the utility, the UPS supplies emergency power to the load
for a short duration of time. This is the primary function of a UPS. Modern UPSs can also provide protection against
electrical faults such as short-circuit, voltage fluctuations, low voltage, instability of mains frequency, etc.
Now, let us discuss each of these three types of UPS systems individually along with their block diagrams.
Types of UPS
Off-Line UPS

Fig 10: Offline UPS

This type of UPS system gives only the most basic features. In the case of off-line UPS, the system will start
operating only when there is a power failure in the supply mains. The block diagram of the off-line UPS is shown
in Figure-10.
This is known as Standby UPS, offers basic features. The block diagram is shown above. The primary power source
is the filtered AC mains. When the power breakage occurs, the transfer switch will select the backup source (shown
in dashed path in figure 10). This stand by system will start working only when there is any failure in mains. In this
system, the AC voltage is first rectified and stored in the storage battery connected to the rectifier. When power
breakage occurs, this DC voltage is converted to AC voltage by means of a power inverter, and is transferred to the
load connected to it. This is the least expensive UPS system and it provides surge protection in addition to back up.
The transfer time can be about 25 milliseconds which can be related to the time taken by the UPS system to detect
the utility voltage that is lost.

On-Line UPS
This DC is converted into AC by the process of inversion and given to the load or equipment which it is connected
The block diagram is shown in figure 11. This type of UPS is used where electrical isolation is mandatory. This
system is a bit more costly due to the design of constantly running converters and cooling systems.
The rectifier which is powered with the normal AC current is directly driving the inverter. Hence it is also known
as Double conversion UPS. The block diagram is shown below.

Fig 11: Online UPS

When there is any power failure, the rectifier have no role in the circuit and the steady power stored in the batteries
which is connected to the inverter is given to the load by means of transfer switch.
Once the power is restored, the rectifier begins to charge the batteries. To prevent the batteries from overheating
due to the high power rectifier, the charging current is limited. During a main power breakdown, this UPS system
operates with zero transfer time.
The reason is that the backup source acts as a primary source and not the main AC input. But the presence of inrush
current and large load step current can result in a transfer time of about 4-6 milliseconds in this system.

Line Interactive UPS

Line-interactive UPS is used for small businesses and departmental servers. It is similar to Off-line UPS but includes
a tap-changing transformer for voltage regulation.
The difference is the addition of tap changing transformer. Voltage regulation is done by this tap-changing
transformer by changing the tap depending on input voltage. Additional filtering is provided in this UPS result in
lower transient loss. The block diagram is shown below figure 12.
 Fig 12: Line Interactive UPS

Principle of chopper operation

The chopper operation is based on converting fixed DC (direct current) into variable DC by rapidly switching the
supply ON and OFF using a power semiconductor device.
A chopper is a DC–DC converter that changes a constant DC input voltage into a controlled/variable DC output
voltage.
It works like a high-speed electronic switch.
The operation depends on switching action:
 When the switch is ON, the input voltage is applied to the load.
 When the switch is OFF, the load is disconnected from the source.
By controlling the time duration of ON and OFF, the average output voltage is controlled.

Duty cycle (D)

The key parameter is the duty cycle (D).

Where:
 𝑇 = Time when switch is ON
 𝑇= Total time period ( 𝑇 = 𝑇 + 𝑇 )

Average output voltage

Where:
 𝑉 = Output voltage
 𝑉 = Supply voltage

Operation Steps
Switch ON
o Chopper connects source to load
o Load receives full voltage 𝑉
Switch OFF
o Source is disconnected
o Output voltage becomes zero (or maintained via diode/inductor in practical circuits)
Repeated Switching
 o Rapid switching produces a controlled average DC voltage.

Applications
 DC motor speed control
 Electric vehicles
 Battery-operated vehicles
 SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)
 Traction systems

Control strategies-Constant frequency system & Variable frequency system

In chopper control, the output voltage is controlled by adjusting the switching of the chopper. There are two main
control strategies:
Constant Frequency System (Time Ratio Control)
Variable Frequency System

Constant Frequency System

In this method, the total switching period (T) remains constant, and the ON time is varied to control the output
voltage.
 Frequency 𝑓 = is constant
 Only 𝑇 changes
 Duty cycle (D) changes

Where:
𝑉 = Output voltage
𝑉 = Supply voltage

Working
If ON time increases, output voltage increases.
If ON time decreases, output voltage decreases.
Methods used
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
Constant frequency with variable pulse width
Advantages
Easier filtering
Less ripple
Better performance

Variable Frequency System

In this method, the switching frequency changes to control the output voltage.
 ON time or OFF time is varied
 Total period 𝑇changes
 Frequency 𝑓changes
Types
1. Constant ON-time control
o 𝑇 constant
o 𝑇 varies
2. Constant OFF-time control
o 𝑇 constant
o 𝑇 varies

Working
Changing the switching frequency changes the average output voltage.

Disadvantages
 Filtering is difficult
 More ripple
 Design is more complex

Types of chopper circuits

Chopper circuits are DC-to-DC converters classified by their quadrant of operation, determining power flow and
voltage/current polarity. The five main types are: Type A (1st quadrant), Type B (2nd quadrant), Type C (1st/2nd
quadrant), Type D (1st/4th quadrant), and Type E (four-quadrant), used for applications ranging from simple step-
down conversion to regenerative braking and motor control.
The semiconductor devices are arranged appropriately in a chopper to work in any of the four quadrants. we can
classify chopper circuits according to their working in any of these four quadrants as type A, type B, type C, type
D and type E.
First Quadrant or Type A Chopper
Operation: Acts as a step-down chopper. Voltage (Va) and Current (Ia) are both positive.
Direction: Power always flows from source to load.
Components: One chopper (switch) and one freewheeling diode (FWD).
Second Quadrant or Type B Chopper
Operation: Operates in the second quadrant. The load voltage is positive, but the load current is negative (flows
from load to source).
Application: Regenerative braking.
Components: A chopper (switch) is connected across the load in parallel.
Two Quadrant Type A or Type C Chopper
Operation: Combines Type A and Type B. Voltage is always positive, but the current can be positive or negative.
Quadrants: Operates in the first and second quadrants.
Application: Forward motoring and braking.
Two Quadrant Type B or Type D Chopper
Operation: The voltage can be positive or negative, but the current is always positive.
Quadrants: Operates in the first and fourth quadrants.
Application: Reversible motoring, providing variable voltage with constant current direction.
Four Quadrant or Type E Chopper
Operation: Operates in all four quadrants (forward/reverse motoring and braking).
Components: Formed by four switches and four diodes.
Usage: Ideal for DC motor drives needing frequent reversing and regeneration.