Transmission Lines

Deregulated
markets,
economic,
Provide path
environmental
to transfer Operate at
A Vital Part of requirements
power voltage levels
the Power have pushed
between from 69kV to
System utilities to
generation 765kV
operate
and load
transmission
lines close to
their limits.
Transmission Line Faults - Type Distribution:
Fault Type Distribution:

Fault Type Occurrence Example

Insulator Flash
• Single Phase - Ground 70 – 80% Conductor Snapping

Lightning flash
• Phase - Phase to Ground 17 – 10% Fallen Tree

Kite Thread
• Phase - Phase 10 – 8% Wind

Foreign material
• Three Phase 3 – 2% Earth switch Operation
Transmission Line Faults - Type Distribution:

Transient Faults
• Most common on Overhead transmission lines
• Approximately 80 - 85% share
• Lightning strikes are the most common cause
• Other causes are falling trees, swinging lines etc.
• By nature transient faults disappear in a short interval

Persistent Faults
• Mostly caused by a broken conductor fallen on to the tower or
ground
• Can also be caused by a tree falling on to the line
• Must be located and attended to, before normal service can be
resumed
 Classification of line length
depends on:
Source-to-line
Impedance Ratio Nominal voltage
(SIR), and

Transmission
Lines
Length considerations:

Medium
Short Lines: Long Lines:
Lines: 0.5 <
SIR > 4 SIR < 0.5
SIR < 4
Transmission Line Protection:

The following functions generally used to protect Transmission Lines.

 Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection

 Differential protection

 Distance protection

 Over Voltage Protection

 Current differential

Typical
Protection Phase comparison
Schemes
Short Lines Permissive Overreach
Transfer Trip (POTT)

Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
 Phase comparison

Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Typical Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
Protection
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
Schemes
Medium Unblocking
Lines Step Distance

Step or coordinated overcurrent

Inverse time overcurrent

Current Differential
 Phase comparison

Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

Typical Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)

Protection Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)

Schemes
Long Lines Unblocking

Step Distance

Step or coordinated overcurrent

Current Differential/ Travelling Wave

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Radial Feeder Protection:

- Over Current / Earth fault protection is basic protection function which

works on fault current magnitude.

- As the fault current is higher, lower the operating (trip) time.

- The function starts with pickup current settings.

- The time of the operation also depends on the other settings like TMS
and The Operating Curve.

- Example: SI,
.

- Plug Setting Multiplier

TMS - Time Multiplier Setting

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Radial Feeder Protection:

IDMT relay characteristics with TMS=1.0

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Ring Main Feeder - Need for Directional Control:

Generally required if current can flow in both directions

through a relay location

- Assume two equal sources

- Protection graded w.r.t Source A only
- Fault close to Source B clears as expected

A B

2.1 1.7 1.3 0.9 0.5 0.1

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Ring Main Feeder - Need for Directional Control:

Generally required if current can flow in both directions

through a relay location

Grading is now lost!

A B

2.1 1.7 1.3 0.9 0.5 0.1

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Ring Main Feeder - Need for Directional Control:
Generally required if current can flow in both directions
through a relay location
- Use directional relays
- Graded in each direction

0.9 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.9

Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated

(Typical operating times shown)
Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Parallel Feeders - Need for Directional Control:
Non-DirectionalRelays :-

51 A 51 C Load

51 B 51 D
F
A &B
Conventional Grading :-

Operating Time
1. Grade ‘A’ with ‘C’
C& D
2. Grade ‘B’ with‘D’

Relays ‘A’ and ‘B’have the same setting.

Fault level at ‘F’

Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Parallel Feeders - Need for Directional Control:

Consider fault on one feeder :-

I1 +I2
I1

51 A I2 C 51 LOAD

51 B D 51

 Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ see the same fault current (I2).
 As ‘C’ and ‘D’ have similar settings both feeders will be
tripped.
Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Parallel Feeders - Need for Directional Control:

Solution:- Directional Control at ‘C’ and ‘D’ :-

I1 +I2
I1

C
51 A I2 67 LOAD

51 B D 67

 Relay ‘D’ does not operate due to current flow in the reverse
direction.
Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Parallel Feeders - Need for Directional Control:

Setting philosophy for directional relays:-

E
51 A C 67 Load

51

51 B D 67

 Load current always flows in ‘non-operate’ direction. Any

current flow in ‘operate’ direction is indicative of a fault
condition.
Overcurrent / Earth Fault protection:
Parallel Feeder Application:

If3
 Grade A with B with C at If1 P Q
(single feeder in service) Load
B D
A C
 Grade B with D at If3
(upper feeder open at P) Load B D If1
If2
 Grade A with B at If2
(both feeders in service)
A
B
 Check that sufficient margin exists C
D
for bus fault at Q when relay A sees M =Margin
total fault current If2, but relay B M
sees only If2/2.
M M

If2/2 If1If2 Ifmax

Directional Over Current protection:
Directional Over Current protection - Inputs:

1. Operating Quantity:
Faulty Phase Current - Which defines the Relay operating time

2. Polarizing Quantity:
Reference Voltage - Which defines the Direction of Fault.

3. Settings:
Pickup settings, TMS, Operating Curve.
Directional Over Current protection:
Directional Over Current protection – Direction Determination:

S1 = Reference Direction = Polarising Signal = VPOL

S2 = Current Signal = I

RESTRAINT when S2 lags S1 by between 90° and 270°

S1
S1
S2 S2 S2

S2 S2

S2 S2 S2 S2

S2 S2
OPERATION when S2 is within ±90° of S1:-
S2 S2
S2
Directional Over Current protection:
Directional Over Current protection – Polarising Signal:

IA
V
A

90
V BC

VC VB

RELAY CURRENT VOLTAGE

A IA VBC
B IB V CA
C IC VAB
Directional Over Current protection:
Relay Characteristic Angle (RCA):

The angle by which the current applied to the relay must be

displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum
operational sensitivity. e.g. 45°
OPERATE

V IA FOR MAXIMUM OPERATE

RESTRAIN SENSITIVITY
A

RC A
45
V BC
Directional Earth Fault protection (DEF):
Directional Earth Fault protection - Inputs:
DEF protection also requires similar inputs to directional overcurrent.
i.e. 1. Operating signal (For operating time)
2. Polarizing signal (For Direction)

Operating Signal
 Operating quantity for DEF protection is “3Io”.
 Same is obtained from residual connection of line CT's
Polarizing Signal
 The use of either phase-neutral or phase-phase voltage as the
reference becomes inappropriate for the comparison with
residual current.
 Most appropriate polarising signal is the residual voltage.
 May be obtained from ‘broken’ delta [Link].
VRES = VA-G + VB-G + VC-G = 3V0
Directional Earth Fault protection (DEF):
Characteristic Angle (RCA):

Rotate VRESby 180O to obtain voltage polarisationsignal

- 45O R.C.A. applied for maximumsensitivity

OPERATE VA MAX SENSITIVITY

LINE

RESTRAIN
VF IRES FOR MAX
-45 SENSITIVITY

Rotate VRESby180

VRES
VC VB
Line Differential Protection:
Basic Operational Principle :

Relay Relay
EndA Communication Link End B

IA IB

• Each end measures the local current;

• Current information exchanged between the two ends using
communication link;
• Each end performs the differential calculations based on local and 2
remote end currents. 8
Line Differential Protection:
Healthy Line or External Fault Case:

Relay Relay
EndA Communication Link End B

IA IB
IF
IA +IB = 0

• No fault or External fault, current at each end is balanced

• The current going into the line is going out of other end.

• No Differential operation.
2
9
Line Differential Protection:
Internal Fault Case:

Relay Relay
EndA Communication Link End B

IA IB
IF
IA +IB ≠ 0

• During Internal fault, current at each end is un-balanced

• The current going into the line is not equal to the current going out of other
end.
3
• Differential trip executes. 0
Line Differential Protection:
Typical Current Magnitude Measurement:

• Current magnitude estimated with Fourier Filter;

• The Fourier filter extracts the fundamental component in the
currents;
• Exchanging only the fundamental component currents.
• These currents are used in the differential calculations.

i(t)
i2 i3

i1 i4

i5 i8
i6 i7
Line Differential Protection:
Communication – Requirements:

• Requires high speed exchange of data between multi-ended

terminals;
• Normally provided by a direct fiber communication interface;
• Duplex preferred that one channel for transmit and one for
receive;
• Critical applications may require theuse of dual redundant
ports;
• Sampling at all ends need to be at the same instant of
time;(Echo or GPS)
• Requires the need to measure and compensate for the
32
measured propagation delay.- Internal algoritham
Line Differential Protection:
Communication – Requirements:

Relay A Relay B

C u r r e n t at B

C u r r e n t r e c e i ve d f r o m A

Propagation delay

• To perform the differential function, sample, at different ends, need to be

compared as the same instant of time;
• Propagation delay introduced by the communication media can cause
33
spurious differential trip.
Line Differential Protection:
Operating Characteristics:

Differential current
│Idiff│ = │IA + IB │

Bias Current
3
│Ibias│ = ½(│IA│ + │ IB │) 4
Line Differential Protection:
Main Advantages:
• Phase segregated protection

• Detect all fault including very high resistance faults

• Uniform trip time

• Simple to set with no coordination problems

• Compatible with comms networks

• Immune to power swings

• Immune to series compensation problems

• Good for multi-ended lines

3
5
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measurement During Load Condition:

UM

M
IL
ZS A B UN=0
ZL ZM
Distance
Relay

ZML=UM/ IL
ZML=ZL + ZM >> ZL

The impedance measured by the relay is Transmission line impedance and Load impedance.
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measurement During Fault Condition:

Fault at k% of Line
UMF

M
IF UF=0
ZS A B
ZL ZM
Distance
Relay

ZMF=UMF / IF
ZMF=k x ZL < ZL
The impedance measured by the relay is faultly line impedance which is lesser than actual
complete line impedance.
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measurement:
• Power lines have impedances of size 0,3- 0,4 ohm/ km and
normal angles of 80 - 85 degrees in a 50Hz systems.

A B
ZL=R+jX

Z< Z<

• The line impedance must be converted to secondary values with

the formula:
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

𝑺𝒆𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎 𝑺𝒆𝒄
𝑽𝑻𝑺𝒆𝒄 𝑪𝑻𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎
𝑺𝒆𝒄 𝑽𝑻𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎 𝑪𝑻𝑺𝒆𝒄 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults:

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the phase impedance to
the fault

Zs IA RL XL

VA-VB
RL XL
IB

• For Ph-Ph fault, Only Positive and Negative sequence impedance involves.

So the measured Impedance shall be a function of positive

sequence impedance
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults:

FAULT VRELAY IFAULT

A-B

B- C VB? IB ?
C-A
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults:

IB Z1
Z1= Phase replica impedance
Vph-ph IB = IF & I C = -IF
IC Z1

Vph-ph
Using Vph-ph and IF :- = 2Z1 ………(Loop Impedance)
IF

Vph-ph VB- VC VB- VC

Using Vph-ph and Iph-ph :- = = = Z1
Iph-ph IB - I C IF + I F
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults:

FAULT VRELAY IFAULT

A- B VA- VB IA - IB

B- C VB- VC IB - IC
C- A VC- VA IC - IA

VRELAY & IFAULT are selected inside the relay

No setting adjustments are required.
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Ground Faults:

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the phase impedance to
the fault

Zs IA RL XL
VA

IN RN XN

• For Ph-E fault, Positive, Negative & Zero sequence impedance involves.

So the measured Impedance is a function of positive and zero

sequence impedance
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Ground Faults:

IA Z1

Vph-n
IN ZN

During an earth fault we need to measureZ1only

Therefore we need to determine ZNas multiple of Z1 :-

  Z - Z L1 
VR A = Z L 1  IR A + 3I 0  L 0 
  3 Z L 1 
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Phase - Ground Faults:

FAULT VRELAY IFAULT

A- G VA IA + KN . IN
B- G VB IB+ KN .IN
C- G VC IC+ KN .IN
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – 3 Phase Faults:

• The distance protection relays are always set based on the phase impedance to
the fault

Zs IA RL XL
VA IB
VB IC

VC

• For 3 - Ph fault, only Positive sequence impedance involves.

• Inputs for impedance measurement are any phase voltage and Current.

So the measured Impedance is a function of positive sequence

impedance
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Different Faults:
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Direction:

 Direction Element need some voltage for Polarization (reference) to

detects the direction.

 During the fault, the Voltage of the faulty phases drops and can be
very less for Close-up faults. The determination of Direction in such
cases is very difficult.
 To overcome this situation, the following methods of Polarization are
being used:
• VFAULTY-PHASE → Self polarized
• VHEALTHY –PHASE → Cross-polarized
• VFPRE-FAULT → Partially cross-polarized
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring – Polarization:
Self Polarization
 The same phase voltage is used for polarization

 When a fault occurs close to the relay location, the voltage can drop
to a value where the directional measurement cannot be performed
Cross Polarization
 Use other healthy phase voltages for polarization

 Terminal three phase fault will not be covered

Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Impedance Measuring Loop – Direction:

Memory Polarization
 At three phase fault close to the station all phase voltages are low
and cross polarization is not of any use.

 Instead a memory voltage is used to secure correct measurement.

 Today memory polarising is favoured over cross due the

advancements in modern day storage devices

 Covers all type of faults

 Most relays today use a mixture of self and memory or self and cross
polarization
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Distance Characteristics:
jX
jX

Zn
Zn

R
R

MHO
IMPEDANCE

Zn Zn

R R

QUADRILATERAL POLY G O N
Distance Protection – Basic Principle:
Earliest form of Distance Relay – Voltage Comparision:

IOPERATE
Z(replica)

IZ
Obtain VRESTRAINT( from faulty phases)
Compare VRESTRAINT with IZ
Operate if VRESTRAINT<IZ
Distance Protection – Basic Principle :
Impedance Relay:
j IX jX
Z
IZ

VREST Divide by I ZF
IR R
Operate

 Relay operates for any Fault impedance (ZF) within thecircle.

 No account taken of phase angles, Therefore characteristic is a circle.

 Main Problem: Non-Directional

Distance Protection – Basic Principle :
Impedance Relay: jX J

Impedance relays are non-directional

G H J F1
H R

F2 F1 F2
G
21

• Of little use on an interconnected system with J

infeeds fromboth ends of the protected line
Trip region

• Unless Directionalised :- H

G
Distance Protection – Basic Principle :
Distance Protection Characteristics
Mho Relay:

Advantages:
• Mho relay characteristic are inherently
directional, so need of separate
directional element is not required.
• Useful for series compensated line
protection.
Disadvantages:

• Resistive reach can not be altered

keeping the fixed reactive reach is main
disadvantage of MHO relays.

Mho Characteristics
Distance Protection – Basic Principle :
Distance Protection Characteristics
Quadrilateral Relay:

Advantages:

• Resistive reach can be altered keeping

the fixed reactive reach.

Quadrilateral Characteristics
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zones of Protection:
Z4A Z4C
Time
Z3A Z3C
T3
Z2A Z2C
T2
Z1A Z1C

A Z1B B C D
Z2B
T2
Z3B
T3 Z4B

Z1A = 8 0 % of ZAB (inst.)

Z2A = 1 2 0 % of ZAB (~300ms – 500ms)
Z3A (FORWARD)= 120% of {ZAB + ZCD} (~800ms – 1500ms)
Z4A (REVERSE) = 10-25% of ZAB (~500ms)
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zones of Protection: jX

D Z3A

C Z2A
B
Z1A

A
R

Z4A
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone Time Coordination - Ideal Situation:

Note: Where upper and lower zones overlap, e.g. Zone 2 up sees beyond Zone 1 down, the upper
and lower zone time delays will need to be coordinated, e.g. tZ2(up) to exceed tZ2(down).
Distance Protection:
Operating principle of distance protection
t
T3= 1000ms
T2=350ms
T1=0ms

1 2 3

f1 f2 f3

AZ< CZ<
BZ< DZ<
t
T3=1000ms
T2=350ms
T1=0ms
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-1:

FAST OPERATION
 Trips circuit breaker without delay as soon as fault within Zone 1
reach is detected

REACH SETTING
 Constitutes only the Arc Resistance
 Cannot be set to 100% of protected line or may overreach into
next section.
 Overreach caused by possible errors in :-
CTs
VTs
ZLINE information
Relay Measurement
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-1:
Possible
Fault beyond Line: Overreach
ZONE 1 = ZL

ZL
F
Possible incorrect tripping for fault at ‘F’ possible errors

Fault at 50% of Line:

Z1A
A

Z1B B
F
Effective Zone1 reaches at Aand B must overlap. Otherwise :- No trip for fault at ‘F’
 Effective Z1Aand Z1B must be>0.5ZL

 Zone 1 set to  80% ZL ok

Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-2:
REACH
 Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1. Provides back-up
protection for remote busbars.
Z2G

TIME
Z1G Z1H

G H
F
 To allow for errors :-
Z2G ≥ 1.2ZGH

REACH SETTING
 Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on next section
for faults in first 20% of next section.
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-2:
 Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time graded with each
other
Z2G Z2H

Z1G Z1H

‘G’ ‘H’
F
 Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20%of following line.

 Faults at ‘F’ should result in operation of Z1H and tripping of circuit breaker ‘H’.
If ‘H’ fails to trip possible causes are :- Z1H
operates but trip relays fail.
Z2H may operate but will not trip if followed by the same trip relays.
Z1H and trip relays operate but circuit breaker fails to trip.

 Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.

Distance Protection – Zones:
Need of Coordination in Zone-2 Timings:

Time CB-A and CB-C trips at 350ms at

Z2A, 350ms Z2C, 350ms same time.
T2
Z1A Z1C
F

A B C D

 Extension upwards is decided by impedance of protected line.

 CB-A also trips at 350ms (Z2 time) for a fault in Line CD along with CB-C due
to Lack of Coordination.
 So Overlapping same zone timings need to be coordinated.
 In above case, Z2A time shall be 500ms and Z2C can be 350ms to provide
the coordination.
Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-3:
 This is the widest of zones in which tripping can occur after longest time delay.

 Provides back-up for next adjacent line.

 Actual Zone 3 settings will be scheme specified

Z3G FWD
Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H

H K
G

Typical settings : Z3FWD > 1.2 x (ZGH + ZHK)

Distance Protection – Zones:
Zone-4:
 Provides back-up protection for busbars (reverse offset).

 Actual Zone 4 settings will be scheme specified

Z4G

Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H

G H K

Typical settings : Z4G 0.1 to 0.25 of Z1G

Distance Protection – Load Encroachment:
 Load Encroachment: In case of long transmission lines, the distance
relays might detect the heavy load condition (High Current, Low Voltage)
as fault.

 When protecting very Long Lines, which are heavily loaded, there exists
a problem of Load encroachment, where the measured load impedance
may encroach into the characteristic zones of the under-impedance
relay. If the impedance remains in the characteristic for more than the
zone trip time, unwanted tripping of the line can result.

 To avoid this, the distance relays use specialized algorithms for detection
of load, based on the fault angle (Load has and angle of about 35
degrees, whereas fault is near line angle(85degree), except for high
resistive fault cases.

 This situation can be addressed by introducing a Load Encroachment

characteristic into the Under Impedance relays. These characteristic can
be in the form of load blinders or shaped load region characteristics.
Distance Protection – Load Encroachment:
Load Blinder Characteristic:

ZMIN - Minimum impedance threshold - Minimum impedance threshold

 - Load angle setting - worst power factor angle + safety margin
V< - Voltage threshold to disable load blinder – 70% (Typical)

I2> - Negative sequence threshold to disable load blinder – 40% (Typical)

jX

ZMIN2 ZMIN1
LoadLocus 3 1 LoadLocus
R
(Import) 4 2 (Export)
Distance Protection – Load Encroachment:
Typical Quadrilateral Characteristics with Load Blinder:
X

Load Encroachment Blinders

RLF
ƟL Load Blinder
ƟL
ƟL R
ƟL
RLR

X
X
Directional Line
Distance Characteristics

Load Blinder

R
R

Super Imposed
Final Quadrilateral Characteristics
Distance Protection – Parallel Lines:
Mutual Coupling Effect on Measurement:
 In general, the following apply:
 The ground distance element underreaches when the residual
currents flow in the same direction on the parallel lines.
 The ground distance element overreaches when the residual
current flow in the offending parallel line is in the opposite direction to
the residual current in the line where the measurement is performed.

UNDERREACH: A calculating “larger” impedance than Actual Length.

OVERREACH: A calculating “Smaller” impedance than Actual Length.

Distance Protection – Parallel Lines:
Mutual Coupling Effect - Distance relay adaptation:
The influence of zero sequence coupling in impedance measurement can be
compensated in different ways.

 Different setting Group parameters for different operating

conditions in separate setting groups

 Different KN factor for different Zones in the same setting

group

 By including the parallel line zero sequence current in the

relay measurement
GENERAL PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY :

 A protection scheme which employs communications to send a signal from one station
to another to allow high speed tripping (permission) or to prevent high speed tripping
(blocking).
 Without a protection scheme, protection operates on Basic protection trip logic.

 Protection scheme operates with the help of Communication Channels and Enhanced
protection trip logic.

 Basic trip logic of distance protection:

 Zone 1 Operation - Instantaneous Trip
 Zone 2 Operation - Trip with delay of T2
 Zone 3 Operation - Trip with delay of T3
 Zone 4 Operation - Trip with delay of T4

Z1
T1

Z2
T2
Distance TRIP

Protection ≥1
Z3
Relay T3

Z4
T4
PROTECTION SCHEMES - SIGNIFICANCE:
CASE: Fault in Z1 from Both Ends

10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2

Relay F@50% Relay

A B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 T2
TRIP A TRIP B
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 0ms @ 0ms Z3
T3 T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

 Relay-A sense fault in Z1, Z2 and Z3.  Relay-B sense fault in Z1, Z2 and Z3.

 Z1 trips Instantaneously (T1).  Z1 trips Instantaneously (T1).

PROTECTION SCHEMES - SIGNIFICANCE:
CASE: Fault in Z1 from End-A & Z2 from End-B

10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2

Relay F@10% Relay

A B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP A
T2
TRIP B
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 0ms @ 350ms Z3
T3 T3
Z4 Z4
T4 T4

 Relay-A sense fault in Z1, Z2 and Z3.  Relay-B sense fault in Z2 and Z3.

 Z1 trips Instantaneously (T1).  Z2 trips after T2 time

(delayed Clearance of fault).
PROTECTION SCHEMES - SIGNIFICANCE:
CASE: Fault in Z2 from End-A & Z1 from End-B

10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2
F@90%

Relay Relay
A B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
Z1 trips Instantaneously (T1). 10%, 500ms

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP A
T2
TRIP B
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 500ms @ 0ms Z3
T3 T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

 Relay-A sense fault in Z2 and Z3.  Relay-B sense fault in Z1, Z2 and Z3.

 Z2 trips after T2 time  Z1 trips Instantaneously (T1).

(delayed Clearance of fault).
PROTECTION SCHEMES - SIGNIFICANCE:
CASE: Fault in Z2 from End-A & Z1 from End-B (With Distance Scheme)
10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2
F@90%

Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Z1
T1
Z2
T2 TRIP A TRIP B
500ms ≥1 ≥1
@ 500ms without CR @ 0ms
@ 0ms with CR

Carrier Signal

 When Relay-A sense fault in Z2 and Relay-B sense Z1, gives confirmation that fault is in
subjected line.
 Carrier Signal received from remote end (which was sensed Z1) gives the permission to trip
immediatly to Relay-A even it sense the fault in Zone-2.
 Complete fault clears early with compared to basic scheme.
 This is Permissive Under Reach protection scheme with Zone-2 (PUP Z2).
PROTECTION SCHEMES – SIGNELLING CHANNELS:

General Arrangement:

CH2-C1-Tx CH2-C1-Tx
D
CS CS
CH2-C2-Tx D
OPGW
DT S CH2-C2-Tx DT S

CR
CH2-C3-Tx
T T CH2-C3-Tx
CR
CH2-C1-Rx CH2-C1-Rx
P
DT R DT R

CH2-C2-Rx
P CH2-C2-Rx

CH2-C3-Rx C C CH2-C3-Rx

CH1-C1-Tx

CH1-C2-Tx
P P
CH1-C1-Tx

CH1-C2-Tx
CH1-C3-Tx L Line L CH1-C3-Tx
CS CS

DT S CH1-C1-Rx
C C CH1-C1-Rx DT S

CR
CH1-C2-Rx C C CH1-C2-Rx
CR
CH1-C3-Rx CH1-C3-Rx
DT R DT R

END-1 END-2
PROTECTION SCHEMES – SIGNELLING CHANNELS:
Simplex Communication channel:

 Signal Send and Signal Receipt works on

shared communication channel.

 Both circuits operates with same

frequency.

 Difficulty in segregation / verify of Send

and Receipt channels Codes.

Duplex communication channels:

 Signal Send and Signal Receipts works on
independent communication channels.

 Both circuits operates with different

frequencies.

 Easy to segregation / Verify of Send and

Receipt channels Codes.
PROTECTION SCHEMES - TYPES:

Carrier Communication
Schemes

Permissive Schemes Blocking Schemes

Permissive Underreach Permissive Overreach

Protection (PUP) Schemes Protection (POP) Schemes

Direct Underreach POP Scheme with BOP Scheme with

A A Zone 2 (POP Z2) A
Protection Scheme Zone 2 (BOP Z2)

B
PUP Scheme with Z2 POP Scheme with BOP scheme with
(PUP Z2) B Zone 1 (POP Z1) B Zone 1 (BOP Z1)

PUP Scheme with

C
Frwd Start (PUP Fwd)
Permissive Under-reach Protection (PUP) Scheme:

 Sensing of Zone 1 (Underreach Zone) sends signal to remote end

 Instantaneous trip if
 Zone 1 Operation
 Zone 2 + Carrier Signal receipt from Remote end

 Generally applicable for Medium and Long Transmission lines.

 If the signalling channel fails, Basic distance scheme tripping will be available.

 More secure than direct transfer trip scheme.

 Simplified Trip Logic:

Carrier Send Carrier Send

Z1 Z1
T1 T1

Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 Z3
T3 T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &

Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt

Permissive Under-reach Protection (PUP) Scheme - Types
PUP with Zone-2
Carrier Send Carrier Send
 Instantaneous trip Logic:
Z1 Z1
 Zone 1 Operation T1 T1
 Zone 2 + Carr. Receipt Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
 Carr. signal sent logic: Z3 Z3
T3 T3
 Zone 1 Starts.
Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &

Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt

PUP with Forward

Carrier Send Carrier Send
 Instantaneous trip Logic:
Z1 Z1
 Zone 1 Operation T1 T1
 Zone 2 + Carr. Receipt Z2
T2 T2 Z2
TRIP TRIP
≥1 ≥1
 Carr. signal sent logic: Z3
T3 T3 Z3
 Zone 2/3 Starts.
Z4 Z4
 Forward Fault sensing T4 T4

Forw. Dir Forw. Dir

& &

Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt

Permissive Under-reach Protection Scheme with Zone-2 (PUP Z2):
CASE: Principle Line Fault
10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
Carrier Sends S/S-1 S/S-2
F@10%

Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Carrier Send Carrier Send

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 0ms @ 0ms Z3
T3 (T1) T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &

Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt

Receipt

Carrier signal from S/S-1 enables Instantaneous Tripping at S/S-2 over 100% Length of the Line and vice-versa.
Permissive Under-reach Protection Scheme with Zone-2 (PUP Z2):
CASE: Other Line Fault
10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
No Trip by Relay-A 200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2
F@ -5%

Relay Relay
Trip in T2 (350ms) by Relay-B A Signalling Channel B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Z1 Carrier Send Carrier Send

Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 NO TRIP @ 350ms Z3
T3 (T2) T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &

Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt

For beyond the line fault, tripping happens as per Zone timings.
Permissive Under-reach Protection Scheme:

Advantages:
 More secure than direct transfer trip scheme
 Scheme is very secure as signalling channel only keyed for
internal fault (Zone 1 initiation)
 Only a simplex signalling channel required
Tx Tx Tx Tx
Rx Rx Rx Rx
Simplex Channel Duplex Channel
Disadvantages:

 If one terminal of the line is open / weak infeed then only Basic
scheme logic will apply
 If signalling channel fails then only Basic scheme logic will apply
Permissive Over-reach Protection (POP) Scheme:

 Operation of Zone 2 sends signal to remote end

 Instantaneous trip if
 Zone 1 Operation
 Zone 2 + Carrier Signal receipt from Remote end

 Generally applicable for Short Transmission lines and Lines with FSC, etc.

 The scheme requires a duplex signalling channel to prevent possible relay maloperation due to
spurious keying of the signalling equipment. This is necessary because the signalling channel
is keyed for faults external to the protected line.
 Current reversal guard logic is used to prevent healthy line protection maloperation for the high
speed current reversals experienced in double circuit lines, caused by sequential opening of
circuit breakers

 If the signalling channel fails, Basic distance scheme tripping will be available.

 Simplified Trip Logic:

Carrier Send Carrier Send

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 Z3
T3 T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &
Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt
Permissive Over-reach Protection (POP) Scheme - Types
POP with Zone-2

 Instantaneous trip Logic:

Carrier Send Carrier Send
Z1 Z1
 Zone 1 Operation T1 T1
 Zone 2 + Carr. Receipt Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
 Carr. signal sent logic: Z3 Z3
T3 T3
 Zone 2 Starts.
Z4 Z4
T4 T4
 In-Zone Fault Clearance
Time on Carr. Fails:
 Min: T1. & &
Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt
 Max: T2

POP with Zone-1

 Z1 reach shall be set
Overreach with T2 time Carrier Send Carrier Send
delay. Z1 Z1
T2 T2

 Instantaneous trip Logic: Z2 Z2

T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
 Zone 1 + Carr. Receipt. ≥1 ≥1
Z3 Z3
T3 T3
 Carr. signal sent logic:
Z4 Z4
 Zone 1 (Overreach) T4 T4
Starts.
 In-Zone Fault Clearance & &
Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt
Time on Carr. Fails:
 Min: T2.
 Max: T2
Permissive Over-reach Protection Scheme with Zone-2 (POP Z2):
CASE: Principle Line Fault

10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
Carrier Sends S/S-1 S/S-2
F@10%

Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms
Carrier Sends

Carrier Send
Send Carrier Send
Send
Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 0ms @ 0ms Z3
T3 (T1) T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &
Carrier Receipt
Receipt Carrier Receipt
Receipt

Carrier signal from S/S-1 enables Instantaneous Tripping at S/S-2 over 100% Length of the Line and vice-versa.
Permissive Over-reach Protection Scheme with Zone-2 (POP Z2):
CASE: Other Line Fault
10%, 500ms
AZ4
AZ3
200%, 1000ms
AZ2
120%, 500ms
AZ1
80%, 0ms
S/S-1 S/S-2 Carrier Sends at SS-1
F@105%

Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B

BZ1
80%, 0ms
BZ2
120%, 350ms
BZ3
200%, 1000ms BZ4
10%, 500ms

Carrier Send Carrier Send

Z1 Z1
T1 T1
Z2 Z2
T2 TRIP TRIP
T2
≥1 ≥1
Z3 @ 500ms @ 500ms Z3
T3 (T2) (T4)
T3

Z4 Z4
T4 T4

& &
Carrier Receipt Carrier Receipt
Receipt

For beyond the line fault, tripping happens as per Zone timings.
Aided Directional Earth Fault (DEF) Protection Scheme:

 Aided DEF schemes useful for the High impedance faults which are
difficult to sense by Distance Zones.
 DEF schemes are identical to Distance schemes

 DEF Forward replaces Zone 2, DEF Reverse replaces Zone 3/4 Reverse

 No equivalent to Zone 1 as the DEF elements can not have a defined

reach, hence no schemes using Zone 1 can be replicated (Z1 ext, PUR)
 DEF scheme can work with simplex signalling channel and Duplex
signalling channel .
Aided Directional Earth Fault (DEF) Protection Scheme:

Ea Eb
RF

21 Shared Channel
21

67N 67N

Shared signalling channels limits the use of schemes for the distance
and DEFelements. Both use the same scheme logic.
Current reversal guard logic
 The Current Reversal phenomenon in parallel lines are connected to common buses with Permissive /
Blocking Overreach Schemes can led to unselective tripping of healthy lines.

 This lack of security results in a total loss of interconnection between the two networks.

Z4
A F B A F B

C Z2 D C Z2 D

Distance CS Distance Distance CS Distance

Protection Protection Protection Protection
Fig-1 Fig-2
If CS is not reset, CB-D will
trip on Z2+CR.

 Logic: Whenever Rev Zone (Z4) sensed, Current Reversal Logic blocks all Carr. Aided signals

 The same will be unblocked with a time delay “Maximum signal reset time + Margin”. Typically 100ms.

 By this, Whenever fault clears from End-B, Zone-4 will reset at End-B and Z2 starts. But Carr. Signal
exchange will be done after delay of 100ms. By this time, Carr. receipt signal at End-D would reset.
Weak Infeed Logic:
 Permissive communication schemes basically operate only when the protection in the remote IED can
detect the fault. The fault detection requires a sufficient minimum fault current.

 Some times, the fault current feed can be too low due to an open breaker or low short-circuit power of
the source, Which can delay the tripping.

A F@90% B A F@90% B

Distance CS Distance Distance CS Distance

Protection Protection Protection Protection
Z2 + NO CR = Delayed Trip No Zone - Pickup Z2 + CR = Early Trip No Zone - Pickup
WI Echo
& Trip Under
Voltage
Fig-1 Fig-2

 Logic: The WI function sends back (echoes) the received signal under the condition that no fault has
been detected on the weak-end by different fault detection elements (distance protection in forward
and reverse direction)

 The WI function can be extended to trip also the breaker in the weak side. The trip is achieved when
one or more phase voltages are low during an echo function.
Over Voltage Protection:

Purpose:
To protect the system from abnormal raise in the voltages.

Typical Settings:
Over Voltage Stage-1: 110% with 5 sec

Over Voltage Stage-2: 140%-150% with 100 sec