Sub: Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems; Sem: I/I Prepared by: Dr. CRM, Dr.

r. YKV, SINDHU K S, MANASA H M

MODULE-4
Sensors and Corrosion Science

Sensors: Introduction, terminologies-Transducer, Actuators and Sensors. Conductometric sensor-

principle, construction and its application in the estimation of acid mixture. Colorimetric sensor-
principle, instrumentation and its application in the estimation of copper in PCB. Electrochemical
gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in the detection of NOx and SOx in air
sample. Biosensor-principle, construction and working for the detection of glucose in biofluids.

Corrosion: Introduction, electrochemical theory of corrosion, types of corrosion-differential metal

and differential aeration corrosion-waterline and pitting corrosion. Corrosion control-galvanization
and anodization. Vapour corrosion inhibitors for protecting computer circuit boards, corrosion
penetration rate (CPR)-definition and numerical problems.

Introduction:
A sensor is a device that measures or detects a physical or chemical quantity such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, ion concentration, light, sound, or motion. The sensor converts this quantity into
an electrical signal that can be processed by computers or electronic systems.

Sensor: Sensors are electronic or electrochemical devices that detect and measure physical or
chemical phenomena and convert them into electrical signals.

Examples:

o pH Sensor (glass electrode): Detects H⁺ ion concentration in solutions.

o Conductivity Sensor: Measures the ionic conductivity of an electrolyte.

o Gas Sensor: Detects CO₂, H₂S, or O₂ levels in chemical or environmental systems.

Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical physical or chemical quantity

into an electrical signal.

Examples in Chemistry:

o Electrochemical Oxygen Sensor: Converts dissolved oxygen concentration into an

electrical current.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that receives an electrical signal and produces a physical or
chemical action. It is often used for control in experiments.

• Examples in Chemistry/Electrochemistry:

o Electrolysis Cell: Converts electrical current into chemical products (H₂ and O₂
gases).

Receptor: it is a chemical element which is capable of interacting with analyte specifically and
selectively. It produces signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in potential,
conductivity heat, pH etc.

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Electrochemical sensor:
An electrochemical sensor is a device that detects chemical substances by converting their
concentration into an electrical signal through redox reactions. It typically consists of a working,
reference, and counter electrode immersed in an electrolyte. The measured signal (current, voltage,
or conductivity) corresponds to the analyte concentration. Based on the detection principle, they are
classified as potentiometric, amperometric, or conductometric sensors. They offer high sensitivity,
selectivity, and fast response.

Examples: pH electrodes, glucose sensors, and oxygen sensors. Applications: environmental

monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, food quality control, and industrial process monitoring.

Conductometric Sensors: Principle, Construction, and Application in Acid

Mixture Estimation
Principle
Conductometric sensors are electrochemical devices that measure the electrical conductivity of a
solution, which depends on ion concentration and mobility. During titration, conductivity changes as
ions are consumed or replaced. In acid mixture estimation, the neutralization of a strong acid (HCl)
and a weak acid (CH₃COOH) with a strong base (NaOH) produces characteristic conductivity
changes, allowing their individual quantification.

Construction

The electrode system is a conductivity cell, made up of two platinum foils of unit cross-sectional
area separated by unit distance. The volume between electrodes = 1 cm³. Conductance of unit
volume is called specific conductance (κ) and is given by:

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κ = (1/R) × (l/a)
where R = resistance, and l/a = cell constant.
An alternating current (AC) source is used to prevent polarization, and the output is measured by a
conductometer.

Working:

When a potential difference is applied, an electric field is generated in the electrolyte. Cations
migrate toward the cathode, and anions toward the anode. At electrodes, ions are neutralized or
deposited, producing a chemical change, which is sensed and converted to an electrical signal by the
transducer.

Estimation of Acid Mixture

Example: Mixture of HCl and CH₃COOH titrated with NaOH

• Initially, high conductance due to free H⁺ ions from HCl.

• As NaOH is added, H⁺ ions are neutralized, conductance decreases sharply due to Highly
mobile H⁺ ions are replaced by less mobile Na⁺ ions,

HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O

• After HCl is neutralized, acetic acid starts neutralizing; conductance decreases more slowly
due to partial dissociation.

CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

• After all acids are neutralized, excess OH⁻ ions increase conductance sharply.

Colorimetric sensor-principle, instrumentation and its application in the

estimation of copper in PCB.
Principle of Colorimetric Sensor:

• Optical sensors work on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation (UV, visible, or IR) with
a chemical species. Interaction can result in absorption, emission, scattering, or reflection of
light. The intensity of light after interaction provides information about the analyte
concentration. The intensity of the blue color is proportional to the copper concentration.
Measurement is performed at ~620 nm using absorbance, following Beer-Lambert Law:

𝑨 = 𝜺𝒍𝒄
Where:
A = absorbance, ε = molar absorptivity, l = path length, c = analyte concentration

For copper estimation in PCB using ammonia:

The key components are:

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1. Light Source: Provides monochromatic or filtered light at the wavelength absorbed by the
copper-ammonia complex (~620 nm). Examples: LED, tungsten lamp.

2. Filters / Monochromator: Selects the desired wavelength.

3. Sample Holder / Cuvette: Holds the solution of the copper-ammonia complex.

4. Photocell / Detector: Converts transmitted or absorbed light into an electrical signal.

5. Signal Processor / Display: Records and displays the signal as absorbance or concentration.

Working:

Monochromatic light passes through the analyte solution. Part of the light is absorbed by the
deep blue colored complex. Absorbance depends on concentration and path length.
Detector converts light intensity into electrical signal → displayed as concentration.

Estimation of Copper in PCB Using Ammonia Complex:

Draw out 5,10,15 & 20 Cm3 of given copper sulphate solution into four separate 50 cm3
standard flasks. Add 5 cm3 of NH3 to each one of them and also into the test and blank
solution, dilute up to the mark with distilled water and mix well. Measure the absorbance of
each of these against blank solution (only ammonia and water) at 620 nm. Plot a graph of
absorbance (OD) (ordinate) against concentration of copper (abscissa) and determine the
concentration of copper in the e-waste solution.

• Copper ions (Cu²⁺) react with ammonia (NH₃) to form a deep blue complex:

Cu2+ + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3 )4 ]2+

.
Electrochemical Gas Sensors:

Electrochemical gas sensors are devices that detect specific gases by chemically reacting with the
target gas and converting this reaction into an electrical signal. They are widely used in
environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and automotive emission testing.

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Electrochemical gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in the

detection of NOx and in air sample
Principle of Operation

The sensor works on the oxidation or reduction of the target gas at an electrode, which produces a
current proportional to the gas concentration.

• The target gas diffuses through a gas-permeable membrane into the sensor.
• It reacts at the working electrode in the presence of an electrolyte, producing electrons.
• The measured current is directly proportional to the gas concentration in air.
For NOx (NO and NO₂) detection, the reactions are:

1. Oxidation of NO at the working electrode:

2𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝑒 −
2. Reduction of NO₂ (in some sensor types):
𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂2−

These electron transfers generate a current that can be calibrated to determine the NOx
concentration in the air sample.

Construction of the Sensor

• Working Electrode (WE): Metal oxide-coated electrode where NOx reduction occurs.
• Reference Electrode (RE): Usually gold; maintains stable potential.
• Counter Electrode (CE): Completes the circuit.
• Electrolyte: Liquid or solid medium that facilitates ion transport between electrodes.
• Gas-permeable Membrane: Controls diffusion of NOx gas and prevents electrolyte leakage.
• Housing: Encases the sensor and provides electrical connections.
Working

NOx gas diffuses through the membrane to the working electrode. At the metal oxide-coated
working electrode, NOx is reduced to NO, producing a flow of electrons. The current
generated flows through the circuit and is measured to determine the NOx concentration.

Applications

• Environmental monitoring: Air quality measurement in urban and industrial areas.

• Automotive emission control: Detecting NOx in exhaust gases.
• Industrial safety: Monitoring NOx levels in workplaces to prevent health hazards.
Advantages:

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• Real-time NOx detection

• High sensitivity and selectivity
• Compact, low-power operation suitable for continuous monitoring
Principle
Electrochemical gas sensors work on the principle of redox reactions occurring at the electrode–
electrolyte interface. When a target gas (e.g., SO₂) diffuses into the sensor, it undergoes oxidation or
reduction at the working electrode. This reaction generates a current proportional to the gas
concentration, which can be measured and correlated with its amount in the air sample.

SOx Electrochemical gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in

the detection of NOx and in air sample
Construction
An electrochemical gas sensor typically consists of:

• Working electrode (WE): coated with a catalyst where the analyte gas undergoes
oxidation/reduction.
• Counter electrode (CE): balances the current by completing the circuit.
• Reference electrode (RE): maintains a stable potential for accurate measurement.
• Electrolyte: ionic medium that facilitates charge transfer (commonly acidic or alkaline
solution).
• Gas diffusion membrane allows controlled diffusion of the gas into the sensor, preventing
interference.
• Housing: protects the components and ensures selective entry of the gas.

Application in SOx Detection (e.g., SO₂ in Air Samples)

• Detection principle:
o At the working electrode, SO₂ undergoes oxidation:
SO₂ + 2H₂O → SO₄²⁻ + 4H⁺ + 2e⁻

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o At the counter electrode, oxygen reduction occurs to complete the electrochemical circuit:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2O

o The generated electrons produce a measurable current proportional to SO₂

concentration.

• Practical use:
o Widely employed in air quality monitoring stations to measure SO₂ levels in urban
and industrial environments.
o Used in occupational safety to detect SO₂ in confined spaces (factories, smelters,
refineries).
o Incorporated in portable detectors for environmental and health monitorin

Glucose Biosensor: Principle, Construction and Working

Principle:

Glucose biosensors are analytical devices that measure glucose concentration in biofluids such as
blood, urine, and saliva. They function by combining a biological recognition element with a
transducer to generate an electrical signal proportional to glucose concentration.

Construction:

• Biorecognition layer: Contains immobilized glucose oxidase enzyme, fixed using cross-
linking agents (e.g., glutaraldehyde) or entrapped in polymeric matrices such as Nafion.

• Transducer element: A modified electrode made from materials like graphite rod, glassy
carbon, or gold nanostructures, which converts the biochemical reaction into an electrical
signal.

• Nanomaterial modifications: Incorporation of carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles, or

Prussian blue to enhance electron transfer and provide larger surface area for enzyme
attachment.

• Protective membrane: Covers the sensor to prevent enzyme leaching while permitting
glucose diffusion toward the enzyme layer.

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Working:
• The operation of a first-generation glucose biosensor involves the following steps:

• A small volume of biofluid (such as blood or urine) is introduced onto the biosensor surface.

• Glucose molecules in the sample are specifically oxidized by the enzyme glucose oxidase
(GOx). During this step, the coenzyme flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) present in GOx is
reduced:
Glucose + GOx(FAD) → Gluconic acid + GOx(FADH𝟐 )

• The reduced enzyme GOx(FADH₂) is then re-oxidized by molecular oxygen, producing

hydrogen peroxide:
GOx(FADH𝟐 ) + 𝑶𝟐 → GOx(FAD) + H𝟐 𝑶𝟐

• At the working electrode, the hydrogen peroxide undergoes electrochemical oxidation,

releasing protons and electrons:
𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝑯+ + 𝟐𝒆−

• The released electrons generate a measurable current, which is directly proportional to the
glucose concentration in the original sample.

Corrosion:
Introduction: Corrosion is a process of destruction or deterioration of metal by the environment
through chemical or electrochemical reactions.

Most of the metals and alloys undergo corrosion except the noble metals. Corrosion is like

“Cancer” for the metals.

Eg: Rusting of Iron- it is due to formation of hydrated ferric oxide.

Types of corrosion:

1. Dry Corrosion: Corrosion taking place in the absence of moisture that is direct
chemical reaction taking place between metal and dry gases.
2. Wet Corrosion: Corrosion taking place in the presence of moisture or aqueous wet
environment.

Electrochemical Theory of Corrosion:

• Corrosion occurs due to the formation of anodic and cathodic regions on the same or
different metals in a conducting medium.

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• At the anode, oxidation takes place, and the metal corrodes into ions by releasing
electrons.

• At the cathode, reduction occurs by consuming the liberated electrons, keeping the
cathodic region protected.

• Corrosion continues as long as anodic and cathodic reactions proceed simultaneously,

influenced by impurities and oxygen concentration differences.

At the Anodic Region:

Iron liberates Fe²⁺ ions and electrons at the anodic region:
Fe → Fe²⁺ + 2e⁻

At the Cathodic Region:

Chemical species in the cathode's surroundings undergo reduction by accepting electrons from the
anodic region through the metal. Depending on the surrounding medium, four possible reduction
reactions occur at the cathodic region:

1) Hydrogen Liberation (Absence of Oxygen):

(a) In acidic medium without oxygen:
2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H₂↑

(b) In neutral or alkaline medium without oxygen, hydroxide ions form with simultaneous
hydrogen liberation:
2H₂O + 2e⁻ → 2OH⁻ + H₂↑

2) Oxygen Absorption (Presence of Oxygen):

(a) In acidic medium with oxygen:
2H⁺ + ½O₂ + 2e⁻ → H₂O

(b) In neutral or alkaline medium with oxygen, hydroxide ions form:

H₂O + ½O₂ + 2e⁻ → 2OH⁻

Formation of Rust:

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Corrosion of iron produces Fe²⁺ ions at the anode and OH⁻ ions at the cathode. These ions diffuse
toward each other to produce insoluble ferrous hydroxide:
Fe²⁺ + 2OH⁻ → Fe(OH)₂

In an oxidizing environment, ferrous hydroxide oxidizes to ferric oxide, forming yellow rust
(hydrated ferric oxide):
4Fe(OH)₂ + O₂ + 2H₂O → 2[Fe₂O₃·3H₂O] (Brown rust)

Types of corrosion

Differential Metal Corrosion (galvanic corrosion):

Differential metal corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other and are
exposed to corrosive environment. The two metals differ in their electrode potential. The metal with
lower electrode potential acts as anode, the metal with higher electrode potential acts as cathode. The
potential difference between two metals is a driving force for corrosion. Here anode undergoes
corrosion.
Eg: When iron is in contact with copper.

Fe has lower electrode potential when compared to copper. Hence iron undergoes oxidation and get
corroded.
at anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e−
1
at cathode: H2 O+ 2 O2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2 ↓ (insoluble & unstable)
1
2Fe(OH)2 +H2 O+ 2 O2 → Fe2 O3 .3H2 O (Rust)

Other examples:
1. Steel screws in copper sheet
2. Steel screws with copper washer
3. Nut and bolts are made of different metals.

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Differential aeration corrosion:

Differential aeration corrosion occurs when a metal surface is exposed to different

oxygen concentration. Part of metal exposed to higher oxygen concentration acts as
cathode and metal exposed to lower oxygen concentration acts as anode. The anodic
region undergoes oxidation and gets corroded.

Eg: When iron rod partially dipped in

water.

at anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e−

1
at cathode: H2 O+ 2 O2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2 ↓ (insoluble & unstable)
1
2Fe(OH)2 +H2 O+ 2 O2 → Fe2 O3 .3H2 O (Rust)
Other examples:

a) Part of nail inside the wall undergoes corrosion.

b) Partially buried pipeline in soil undergoes corrosion.
c) Partially filled iron tank undergoes corrosion inside water.

This differential aeration corrosion is divided into two types

Water line corrosion:

Eg: Water storage

tank Poor/Less more
oxygenated oxygenated
Area (anode) area
(cathode)

When a steel/Iron tank is partially filled with water for a long time, the inner portion of
the tank below the water line is exposed only to dissolved oxygen whereas the portion
above waterline is exposed to more oxygen. Thus, the portion below the water acts as
anode and undergoes corrosion. The upper portion acts as cathode and it is unaffected.

at anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e−

1
at cathode: H2 O+ 2 O2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2 ↓ (insoluble & unstable)

1
2Fe(OH)2 +H2 O+ 2 O2 → Fe2 O3 .3H2 O (Rust)

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Pitting Corrosion:

When a dust particle settles on an iron surface, the area beneath experiences reduced aeration, acting
as the anode, while the exposed surface acts as the cathode. Corrosion initiates under the dust
particle, leading to the formation of deep cavities or pits. Inside the pit, oxygen is depleted, and metal
cations accumulate, creating a highly aggressive local environment that accelerates metal dissolution.
The anodic
reaction occurs within the pit.
at anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e−
1
at cathode: H2 O+ 2 O2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −

overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH− → Fe(OH)2 ↓ (insoluble & unstable)

1
2Fe(OH)2 +H2 O+ 2 O2 → Fe2 O3 .3H2 O (Rust)

preventing the formation of galvanic cells.

Protective Coatings: Application of protective coating is one of the important

methods of corrosion control. The protective coating protects the metal from corrosion
by acting as a barrier between the metal and the corrosion environment. The principle
types of coatings applied on the metal surface are

a) Metal coating b) Inorganic coating c) Organic coating

a) Metal coating: The process of covering base metal with a layer of protective
metal isknown as metal coating. They are divided into two types,

i) Anodic coatings: It is produced by coating a metal surface with more active

metalswhich acts as anodic to base metal.

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Corrosion Control: Corrosion can be controlled by protecting the surface of the metal or by
preventing the formation of galvanic cells.

Protective Coatings: Application of protective coating is one of the important methods of

corrosion control. The protective coating protects the metal from corrosion by acting as a
barrier between the metal and the corrosion environment. The principle types of coatings
applied on the metal surface are

a) Metal coating b) Inorganic coating c) Organic coating

b) Metal coating: The process of covering base metal with a layer of protective metal
isknown as metal coating. They are divided into two types,

i) Anodic coatings: It is produced by coating a metal surface with more active

metalswhich acts as anodic to base metal.

Eg: Galvanization of Iron

Galvanization is a process of coating base metal like iron or its alloy surface with anodic and
active Zn metal. One of the important characteristics of anodic coating is even if coating is
ruptured, base metal does not undergo corrosion because base metal exposed to environment
will be cathodic in nature with respect to coating metal.

Galvanization process involves following steps:

▪ Metal surface is washed with organic solvents to remove organic matter.

▪ Rust and other deposits removed by washing with hot dil. H2SO4 is called
picklingprocess.
▪ Then it is well washed with water.
▪ It is air dried by-passing hot air.
▪ Then it is dipped in molten zinc, maintained at 430-4500C and covered with flux of
ammonium chloride and zinc chloride to increase adhesion property.
▪ Excess of zinc on surface is removed by passing a pair of hot rollers, which removes excess
of zinc and produces thin coating.

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Application: Galvanized materials are used in fencing wire, buckets, bolts, nuts, nails, screw
etc.

Inorganic coating: It is chemical conversion coating where metal surface is converted to a

compound by chemical or electrochemical process which forms barrier. There are two
types

Anodizing (Anodizing of aluminium

It is a electrochemical process which forms protective passive (non-reactive) oxide film on metal
surface. Here aluminium metal is made as anode in a suitable oxidizing electrolyte like sulphuric acid,
chromic acid, oxalic acid bath at a temperature of 30 - 400 C and moderate current density. A thin film
of Al2O3is deposited on surface, this acts as protective layer preventing the corrosion. This film tends to
be porous and provides good adherence for paint and dyes.

At anode: 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 6H+ + 6e− (Oxidation)

At cathode: 6H+ + 6e− → 3H2𝗍

Overall reaction: 2𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3 + 3𝐻2O

Uses: It is used as soap boxes, tiffin boxes, window frames etc. Anodic films are also used for
number of cosmetic effects.

Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs) for Protecting Computer Circuit Boards

• Concept of VCIs:
Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors are chemical compounds such as Carboxylates (e.g., benzoates,

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sebacates) – effective for steel and copper. that slowly vaporize and release protective molecules
into the surrounding atmosphere.

• Adsorption on Metal Surfaces:

The vaporized inhibitor molecules travel through the air and adsorb onto the exposed metal
surfaces of the circuit board, such as copper tracks, connectors, and solder joints.

• Formation of Protective Film:

Once adsorbed, the molecules form a thin, invisible, and stable protective film. This layer
prevents corrosive agents like moisture, oxygen, and acidic contaminants from reacting with the
metal.

• Neutralization of Aggressive Species:

VCIs can neutralize or block the action of corrosive ions (e.g., chlorides or sulfates) present in
the environment, reducing the electrochemical reactions that cause corrosion.

• Self-Replenishing Mechanism:
If the protective film is disturbed or partially removed, nearby vapor molecules continuously
replenish the coating, ensuring long-term protection.

• Advantages for Circuit Boards:

Non-conductive and safe for electronic components.

Protects even in enclosed spaces without direct application.

Extends the service life of circuit boards stored or operated in humid or polluted environments

Corrosion penetration rate (CPR)/ corrosion rate:

Corrosion penetration rate is defined in three ways

 The speed at which any metal in a specific environment deteriorates due to

chemicalreaction in the metal when it is exposed to a corrosive environment.
 The amount of corrosion loss per year in thickness.
 The speed at which corrosion spreads to the inner portions of a material.
The speed or rate of deterioration depends on the environment conditions and the type of
metal under study. The equation for CPR (Corrosion Penetration Rate) is:

𝑲𝑾
𝑪𝑷𝑹 =
𝝆𝑨𝒕

Where:

• CPR = Corrosion Penetration Rate (measured in miles per year, mpy)

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o 1 mpy = 0.001 inch per year

• K = A constant
• W = Total weight loss due to exposure to a corrosive environment
• ρ = Density of the material
• A = Surface area of the exposed metal
• t = Time taken for the loss of metal (exposure time)
CPR mpy mmpy

K 534 87.6

W mg mg

𝜌 g/cm3 g/cm3

A In2 cm2

T hrs hrs

Conversions:
1 Gram = 1000 Milligram or 103
1 Kg = 1000000 Milligram or 106
1 Day = 24 Hours
1 Month = 30 days = 30 * 24 Hours
1 Year = 1 * 365 * 24 Hours
1 Square Centimeter = 0.155 square inch
1 square inch = 6.4516 sq cm
1. A thickness of brass sheet of area 400 inch2 is exposed to air near the ocean. After two years
period it was found to experience a weight loss of 375g due to corrosion. If the density of Brass
is 8.73 g/cm3. Calculate the CPR in mm/year mpy.
Solution:

• Given Area 𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 in𝟐

• Weight loss 𝑾 = 𝟑𝟕𝟓 g = 𝟑𝟕𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 mg
• Density of Brass 𝝆 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟑 g/cm𝟑
• Time 𝒕 = 𝟐 years = 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟔𝟓 × 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟕, 𝟓𝟐𝟎 hours

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Formula:
𝑲⋅𝑾
PR =
𝝆⋅𝑨⋅𝒕

CPR in mpy:

𝐾 = 534 534 × 375000

CPRmpy =
𝑊 = 375,000 mg 8.73 × 400 × 17520
𝜌 = 8.73 g/cm3
𝐴 = 400 in2
𝑡 = 17,520 hrs 200250000
CPRmpy = ≈ 3.27 mpy
61186560
CPR in mm/year (mmpy)

𝐾 = 87.6 87.6 × 375000

Convert area from in² to cm²: CPRmmpy =
8.73 × 2580.64 × 17520
𝐴 = 400 in2 = 400 × 6.4516 = 2580.64 cm2
𝑊 = 375,000 mg, 32850000
𝜌 = 8.73 g/cm3 , = ≈ 0.0833 mm/year
394248859.4
𝑡 = 17,520 hrs

2. A metal iron plate was found in a vessel containing acidic media, it was estimated that the
original area was 20 inch2 that approximately 1.2 kg had corroded. Assuming a corrosion
penetration rate of 400mpy for this iron in acidic, calculate time in years, density of iron 7.87g/
cm3.
Given:

Area (A) = 20 in² 𝐾⋅𝑊

CPR =
Weight loss (W) = 1.2 kg = 1,200,000 mg 𝜌⋅𝐴⋅𝑡
CPR = 400 mpy Solve for time 𝑡:
𝐾⋅𝑊
Density of iron (ρ) = 7.87 g/cm³ 𝑡=
𝜌 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ CPR
K (for mpy) = 534
We are solving for time (t in hours), then 534⋅1,200,000 640,800,000
𝑡= = ≈ 10,175.2 hours
convert to years 7.87⋅20⋅400 62,960

Convert hours to years:

10,175.2 10,175.2
Years = = ≈ 1.16 years
24 ⋅ 365 8760

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 Sub: Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems; Sem: I/I Prepared by: Dr. CRM, Dr. YKV, SINDHU K S, MANASA H M

3. A thick steel sheet of area 400 inch² is exposed to moist air. After 2 years of exposure, it was
found to experience a weight loss of 375 g due to corrosion. If the density of steel is 7.9 g/cm³,
calculate CPR in mpy and mmpy.

where:
𝐾 is a constant (534 for mpy, 87.6 for mmpy)
Weight loss: 375 g = 375,000 mg
Area: 400 in2 = 400 × 6.4516 = 2,580.64 cm2
Time: 2 years = 2 × 365 × 24 = 17,520 hours
Density: 7.9 g/cm3

Calculate CPR in mpy

534 × 375,000 200,250,000

CPRmpy = = = 3.62 mpy
7.9 × 400 × 17,520 55,286,400

Calculate CPR in mmpy

87.6 × 375,000 32,850,000

CPRmmpy = = = 0.092 mmpy
7.9 × 2,580.64 × 17,520 357,646,755.2

4. A steel plate with a surface area of 450 cm² is exposed to air in a coastal environment. After one
year, the plate shows a weight loss of 385 grams due to corrosion. Given that the density of
steel is 7.9 g/cm³, calculate the corrosion rate in both mils per year (mpy) and millimeters per
year (mmpy). Use k = 534 for mpy and k = 87.6 for mmpy in your calculations.

Given Data
Area (𝐴): 450 cm2 = 450 cm2 ÷ 6.4516 = 69.8 in2
Weight loss (𝑊): 385 g = 385 g = 385,000 mg
Density (𝜌): 7.9 g/cm3
Time (𝑡): 1 year
Constants: 𝐾 = 534 for mpy, 𝐾 = 87.6 for mmpy
Time in hours: 1 year = 365 × 24 = 8,760 hours
𝐾×𝑊
CPR =
𝜌×𝐴×𝑡

For mpy:
534 × 385,000 205,890,000
CPRmpy = = = 42.74 mpy
7.9 × 69.8 × 8,760 4,819,927.2

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 Sub: Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems; Sem: I/I Prepared by: Dr. CRM, Dr. YKV, SINDHU K S, MANASA H M

For mmpy:
87.6 × 385,000 33,726,000
CPRmmpy = = = 1.085 mmpy
7.9 × 450 × 8,760 31,099,800

5. A steel sheet with an area of 400 cm² (or 62 in²) is exposed to moist air. After one year, it is
found to have lost 375 grams in weight due to corrosion. Given that the density of steel is 7.9
g/cm³, calculate the corrosion penetration rate (CPR) in both mils per year (mpy) and millimeters
per year (mmpy). Use the constants K = 534 for mpy and K = 87.6 for mmpy in your
calculations.

Given Data
2
• Area (𝐴): 400 cm2 (also given as 62 in )
• Weight loss (𝑊): 375 g = 375,000 mg
3
• Density (𝜌): 7.9 g/cm
• Time (𝑡): 1 year = 365 × 24 = 8,760 hours
• Constants: 𝐾 = 534 for mpy, 𝐾 = 87.6 for mmpy
Apply the CPR Formula
𝐾×𝑊
CPR =
𝜌×𝐴×𝑡

For mpy:
534 × 375,000 200,250,000
CPRmpy = = = 46.72 mpy
7.9 × 62 × 8,760 4,287,672

For mmpy:
87.6 × 375,000 32,850,000
CPRmmpy = = = 1.19 mmpy
7.9 × 400 × 8,760 27,676,800

Navkis college of Engineering, Hassan Subject code: 1BCHES102/202 Page 19