PRINCIPLE METHODS OF SHAPING OF METALS

 CASTING

 MECHANICAL WORKING
ROLLING, EXTRUSIONS, DRAWING, FORGING

 JOINING
WELDING, RIVETTING, BOLTING

 POWDER METALLURGY

 MACHNING

1
FACTORS FOR SELECTION OF A PROCESS

 GEOMETRY

 MATERIAL

 DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY

 SURFACE FINISH

 STERENGTH

 QUALITY

 QUANTITY

2
 CASTING

Casting is a process wherein molten metal is poured into a preformed

mould of required shape and size

The process is versatile,

 Economical over a range of production

 single step and direct
 Preform for all working processes.
 Less advantageous for products of very high surface
area of volume ratio

CASTING TECHNOLOGY
 METHOD OF MANUFACTURE - PROCESS SELECTION
 CASTING DESIGN (PARTING, DRAFT, RADII, MACHINING STOCK)
 TOOL DESIGN
 GATING DESIGN (FILLING MECHANISM)
 RISERING DESIGN (FEEDING MECHANISM)
 TOOL MANUFACTURE
 PREPARATION OF MOULD
 MOULD – CORE ASSEMBLY
 MELTING
 POURING
 KNOCK - OUT & FETTLING
 TESTING & INSPECTION

3
 CASTING TECHNOLOGY
CASTING PROCESSES OPERATIONS - FLOW CHART
COMPONENT ESTIMATES & RECEIPT OF
DRAWING QUOTATION ORDER

CASTING DRG TOOL DRG. METHODS DRG. TEST SHEET

PATTERN & CORE BOX
DRAFT; M/C /DIE DESIGN; POURING & FEEDING DETAILED TEST
ALLOWANCE; CONTRACTION ALLOWANCE; SYSTEM MFG. PROCESS REQTS. AND
CORNER & AUXILLIARY TOOLS DETAILS MOULD MEDIA ACCEPTANCE
FILLET RADII; LIKE CHILLS, TEMPLATES, METAL TEMP. Etc. STANDARDS
PARTING LINE. MOULD BOXES Etc.

TOOL MFG. INCLUDING

AUXILLIARY TOOLS

SAND MIXING AND MOULD AND CORE PREPERATION

TESTIONG OR DIE PREPERATION

ASSEMBLY

CASTING FURNACES MELT AND REFINE

RECLAIMED
SAND
REJECTION
KNOCK OUT

FETTLING AND CLEANING

HEAT TREATMENT

NDT AND INSPECTION

SHIPPING

CASTING PROCESSES MAIN CLASSIFICATION

1. SAND CASTING PROCESSES.

2. NON - SAND PROCESSES OR METALLIC MOULDS.

3. PRECISION CASTING PROCESSES.

4. SPECIAL PROCESSES & DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD.

4
 CASTING PROCESSES

SAND MOULDING NON-SAND MOULDING PRECISION CASTING

PROCESS PROCESS PROCESS
Green synthetic Gavity die casting Invesment casting
Dry sand Pressure die casting Plaster mould
Oil sand Centrifugal casting Creamic moulding
CO2 process Low pressure die casting - shaw process
Nishiyama / FE-Si Counter pressure - Unicast process
Fluid sand process Die casting
Self set / No bake
Hot box process
Shell moulding
Full moulding process

SAND CASTING PROCESS

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 SAND CASTING PROCESS
a) GREEN SAND / DRY SAND PROCESS
PREPARAION OF MOULD WITH :
 SILICA SAND + BENTONITE + WATER + ACTIVATORS / ADDITIVES
(Refractory) (Binder) (Additives)

 MOULD BY HAND USING PNEMATIC RAMMERS

 MOULD BY MACHINE – JOLT/SQUEEZE – BETTER COMPACTION
 MOULD HARDNESS 80 / 90.
b) OIL SAND PROCESS
 CORE MAKING PROCESS, WATERLESS SAND SYSTEM
 SAND + LINSEED OIL + ESXTRINE
c) CO2 PROCESS
 WATERLESS MOULD – ALTERNATE TO DRY SAND PROCESS
 (DRY SAND + SODIUM SILICATE) FASS CO2 GAS 1.5 ATMOSPHERE.
 GAS CONSUMPTION 1-5% BY WEIGHT OF SAND
 K.O AGENT – SAW DUST
 BOND BY CHEMICAL REACTION
Na2 Sio3n H2O + CO2 = Na2 Sio3n H2O (Silica Jel)

MINI CORE TECHNOLOGY

Mc CANNACORE PROCESS :  HEAT RESISTANT GLASS TUBING

4 to 8 mm Dia  QUARTZ SiO2, IS BENT, COATED WITH
TUNGSTEN OXIDE WASH.

 AFTER CASTING, GLASS IS DISSOLVED

BYHYDROFLOURIC ACID.

 STEEL SPRINGS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS

TELESCOPIC SPRING-MINICORE:
 ASSEMBLED TELESCOPICALLY ON A COPPER
WIRE,

 WITH THE HELP OF FIXTURE / FORMER.

6MM DIA
VIEW „ X „

6
 MINI CORE TECHNOLOGY
AIM:
UNIQUE PROCESS FOR OBTAINING “AS-CAST”
OIL PASSAGES, AS SMALL AS 4 MM DIA AND
UPTO 12 MM DIA.

PROCESS:
TELESCOPIC ASSEMBLY OF STEEL SPRINGS OF TYPICAL MINI-CORE
REQUIRED DIA, ON A THIN COPPER WIRE.

ADVANTAGES:
ANY SHAPES & BENDS COULD BE OBTAINED AS-
CAST, MINIMISING PRESSURE DROPS DUE TO
SMOOTH SCORNERS.
ELIMINATES COMPLICATED MACHINING.

APPLICATION:
ALUMINIUM ALLOY & MAGNESIUM ALLOY
CASTINGS FOR TRANSMISSION SYSTEM. TYPICAL CASTING SHOWING
CUT SECTION ACROSS CORE

MINICORE TECHNOLOGY
1. CORED HOLE 4. SPRING CORE INCORE BOX

CORE
6MM DIA PRINT

CORE
PRINT

2. COPPERWIRE – BENDING FIXTURE

5. Steps after Casting
a) Remove Copper wire
b) Remove springs one by one
2MM DIA

3rd layer

3. SPRINGS – TELESCOPIC ASSEMBLY 1st layer

2nd layer
4th layer
1. 3mm (2.8 ID)
6MM DIA 2. 4mm (3.8 ID) ENLARGED VIEW „ X „
3. 5mm (4.8 ID)
VIEW „ X „
4. 6mm (5.8 ID)

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 MINI-CORE TECHNOLOGY

SECTION - CC

MAIN CASING CASTING - LCA

(WITH AS-CAST OIL PASSAGES)
Magnesium Alloy RZ 5

MINI-CORE TECHNOLOGY

ASSY. OF OIL PASSAGE CORE

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 METAL MOULD CASTING

 GRAVITY DIE CASTING

 PRESSSURE DIE CASTING

 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

 LOW / COUNTER PRESSURE DIE CASTING

 SQUEEZE CASTING

GDC OR PERMANENT MOULDS

 NON EXPENDABEL METAL MOULDS 2% Ni. CAST IRON, STEEL

 POUR BY GRAVITY AT DIE TEMP 150 to 200 deg c.

 LIFE 1000 TO 2000 PIECES.

 BETTER STENGTH.

 BETTER DIMENSIONS.

 BETTER GRAINS.

 LOW INCIDENCE OF GAS POROSITY.

 FASTER RATE OF PRODUCTION

 RESTRICTION OF ALLOYS / SHAPE / GEOMETRY.

 REQUIRE GOOD VENING

 INCORPORATE COOLING RIBS IN DIE (THICK SECTIONS)

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 METAL MOULD CASTING - GRAVITY

Fig-1 TWO PART PERMANENT MOULD MOUNTED ON

MOULDING MACHINE, WITH CENTRE DESIGNED
TO PULL DOWN FOR CASTING REMOVAL

TORQUE CONVERTER CASTING SEMI-GDC

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 PDC (PRESSURE DIE CASTING)
 LIQUID METAL INJECTED INTO STEEL DIE AT HIGH VELOCITY – SOLIDIFIES
UNDER PRESSURE.

 INJECTION PRESSURE 700 TO 140 ATOMS:

 LOCKING FORCE 2000 TON.
 CASTING RATE 5 – 10 PIECES / MINUTE.
 DIE MATERIAL 0.3 C; 5.0 Si; 1.3 Mo; 1.0V. HARDENED TO 420 – 460 BHN
 DIE LIFE 50,000 TO 2 LAKH PIECES
 EXCELLENT SURFACE FINISH / REPRODUCIBILITY
 EXCELLENT DIEMENSIONAL ACCUANCY 0.05MM.

 CASTABILITY 1MM (Al ALLOY).

 ALLOY RESTRICTION / SHAPE & SIZE RECTRICTION.
 PRONE TO GAS POROSITY (FINELY DISPERSED N2)-CAN BE AVOIDED BY O2
PURGING PRODUCING Al2O3 SURFACE.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS

 METAL POURED INTO A ROTATING METALLIC MOULD

 ROUND SHAPES CAST BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
 SPEED OF ROTATION (RPM)

30 Gg
N=
r
N- RPM
G - GRAVITATIONAL FACTOR 50-100
g - ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY Cms/S2
r - RADIUS IN Cms

 HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL METHOD - SELECTION

H/D = HIGH  2 HORIZONTAL

H/D = LOW  2 VERTICAL

 GOOD SURFACE GRAINS AT OUTER DIA

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 LPDC / CPDC
LPDC
 FILLING OF METAL INTO DIE CAVITY BY UPWARD DISPLACEMENT.
 PRESSURE APPLIED 0.5- 1.0 ATMOS.
 METAL FILLING FREE FROM TURBULANCE.
 CONTROLLED FILLING – RATE & CONTROLLED SOLIDIFICATION.

CPDC
 A PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL BETWEEN FURNACE CHAMBER AND DIE
CHAMBER IS CREATED 0.5-0.2 ATMOS.
 SOLIDIFICATION UNDER NEUTRALISED PRESSURE.

ADVANTAGES
 BETTER DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY
 BETTER YIELD & RATE OF PRODUCTION
 BETTER DEFINITION
 FREE FROM DEFECTS PERTAINING TO METAL TURBULANCE

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE SAND CASTING

 MODIFICATION OVER LPDC FOR SAND CASTING Mould Vacuum Pump

7
 UNIDIRECTIONAL FILLING WITH CONTROLLED 6
FILL RATE
5
 SCISSOR LIFT RISES CRUCIBLE UNTIL DELIVERY 4
TUBE IS IMMERSED IN LIQUID POOL 1. Scissor Lift
3 2. Electric Furnace
 DELIVERY TUBE ( RECYCLABLE ) - IN EACH MOULD
2 3. Standard Crucible
 MOULD FILLED WITH INERT GAS 4. Delivery Tube
5. Mould Carriage
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE APPLIED & 6. Base Plate
CONTROLLED 7. Bell Jar

 CAPABILITY
1
 SOUND & THIN WALLED ( 2 - 4 mm)
CASTINGS PRODUCTION
 BETTER YIELD

THE MEL CASTING PROCESS

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 CASTING FILL RATES

CONVENTIONAL VS DPSC

Fill Rate User‟s Choice

Fill Rate

Defined By Mould
Geometry

Weight Cast
Weight Cast

CONVENTIONAL GRAVITY POUR COUNTER GRAVITY FILLING

PROCESS COMPARISON
CONVENTIONAL PROCESS LOW PRESSURE CASTING

MOULD FILLING BY GRAVITY UPWARD DISPLACEMENT OF METAL

 TURBULANT TRANSFER  QUIESCENT TRANSFER OF METAL FROM

FURNACE TO MOULD
 FORMATION OF OXIDES  FILLING BY PROGRAMMABLE
ELECTROMAGNETIC PUMP
 NUCLEI FOR MICROPOROSITY  FLUXLESS MELTING
 USAGE OF MACHINE MOULDED SAND
MOULDS
 CONVENTIONAL FEEDERS NOT REQD
 MOULD & CORES IN ZIRCON SAND
FOR BETTER DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
(THERMAL EXPANSION OF ZIRCON SAND
AT 750 C IS <0.2% AS CAMPARED TO
SILICA SAND WHICH IS 1.0-1.5%)

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 LIQUID METAL FILLING METHODS
IN DIFFERENT PROCESS

PROCESS METHOD

All sand casting processes, By gravity

GDC, precision casting
process.

Pressure die casting high injection pressure

LPDC / CPDC Upward displacement

By small pressure
Difference.

Centrifugal casting By centrifugal force

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OBTAINED FROM VARIOUS

CASTING PROCESSES
ALLOY : Al-7Si-0.75Mg (A357)

PROCESS 0.2% PROOF TENSILE ELONGATION

STRESS (Mpa) STRENGTH %
Mpa
SAND CAST 200 225 2

CHILL CAST 248 313 7

SQUEEZE CAST 283 347 9

LPDC /DPSC 242 312 10

LPDC : Low Pressure Die Casting DPSC : Differential Pressure Sand Casting

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 INVESTMENT CASTINGS

CAPABILITY DEMONSTRATION

MATERIAL : NO RESTRICTIONS

TOLERANCE : +/-0.13 MM PER 25 MM

SURFACE FINISH : 2 TO 4 MICRONS

MIN WALL : 1.0 MM

NEAR NET SHAPED CASTING WITH

VERY LOW MACHINING

INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS

HOW IT WORKS

HE AT
AT HE

HE AT
AT HE

15
 INVESTMENT CASTING
 IS A PRECISION CASTING PROCESS.
 LIQUID METAL CAST INTO REFRACTORY SHELL.

PROCESS:
METAL DIE WAX INJECTION WAX PATTERN
ASSY OF WAX PATTERN (TREE)
INVEST (DIP IN REFRACTORY SLURRY) DRY.
STUCCO (APPLICATION OF DRY REFRACTORY PARTICLES)
REPEAT INVESTING/STUCCOING WITH DIFFERENT GRADES TO GET
SHELL OF DESIRED THICKNESS.
DEWAX FIRE SHELL CAST.

MATERIALS:
SLURRY : ZIRCON FLOUR+ETHYL SILICATE & WATER SUSPENDED IN ALCOHOL
STUCCO : MOLOCHITE

 ETHYL SILICATE PROCESS

 THE PROCESS IS BASED ON CHEMICAL REACTION;
HYDROLYSIS-FORMATION OF SILISIC ACID-UNDERGOES MAJOR
SHRINKAGE DURING EVAPORATION OF WATER & SILICA.

INVESTMENT CASTING
 MORE HYDROLYSIS-MORE SILISIC ACID-MORE STRENGTH AND VICE VERSA.
 BUT OPTIMUM STRENGTH REQUIRED.
 HENCE CONTROL IS DIFFICULT.
 SILICA SOL PROCESS:
 IS A DRYING PROCESS-COLLOIDAL PARTICLES OF SILICA SUSPENDED IN
WATER MIXED WITH ZIRCON FLOUR. PROCESS IS EASIER TO CONTROL BUT
REQUIRES GOOD AIR CIRCULATION.

ADVANTAGES OF INVESTMENT CASTINGS.

 EXCELLENT SURFACE FINISH 3-6 icrons.
 NEAR COMPONENT SIZE (VERY LESS MACHINING)
 HIGHER DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY +/- 0.13mm
 GOOD REPRODUCTION.

DISADVANTAGES
 HIGH COST OF PRODUCTION
SC : GDC : INV
 RESTRICTION IN SIZE AND GEOMETRY. 2 1 10

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 SHELL MOULDING

Mr. JOHANNES CRONING

PRODUCTION OF THIN SHELLS FOLLOWING CONTOUR OF ACCURATE
METAL PATTERN USING RESIN BONDED SAND-THERMOSETTING
PHENOL RESINS.

SUITABLE RISER, RUNNER CAN BE PROVIDED. RESIN BONDED SAND

SOFTENS AND THICKNESS DEPENDS
ON DWELL TIME

SHELL MOULDING (CONTD…)

ADVANTAGES :

 MASS PRODUCTION

 GOOD SURFACE FINISH/TOLERANCE(4-6 micron)

 HIGH DIMENSON TOLERANCE(0.3 – 0.7%)

 CAST LOW WALL THICHNESS 2MM –[Link]

 COST IS BETWEEN SAND CASTINGS AND INVESTMENT CASTING

(Not Feasible) ( Cost)

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 PLASTER MOULD PROCESS
 PLASTER OF PARIS +TALC+WATER ON METAL PATTERN.
 SETTING TIME 5 TO 10 MIN
 CURED AT 200ºC
 POUR WHEN MOULD IS HOT.

ADVANTAGES
 GOOD SURFACE FINISH.
 BETTER DEFINITION & DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY.
 BETTER CASTABILITY (UPTO 2MM OF [Link])
(INTEERICATE TURBOCHARGER CASTINGS)

DISADVANTAGES
 SLOW RATE OF COOLING COARSER GRAIN

( DUE TO HIGHER INSULATING MARGINALLY LOWER

PROPERTY OF PLASTER) MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

PLASTER MOULD PROCESS (Contd..)

INSULATING PROPERTY : 1) PLASTER

2) INVESTMENT CASTINGS
3) SAND CASTINGS
4) GDC

HOWEVER FOR BETTER RATE OF SOLIDIFICATION REVERSE IS THE ORDER

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 SPECIAL PROCESS
“V” PROCESS
 DEVELOPMENT OVER SHELL MOULDING PROCESS.

 0.05MM THICK/THIN LAYER OF PLASTIC SHEET (ETHYELENE-VINYL

ACETATE-COPOLYMER ) CURED AT 100ºC.

 SPREAD OVER METAL PATTERN HELD BY VACUUM IN A MOULD BOX.

 FILL DRY SAND-COVER PLASTIC SHEET-HOLD BY VACUUM-RELEASE

PATTERN-VACUUM-STRIP PATTERN.

ADVANTAGES
(A) GOOD SURFAC FINISH

(B) GOOD QUALITY AS NO MOISTURE INVOLVED.

(C) 100% RACLAMATION OF SAND.

SQUEEZE CASTING

 HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

GDC SQUEEZE CASTING
0.02 - 0.06 0.2 – 0.3
Cal/Cm²/Sec Cal/Cm²/Sec

 OPTIMMISATION DESIRED

: POURING TEMPERATURE
: DIE TEMPERATURE
: TIME BETWEEN POURING & APPLICATION OF PRESSURE.

 TOO HIGH POURING & DIE TEMPERATURE CAUSE

COLUMNAR GRAINS.

19
SCHEMATIC VIEW OF THE SQUEEZE CASTING PROCESS

ADVANTAGES

 VERY HIGH YIELD

 VERY HIGH DENSITY

 BETTER MECH. PROPS (GDC + 20%)

 CAN PRODUCE COMPOSITES

WITH VISCOUS FIBRES.

SQUEEZE CASTING:-
THE HEAT TRANSFER IS BY CONDUCTION WHERE AS IN OTHER
PROCESSESIT IS BY RADIATION.

CASTINGS BY DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION

AND SINGLE CRYSTAL CASTING
APPLICATION :
TURBINES BLADES IN SUPER ALLOY REQUIRING HIGH CREEP
PROPERTIES.
 CONVENTIONAL INVESTMENT CASTINGS PROVIDE EQUIAXED GRAINS.
 [Link] WILL HAVE COLUMNAR GRAINS WHICH IMPROVE CREEP.
 BY COOLING IN A UNIDIRECTIONAL MANNER AND MAINTAINING A
POSITIVE TEMP. GRADIENT ALONG THE AXIAL LENGTH.

PROCESS
 INVESTMENT CASTING SHELL ATTACHED TO A WATER COOLED COPPER
CHILL.
 ENCLOSED BY INDUCTION HEATED GRAPHITE SUSCEPTOR.
 HOLD TO ATTAIN AXIAL PROFILE TEMP.
 HOLD FOR THERMAL STABILISATION AND GROWTH OF SOLID AT CHILL
INTERFACE.
 WITHDRAW MOULD AT PREDETERMINED RATE.

20
 CASTINGS BY DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
AND SINGLE CRYSTAL CASTING (Contd..)

SINGLE CRYSTAL PROCESS: (NO GRAIN BOUNDARY)

 ADJACENT TO CHILL PLATE A MULTIPLE TURN CONSTRUCTION IS

MADE TO PERMIT A SINGLE GRAIN TO ENTER THE BODY OF THE
BLADE MOULD.

ADVANTAGES

 GREATER THERMAL FATIGUE LIFE

 GREATER RUPTURE LIFE & RUPTURE DUCTILITY.

 INCREASE IN ENGINE FUEL EFFICIENCY.

Ni BASE SUPER ALLOYS
W 12; Co 10; Cr 9; Al5; Ti 2; Nb 1;

GRAIN BOUNDARY STRENTHNERS.

C 0.15; B 0.015; Zr 0.05; Hf 2.0

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 RHEO CASTING / THIXO CASTING
 MOLTEN METAL AROUND 50 – 60% SOLID FRACTION WHEN VIGOROUSLY
AGITATED DURING SOLIDIFICATION. BEHAVE LIKE SLURRIES
HAS GREATER FLUIDITY. CAST INTO INGOTS RHEO CASTING.

 VIGOROUS ROTATION PREVENTS FORMATION OF INTERCONNECTED

DENDRITIC NET WORK.

 PRODUCES HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE OF ISOLATED SPHEROIDAL SOLID

PARTICLES SUSPENDED IN REMAINING LIQUID MATRIX.
OUTER SHELL
(ROTATE) INNER SHELL

ANNULAR SPACE

 CAST THROUGH PDC/SQUEEZE CASTING.

RHEO CASTING / THIXO CASTING (contd…)

ADVANTAGES:

1. SHRINKAGE FREE (LOW VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGES)

2. VERY LOW POURING TEMPERATURE POSSIBLE.

3. VERY LOW GAS CONTENT.

4. MOST HOMOGENEOUS.

5. CAN BE CAST WITH COMPOSITES (FIBRE).

22
 SCHEMATIC OF SPRAY FORMING PROCESS

STRUCTURE - SPRAY FORMING PROCESS

COARSE Si CUBOIDS

EUTECHIC

Al-18Si-1Cu-1Mg-1 Ni
Al-18Si-1Cu-1Mg-1 Ni
Die cast
Sand cast
100 x ( 50 m)
100 x (70 – 80 m)

NO EUTECHIC,
FINE CUBOIDS OF SILICON

Al-18Si-1Cu-1Mg-1 Ni
Spray cast
400 x ( 6 m)

23
 GATING & RISERING - PRINCIPLES

1. NON – TURBULANT METAL FLOW

2. GOOD THERMAL GRADIENT
3. SPRUE GEOMETRY TO MINIMISE VORTEX/ASPIRATION:
4. SPRUE ALWAYS FULL
5. AVOID ABRUPT CHANGES IN METAL FLOW
6. MOST EFFECTIVE RISER CAN BE ON GATE PATH.
7. OPTIMISE METAL & MOULD TEMP.
8. FEEDING CALCULATIONS
-COMPUTER SOFTWARE
-MODULUS METHOD
-[Link] 3.5 to 8.0 %

GATING AND RISERING OF CASTING

GATING SYSTEM :
System of channels including
Pouring basin, down sprue, runner and gates, by means of which
molten metal is delivered to the mould cavity.
Main Function :
I To provide continuous, uniform metal flow without causing
turbulence.
II To prevent slag, sand and other non-metallic inclusions from
entering the mould.
RISER :
 Reservoir of liquid metal available to feed the solidifying metal, to
prevent shrinkage.
 Riser shall
a. Have sufficient liquid metal.
b. Solidify last.
c. Be designed to promote directional solidification / maintain
thermal gradient.
d. Location, size and shape depends on the casting geometry
and quality requirement.

24
 GATING
GATING RATIOS:
Al. alloy 1 : 2 : 2 1 : 2 : 2.5
Mg. Alloy 1 : 4 : 4
Steel 1 : 2 : 2 1 : 2 : 1.5
Ca. base 1 : 4 : 4

SPRUE AREA
A= W W = Total weight in kgs.
0.04 t h = Sp. Gravity in gms/cc
t = Pouring time in Secs.
h = Head in Cms.
POURING TIME
t = K W
Where in t = Pouring time in Secs.
W = Total weight in kgs.
K = Constant
1.0 – 1.5 for Steel
3.0 – 3.5 for Al. alloys
5.0 – 6.0 for Mg. alloys

RISERS :
a. INSCRIBED CIRCLE METHOD OR HEUVER‟S CIRCLE METHOD
Riser Dia = 1.5 To 2.5 Dia Of Hot Spot.

 MODULUS METHOD
Volume Volume VR VC
of Riser = K of Casting =K
Surface Area Surface Area SAR SAC

Where,
K = 1.2 for Steel
= 1.3-1.4 for Al. alloy
= 1.5-1.6 for Mg. Alloy
GENERAL:
I NORMALLY ONLY 8 TO 14% OF LIQUID METAL WILL BE AVAILABLE FOR
FEEDING THE CASTING. AS THE RISER ALSO SOLIDIFIES ALONG WITH
CASTING
II BUT THE VOLUMETRIC SHRINKAGE OF MATERIAL OF CASTING SAY VARIES
FROM 5 TO 6%
II THESE VALUES ARE DECREASING W.r.t. ALLOYS IN THE ORDER STEEL – Al.
ALLOY – CU. BASE ALLOY – Mg. ALLOY

25
 SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY - CASTINGS

SOLIDIFICATION TIME (Mts)

[Link] Plotted = 0.535 [Link] Plotted = 11.208
 COMPUTERISED TOOL FOR UNDER
STANDING AND EVALUATING
SOLIDIFICATION PATTERN IN THE
CASTING GEOMETRY.

 PREDICTS MODE OF SOLIDIFICATION &

IDENTIFIES HOTSPOTS.

 PREDICTS THE ABILITY OF A PARTICULAR

RISER DESIGN IN FEEDING.

 INCREASES CHANCES OF OBTAINING THE

FIRST CASTING RIGHT FIRST TIME

COMPUTER SIMULATION OF SOLIDIFICATION TIME

THE FIGURE CLEARLY INDICATES THE LAST METAL SOLIDIFIES IN THE RISER PORTION AFTER 11
MTS, AND SHOWS THAT THE CASTING IS SOUND.

SALIENT FEATURES OF PATTERN DESIGN

1. CORRECT PARTING LINE (DECIDE COPE AND DRAG)
2. PREFARABLY SMALLER PORTION IN COPE.
3. CRITICAL SURFACES IN DRAG.
4. MINIMISE USE OF CORES – OFFSET PARTING / LOOSE PIECE.
5. SURFACE FINISH OF PATTERN EQUIPMENT.
6. PROVISION OF CRUSH PADS.
7. ROUND OFF EDGES.
8. DRAFT ANGLE.
9. PROPER SELECTION OF CORE PRINT AND SIZE.
10. PATTERN MAKERS CONTRACTION ALLOWANCE.

DEFECTS DUE TO PATTERN.

1. DIMENSIONAL.
2. SHIFT.
3. FINS / FLASHES.
4. SAND DROP DUE TO CRUSH(ON ASSEMBLY)

26
SALIENT FEATURES OF CORE AND PRINT DESIGN

CASTING DESIGN ASPECTS

27
 ALUMINUM ALLOY CASTINGS

Large, complex sand casting by rigid Aeroengine gear case casting in

mould technology meeting stringent Al-Si-Mg alloy A 356
radiographic and penetrant NDT stds.

MAGNESIUM ALLOY CASTINGS

Main Gear Box Housing of the Advanced Light Helicopter

Large surface area with wall thickness of 5 mm. As- cast
internal oil passages, 5-12 mm dia, running to a total length
of 500 mm. Casting weight : 50 kgs, Process : Rigid mould

28
 MAGNESIUM ALLOY CASTINGS

Large diameter, large surface area, Reduction gear cover casting for a
thin walled casting for missile helicopter engine with as -cast
applications internal oil passages

PRECISION & INVESTMENT CASTINGS

Precision torque converter castings Thin walled investment casting-

for aeroengine. “rope pulley”- for a commuter aircraft.

Investment casting for instrument frame

29
 MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS
Shaping of metal by mechanical means in either the hot or cold state

ROLLING DRAWING EXTRUSION FORGING

Mechanical working :

 Plastic deformation.

 Change in shape and size but not volume.

 Change in size and shape of grains.

 Change in properties.

1 Pure metals have a higher plasticity

eg:Copper, Steel with low corbon etc.

2. Fine grained cast metal has better plasticity than that of coarse
grained dendritic one.

3. Ductility of the metal increases with temperature and resistance

to deformation is reduced.

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ROLLING :
Shaping of metals by passage of rolls rotating in opposite directions.

Length of strip is increased in rolling is proportional to the reduction

in cross sectional are. (therefore No volume change)

DRAWING :
Process in which wire, bar stock or tubing is tension drawn through a
hole of a special tool (die)
A: Lubricating
B: Deforming
C: Sizing
D: Outlet
Die material : Cemented carbides or Black diamonds or Tool Steel.
Draw bench pulling capacity : 1 – 150 Tons
Rate : 130 m/minute

EXTRUSION :
 Process of forcing metal enclosed in a container through the
opening of a die cross section

 The metal is subjected to plastic deformation in the course of

extrusion.

a) Direct extrusion b) Indirect extrusion

1. Billet
2. Container
3. Die Holder
4. Die
BILLET WASTAGE 18-20% BILLET WASTAGE 5-6% 5. Ram

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 CLOSED DIE FORGINGS :
HAMMER FORGINGS
Shape of the component depends on the preformed dies, in two
mating halves.
Depending on shape, the operation consists of single or multiple
impressions either in the same die or separate dies

MULTIPLE IMPRESSION DIE – SEQUENCE:

PRINCIPLE OPERATION IN SMITH FORGING :

I) Upsetting : Cross sectional area increased, Height
reduced. Uniform property in all direction.

II) Drawing down : Length increased by reduction in

cross sectional area.

III) Fulling or Spreading : Spreading along the length

„O‟ the billet.

IV) Piercing : Blind holes with punch „P‟

V) Expanding : Expand on diameter with the help of

mandrel, reduces thickness and increases dia.

VI) Drawing down : Length of the ring increased by

reduction in wall thickness.

VII) Offsetting : Complicated forging operation.

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 HOT WORKING
ADVANTAGES :

1. REDUCTION OF ENERGY REQUIRED TO DEFORM.

2. INCREASED ABILITY TO FLOW WITHOUT RUPTURE.

3. REDUCTION OF CHEMICAL INHOMOGENEITIES DUE TO HIGHER DIFFUSION

RATES.

4. BLOW HOLES AND POROSITY OF CAST METAL GET WELDED.

5. INCREASED DUCTILITY AND TOUGHNESS OVER CAST STATE DUE TO

CHANGE IN GRAIN STRUCTURE.

HOT WORKING

DISADVANTAGES :

1. SURFACE REACTION BETWEEN METAL AND FURNACE RESULTS IN

- OXIDATION AND LOSS OF METAL.

- INERT ATMOSPHERE BEING NECESSITATED FOR HIGHLY REACTIVE

METALS LIKE Mo..

- SURFACE DECARBURISATION IN STEEL.

- BAD SURFACE FINISH.

2. DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES ARE GREATER SINCE EXPANSION AND

CONTRACTION OCCUR.

3. NON UNIFORM STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OVER THE CROSS SECTION.

BECAUSE OF NON UNIFORM DEFORMATION.

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 COLD FORGING
AIM: TO MASS PRODUCE END ISE COMPONENTS.

PROCESS:
FORGING OF MATERIALS, WITH INTER STAGE ANNEALING IF
NECESSARY, BELOW THEIR RECRYSTALLISATION
TEMPERATURES, INTO USEFUL SHAPES WITH LEAST OR NIT
MACHINING.

FEATURES:
 VERY LOW PROCESSING TEMPERATURES WITH ATTENDANT
SAVINGS.
 SUITABLE ONLY FOR MATERIALS WHICH ARE AMENABLE TO
COLD FORGING.
 NEAR NET SHAPE MANUFACTURE.
 LARGE CAPACITY EQUIPMENTS.
 PRECISE AND EXPENSIVE TOOLING.

BENEFITS:
 EXCELLENT SURFACE FINISH.
 SUITALE FOR MASS PRODUCTION.
 VERY LITTLE POST PROCESS MACHINING.
 PRODUCTS WITH HIGH METALLURGICAL AND
DIMENSIONAL INTEGRITY.

ISOTHERMAL FORGING

 TITANIUM AND NICKEL BASE ALLOYS ARE STRAIN RATE

SENSITIVE.

 REQUIRES UNIFORM BUT HIGHER DEFORMATION RATE.

 DEFORMATION RATE 1/ PRESSURE

 HENCE FORGING OPERATION SHALL BE AT LOW SPEED

BUT WITHOUT ALLOWING FOR DROP IN STOCK
TEMPERATURE.

 FORGINGS CARRIED OUT WHEREIN DIE TEMPERATURE

AND FORGING TEMPERATURE ARE EQUAL.

 IN-SITU HEATING FACILITY

 CAST SUPER ALOY TOOLS (IN 100) TO RETAIN

DIMENSIONAL INTEGRETY AT FORGING TEMP.

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 GENERAL FORGINGS

Main rotor housing forging

of a helicopter in Ti- alloy

Close Die landing gear forgings Control lever forging for

in Al - alloy for a combat aircraft a helicopter in Al- alloy

GENERAL FORGING EQUIPMENT

Hot upsetting operation of aluminium

alloy billet in 3000 THP

3000 T hydraulic press

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 PRECISION FORGINGS

Assortment of precision forged

net shape aeroengine blades

A view of 2000 Ton capacity screw

press used for precision forging

CAD / CAM FOR TOOLING

AIM:
TOMASTER THE ;ATEST TECHNIQUES IN DESIGNING &
MANUFACTURING OF PRODUCTS & TOOLS USING
ADVANCED SOFTWARES.

PROCESS:
2d DRAFTING, 3D MODELLING AND CNC MACHINING
OF TOOLS & PRODUCTS.

FEATURES:
 VISUALISATION AT DESIGN STAGE
 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE MADE EASIER
 OPTIMAL DESIGN TO UTILISE MINIMAL MATERIAL
 SIMULATION FEATURES TO FORESEE AND
ELIMINATE PROBLEMS

BENEFITS:
 REDUCES LEAD TIME & COST
 IMPROVES CONSISTENCY

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METHODS OF RING MANUFACTURING
1. WELDED RINGS

FLASH BUTT WELDED RINGS

ROLL BENDING & WELDING

2. GAS CUTTING & MACHINING

3. CASTING

4. MANDREL FORGING

5. RING ROLLING

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 MANDREL FORGING PROCESS
EQUIPMENT : POWER HAMMER

TOOLING : SADDLE & MANDREL

PROCESS : INCREMENTAL HAMMER FORGING ALONG

THE PERIMETER OF THE RING BLANK.

CONTROL : SKILL OF THE FORGEMAN.

LIMITATIONS : 1) POOR DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY

2) POOR YIELD/HIGH INPUT MATERIAL

3) MULTIPLE HEATS

4) NON UNIFORM METAL WORKING &

METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES.

5) MORE PROOF MACHINING ALLOWANCES

6) LIMITATION OF WEIGHT & SIZE

RAM
MANDREL
RING BLANK

SADDLE

MANDREL FORGING

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 RING ROLLONG PROCESS SEQUENCE

RING ROLLING PROCESS

EQUIPMENT : SPECIAL PURPOSE RING ROLLING MACHINE

TOOLING : 1) STANDARD MANDRELS FOR PLAIN RINGS

2) PROFILE MANDREL &/OR PROFILE MAIN ROLL FOR

PROFILE ROLLED RING

PROCESS : CONTINUOUS SQUEEZING ALONG THE PERIMETER OF

THE RING BLANK (SIMULTANEOUSLY RADIAL &AXIAL)

LIMITATIONS : 1) HIGH CAPITAL INVESTMENT

2) REQUIREMENT OF TRAINED TECHNICIANS FOR

OPERATION & MAINTENANCE

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 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A RADIAL-AXIAL RING
ROLLING MACHINE
FIGURE ILLUSTRATES THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RING MANUFACTURING ON A
RADIAL-AXIAL MACHINE. THE RING IS SIMULTANEOUSLY FORMED IN BOTH
THE RADIAL ROLL GAP(MAIN ROLL AND MANDREL) AND THE AXIL ROLL GAP
(UPPER AND LOWER TAPERED ROLLS).

TYPICAL RING CROSS SECTIONS

1. NORMAL

2. SLEEVE TYPE

3. WASHER TYPE

4. PROFILE

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 ADVANTAGES OF RING ROLLING
1. EXCELLENT DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY

2. GOOD MATERIAL YIELD/LOW INPUT MATERIAL

3. MINIMUM HEATS FOR PROCESSING

4. UNIFORM METAL WORKING & METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES

5. LESSER PROOF MACHINING ALLOWANCE

6. ABSENCE OF SEAM - UNIFORM PROPERTIES

7. FASTER PRODUCTION

8. POSSIBILITY OF PROFILE ROLLING

9. PROCESSING OF DIFFICULT TO FORGE MATERIAL

(Ni-BASE SUPERALLOYS; Ti-ALLOYS)
10. AUTOMATION

APPLICATIONS OF RINGS
1. AERONAUTICS: DROP TANK STRUCTURAL PARTS
AERO ENGINES : - COOLING RINGS
- FLANGES
- SPACER RINGS

2. AEROSPACE : LAUNCH VEHICAL STRUCTURAL PARTS

SATELLITE STRUCTURAL / FUEL TANK PARTS
TOOLOIN FOR ASSEMBLY JIGS.

3. DEFENCE : MISSILE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS, BULKHEADS

BATTLE TANK TURRET RACE RINGS.
BATTLE TANK OTHER RACE RINGS, RIMS Etc.

4. HEAVY ENGG. : EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT PARTS

ELECTRICAL TURBINE PARTS.
BULKHEADS, FLANGES & STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS.
PRESSURE VESSEL PARTS.
HEAT EXCHANGER STRUCTURAL FLANGES.
PETROCHEMICAL STRUCTURAL FLANGES.
OIL & GAS PIPELINE FLANGES.

5. RAILWAYS : WHEEL TYRES

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 RING ROLLING MILL

THE RING ROLLING MACHINE IN OPERATION

SEAMLESS ROLLED RINGS

A 2.5 m diameter profiled rolled ring Assortment of rolled rings

in high strength aluminium alloy for
aerospace application.

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