DEJAZMACH WONDIRAD GENERAL SECONDARY SCHOOL HISTORY SHORT

NOTE FOR GRADE 11 TH STUDENTS 2018 E.C

UNIT FOUR

4.1. The European Middle Ages

4.1.1. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Dawn of the Middle Ages

The Decline and Fall of Rome

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire was a gradual process resulting from several key factors:

 Worsening internal problems.

 The formal separation from the wealthier Eastern part of the empire in 395 AD.
 Successive waves of invasions by Germanic peoples.

The Germanic Tribes:

 Originally from Scandinavia, they had moved to central Europe and settled on the northern
frontiers of the Roman Empire by the 3rd century AD.
 Some tribes adopted Roman customs like farming and Christianity, while others remained
organized along tribal lines and were called "barbarians" by the Romans.
 In the 5th century AD, fleeing attacks from the Huns of central Asia, these tribes began
invading Roman territory.
 Key Invasions and Settlements:
 Visigoths invaded Spain (c. 416 AD).
 Angels, Jutes, and Saxons began settling in Britain (c. 450 AD).
 Franks established a kingdom in Gaul (modern France) in the 480s AD.
 Ostrogoths invaded Italy.
 In 476 AD, Rome officially fell into the hands of Germanic tribes, marking a common end date
for the Western Roman Empire.

Consequences of the Fall

[Link] former empire was divided into numerous small Germanic feudal kingdoms.
[Link] central government disappeared.
[Link] networks established by the Romans were destroyed.
iv. Many people moved from towns to the countryside, becoming peasants. Some
towns were completely abandoned.
v. There was a significant decline in classical literature, architecture, painting, and
sculpture.
  Roman Legacy: Despite the collapse, the empire passed on its Latin language and literature and
the principles of Roman law.

The Role of the Christian Church

i. The Roman Christian church was the only major institution to survive the collapse.
ii. It provided crucial leadership and stability, saving Western Europe from complete chaos.
iii. Church leaders like popes and bishops took over many functions of government, such as:
iv. Collecting taxes.
v. Maintaining law and order.
vi. Using church buildings as hospitals and inns for travelers.

4.1.2. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

 In 330 AD, Emperor Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital from Rome to Byzantium,
which he renamed Constantinople
 After the empire was formally divided in 395 AD, the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the
Byzantine Empire, continued to survive for another thousand years after the West's fall in 476
AD.

Reasons for its longevity:

It was less geographically exposed to Germanic invasions.

It was wealthier, more populous, and had more towns and fortified cities than
the West.
 The emperor was an absolute ruler and the sole lawmaker. The government controlled almost
every aspect of life and had significant influence over the church.
 Empress Theodora (497-548): She was the wife, advisor, and co-ruler of Emperor Justinian I. She
was a powerful figure who pursued her own policies and contributed greatly to the empire's
success.

Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565):

 The empire reached its greatest territorial size under his rule, conquering Italy, parts of
Spain, and North Africa.
 He commissioned the codification of Roman laws into a single collection.
 Justinian Code: *A comprehensive collection and organization of the laws of ancient
Rome. It has since become the basis for the legal systems of many modern countries.*
 He ordered the construction of the magnificent Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia), the empire's
largest Christian church, in Constantinople (532-537 AD).
 Most of the population were poor farmers. Merchants and craft workers thrived in towns
and cities. The empire was a key hub for trade, importing luxury goods like silk and
spices from China.
Byzantine Culture and Legacy

 The empire served as a crucial link between ancient and modern European civilizations.
 It preserved ancient Greek literature and philosophy and Roman governmental and legal
traditions.
 Orthodox Christianity was the official state religion and heavily influenced Byzantine art,
music, and architecture.
 Byzantine missionaries spread Christianity to the Russians and other Slavic peoples. They
invented an alphabet for the Old Slavonic language, later called the Cyrillic alphabet, which
is still used in Russia and the Balkans.
The Great Schism of 1054: The Christian church split into two branches:
 The Western Catholic Church (headed by the Pope in Rome).
 The Eastern Orthodox Church.
 A primary reason for the split was the Eastern Church's refusal to accept the Pope's
authority over the entire Christian world.
 After Justinian's death, the empire faced constant attacks from Germanic tribes and Persians.
Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-642) successfully defeated the Persians.
 The Arabs conquered significant Byzantine territory in the 7th century.
 In 1071, the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert, marking the
beginning of the end for Byzantine control over Asia Minor.
 In 1095, Emperor Alexius I Comnenus appealed to Western Christians for help against the
Turks, which led to the Crusades.
 The empire continued to shrink until only Constantinople and parts of Greece remained.
 In 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an
end.

4.1.3. Western Europe During the "Middle Ages"

 The period following Rome's fall in Western Europe was marked by political
division,ruralization, invasions, and the disruption of trade and learning. It was once called the
"Dark Age".

Key Achievements of the Middle Ages (500-1500 AD):

I. Christianity became the dominant religion of the Western world.

II. The first universities were founded.
III. The modern nation-states of Europe began to form.
IV. Present-day European languages developed.

The Frankish Kingdom

The Franks established one of the most powerful Germanic kingdoms in the former Roman province of
Gaul (France).
Charles Martel:

 Founded the Carolingian dynasty in the 8th century.

 Converted to Christianity, gaining the Pope as a powerful ally.
 Defeated the invading Muslim Arab army at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD, halting their
advance into Western Europe.
 Charlemagne (Charles the Great, r. 768-814):
 Grandson of Charles Martel, he briefly reunited much of the former Western Roman Empire.

Charlemagne (Charles the Great, r. 768-814):

 Grandson of Charles Martel, he briefly reunited much of the former Western Roman
Empire.
4.2. Main Features of the Middle Ages

4.2.1. Feudalism and the Manorial System

 Feudalism: A loosely organized system of rule where powerful local lords divided their
landholdings among lesser lords in exchange for loyalty and military service.*
 Vassal: A lesser lord who pledged service and loyalty to a greater lord.
 Fief: The plot of land granted by a lord to a [Link] system of relationships was called
Vassalage. Manor: The lord's estate, which was the center of the medieval European economy.
Manors were largely self-sufficient, producing nearly everything their inhabitants needed.
 Serfs: Most peasants were serfs, who were bound to the land. They were not slaves but could not
leave the manor without the lord's permission.
 Demesne: The part of the manor land kept under the lord's direct control, cultivated for him by
the serfs' unpaid labor.
 Peasant Obligations: In addition to labor, peasants paid dues (in goods or cash), fees for using
the lord's mill or oven, and repaired roads and bridges.
 Lord's Obligations: The lord provided the peasants with land to farm for themselves and offered
protection from outside attack.

4.2.2. Feudal Society

Medieval society was sharply divided into two classes:

I. Privileged Upper Class: Kings, nobles, higher clergy, and knights.

II. Unprivileged Lower Class: The vast majority of the population, consisting of peasants or
serfs.
 Social position was determined by birth, with very little social mobility.
 The king was at the top, followed by powerful lords, then lesser lords (vassals), and finally
knights. Peasants were at the very bottom.
4.2.3. The Power of the Church

 The Church's influence was so pervasive that medieval Europe was often called Christendom.
 The Church was the largest landowner in Western Europe and held significant political power.

4.3. Revival of Trade, Towns, and Culture

The Growth of Towns and a Middle Class

 Beginning in the 11th century, trade began to revive, leading to the growth of towns along major
trade routes.
 Peasants left manors to seek jobs and a new life in towns.
 By 1000 AD, a new social class emerged: the middle class, consisting of merchants, traders, and
artisans, ranked between nobles and peasants.

Medieval Culture: Art, Architecture, and Education

The growth of towns spurred interest in art and learning.

Architecture:

 Romanesque: The style until the 12th century, featuring massive walls, strong
columns, and rounded arches.
 Gothic: A new style that developed later, characterized by high towers, pointed
arches, and flying buttresses. Cathedrals were adorned with sculptures and stained
glass.

Education:

 The Church controlled most formal education, with schools in monasteries and
cathedrals.
 Subjects included theology, music, and the seven liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, logic,
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmonics).
 Latin was the official language of the church and of learning.
 The first modern universities developed in Europe in the 1100s.
 They began as guilds or associations of scholars. The University of Paris was a
prominent model.

4.4. The Crusades (1096-1270)

 The Crusades were a series of military expeditions organized by Western European Christians to
recapture Palestine (the Holy Land).
Immediate Cause: In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks conquered the Near East
and made it difficult for Christian pilgrims to visit the Holy Land. In 1095, Byzantine
Emperor Alexius I asked Pope Urban II for help.
  Pope Urban II's Call: At the Council of Clermont (1095), the Pope urged Christians to stop
fighting each other and unite to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims.

Motivations of Crusaders:

I. Religious: A desire to free the Holy Land and the promise of spiritual rewards.
II. Economic: Knights sought wealth and land; Italian merchants wanted to control trade routes.
III. Political: The Pope aimed to increase his power and heal the split between the Eastern and
Western churches.
IV. Social: Many poor people joined to escape the hardships of daily life.

Stated Goals:

1. To gain permanent control of the Holy Land.

2. To protect the Byzantine Empire.

Key Events

 First Crusade (1096-1099): Crusaders successfully recaptured Jerusalem.

 In 1187, Jerusalem fell to the great Muslim leader Salah al-Din (Saladin).
 Third Crusade (1189-1192): Led by famous European kings, it failed to retake Jerusalem, but
Saladin agreed to allow Christian pilgrims access to the city.
 Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): Crusaders were diverted by Venetian merchants to attack their
trade rivals. They captured and looted the Christian city of Constantinople.

Long-Term Impacts of the Crusades

 The Crusades failed to achieve their primary goal of permanently controlling the Holy Land.

Positive Effects for Europe:

I. Increased Trade: Trade expanded between Europe and the Middle East, especially for Italian
cities like Venice.
II. Growth of a Money Economy: Nobles needed cash to fund their expeditions, which encouraged
peasants to sell goods and pay taxes in money, undermining serfdom.
III. Increased Power of Monarchs: Kings gained prestige and revenue.
IV. Wider Worldview: Europeans learned about new places, made more accurate maps, and began
using the magnetic compass. This curiosity was fueled by travelers like Marco Polo, who
journeyed to China.

4.5. The Middle Ages in Asia

4.5.1. The Rise and Expansion of Islam

The Prophet Muhammed and the Origins of Islam

 Muhammed was born in Mecca around 570 AD.

 Around 610 AD, he began preaching a monotheistic religion based on the belief in one God,
Allah.
 Islam means *submission to the will of Allah*, and Muslims are those who believe.
 Wealthy merchants in Mecca saw his teachings as a threat to their traditional religion and the
profitable pilgrimages to the Ka'aba (a holy shrine).
 The Hijira (622 AD): Facing persecution, Muhammed and his followers migrated from Mecca
to the town of Yatrib (renamed Medina). This event marks Year 1 in the Islamic calendar.
 In 630 AD, Muhammed returned to Mecca victoriously, rededicated the Ka'aba to Allah, and
united much of Arabia under Islam before his death in 632 AD.

The Sunni-Shi'ite Split

 After Muhammed's death, a dispute arose over who should be his successor, or caliph.

Shi'ites (Shi'at Ali):

 Believed that Muhammed had designated his son-in-law, Ali, as his successor.
 They argue that the leader (Imam) must be a descendant of the Prophet and is divinely inspired.

Sunnis:

 Believed that any pious male Muslim from Muhammed's tribe could be chosen as caliph by the
community.
 They follow the *Sunna*, or the way of the prophet.
 The Sunnis emerged as the majority group and remain so today (about 90% of Muslims).

Kharijites:

 A third group that broke away, believing any qualified Muslim, even a slave, could be elected
leader. They were known for their religious intolerance.

Islamic Law and Civilization

 Sharia: A body of Islamic law based on the Quran and the Prophet's teachings. It governs all
aspects of a Muslim's individual and community life.*
 Islamic Schools of Law (Fiqh): Different interpretations of Sharia led to the formation of
various schools of thought.
 Sunni Schools Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi, Hanbali.
 Shi'a Schools:* Zaydi, Ja'fari-
4.5.2. The Islamic Empire

 Expansion and Dynasties

 Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 AD):
 Established by Muawiya, who moved the capital to Damascus.
 Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, reaching from Spain in the west
to the borders of China in the east.
 Imposed a special tax on non-Muslims.
 Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258 AD):
 Overthrew the Umayyads and moved the capital to Baghdad.
 Marked the "golden age" of Islamic civilization.
 Ended discrimination against non-Arab Muslims.
 The Abbasid empire eventually fragmented due to internal revolts. Seljuk
Turks took control of Baghdad, and in 1258, the Mongols, led by Hulagu
Khan, sacked the city, ending the caliphate.

Legacy of Muslim Civilization

I. Trade and Economy: Merchants were highly respected, and a vast trading network stretched
across the empire, expanding the use of a money economy.
II. Learning and Scholarship: Great centers of learning were established in Baghdad, Cairo, and
Cordoba. Scholars translated and preserved Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit texts.
III. Science and Mathematics: Made key advances in algebra and trigonometry,Introduced Hindu-
Arabic numerals to Europe.
IV. In astronomy, they knew the Earth was round and used instruments like the astrolabe.
V. Medicine:Built on the work of the ancient Greeks. Established hospitals with advanced care.
 Muhammad al-Razi distinguished smallpox from measles.
 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote the *Canon on Medicine*, a medical encyclopedia used in
Europe for centuries.
VI. History and Geography: Ibn Khaldun is considered a pioneer of the scientific study of history,
emphasizing economic and social factors and the critical use of sources.
VII. Architecture: The domed mosque with tall minarets became a symbolic feature.

4.5.3. The Ottoman Turkish Empire

 The Ottomans were Turkish-speaking pastoralists from Central Asia who converted to Sunni
Islam.
 The state was founded by Osman I (r. 1299-1324).
 They used advanced military technology, especially cannons and muskets, to expand their
empire.
 In 1453, Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, renaming it Istanbul and making it the
Ottoman capital.
 The empire reached its peak under Sultan Suleiman I ("the Magnificent") (r. 1520-1566).
 At its height, it was the world's greatest Muslim state, spanning three continents (Europe, Asia,
and Africa).
Ottoman Government and Society

 Government: The Sultan was an absolute ruler, advised by a chief minister called the
grand vizier.
 Society: Ottoman society was divided into classes, with soldiers and officials at the top,
followed by merchants and artisans, and farmers and herders at the bottom.
 Millets: Non-Muslims were organized into their own religious communities (e.g., Greek
Christians, Jews). Each millet was responsible for its own education and legal matters.*
 Military: Janissaries: An elite, professional infantry force. They were recruited as boys
from Christian families in the Balkans, raised as Muslims, and given intense military
training.
 Sipahi: Turkish cavalry who were granted land holdings called timars (similar to
European fiefs) in exchange for military service.

Decline

 The Ottoman Empire began a slow decline after the death of Suleiman I in 1566.
 By the 18th century, European advances in commerce and military technology left the
Ottomans far behind, and powers like Austria and Russia began to seize their lands.

4.5.4. The Dynastic Cycle in China

 The Dynastic Cycle: *The traditional Chinese belief that the rise, rule, and fall of dynasties was
determined by the "Mandate of Heaven."
 A new dynasty would rise, bring peace and prosperity, and be seen as having the Mandate
of Heaven (the right to rule)
 Over time, the dynasty would become corrupt, fail to protect the people, and suffer from natural
disasters. This was seen as losing the Mandate . A new dynasty would then overthrow the old
one, claiming the Mandate for itself.

Major Chinese Dynasties of the Period

 Sui Dynasty (581-618): Reunified China and built the Grand Canal, linking the north and south.
 Tang Dynasty (618-907): A golden age of prosperity and cultural achievement. The capital,
Chang'an, was the world's largest city. They expanded the civil service system based on merit.
Empress Wu Zhao was the only woman to rule China in her own name.
 Song Dynasty (960-1279): A period of great economic expansion and technological innovation,
including gunpowder, the magnetic compass, and movable type printing.
 Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368): A Mongol dynasty established by Kublai Khan. He welcomed
foreigners to his court, including Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta.
 Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): A native Chinese dynasty that overthrew the Mongols. They
restored the civil service system and launched major naval expeditions.
 Qing Dynasty (1644-1912): Established by Manchu invaders from the north. They were
accepted by the Chinese elite and ruled until the end of China's imperial era.

4.6. Development of Early Capitalism, Exploration, and Renaissance (1500-1789)

 4.6.1. Age of Explorations and Inception of Globalization

Motivations for Exploration

A. Economic: High demand in Europe for Eastern goods like spices and silk. European
nations like Portugal and Spain wanted to find a direct sea route to Asia to bypass the
Ottoman and Arab merchants who controlled the land routes.
B. Curiosity: Stories of the East's fabulous wealth, like those told by Marco Polo, and the
legend of a rich Christian king named "Prester John" fueled a desire to explore.
C. Technology: New developments made long-distance sea voyages possible:
 More efficient sailing ships.
 Navigational instruments like the compass and astrolabe.
D. Royal Patronage: Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (1394-1460) sponsored
expeditions and opened a school for navigation, driving exploration along the African
coast.

Key Voyages

Portugal:
 Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa's Cape of Good Hope and reached India in 1497-
98, opening the "Cape route" to the East.
Spain:
 Christopher Columbus, trying to reach Asia by sailing west, landed in the Americas
in 1492.
 Ferdinand Magellan's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe (1519-
1522).
 Other European Powers: In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch, French, and
British began exploring and establishing colonies, particularly in North America (e.g.,
Jamestown, Quebec).

Impacts of Exploration

I. Improved Navigation and Mapping: Explorers created the world's first global sailing
maps.
II. The Columbian Exchange: *The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human
populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and
the Old World.*
III. From Americas to Old World: Maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, cacao, pineapple.
IV. From Old World to Americas: Wheat, sugar, coffee, horses, cattle, pigs, and
devastating diseases like smallpox and measles.
V. Global Trade: World trade grew rapidly, leading to a "Commercial Revolution" and the
establishment of European colonial empires.

4.6.2. The Renaissance

  Renaissance: *Meaning "rebirth," it was a period of great intellectual and artistic creativity that
began in the city-states of Italy in the 1400s, marked by a new interest in the classical
civilizations of Greece and Rome.*

Why Italy?

A. Its strategic location made its cities wealthy centers of trade and banking.
B. It was the heart of the former Roman Empire, with visible ruins of its classical
past.
C. Wealthy merchants and nobles became patrons, supporting artists and scholars.
 Humanism: An intellectual movement that focused on human potential, reason, and
achievements. It emphasized the dignity and uniqueness of the individual.
 Secularism: A greater interest in the affairs of this world rather than the spiritual afterlife.

Achievements of the Renaissance

 Art: A shift from flat, symbolic religious art to realistic depictions of the world.

Artists:

 Leonardo da Vinci (*Mona Lisa*, *The Last Supper*),

 Michelangelo (sculpture of *David*, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel),
 Raphael. They used techniques like perspective and shading to create lifelike
art.
 Architecture: Architects like Filippo Brunelleschi studied Roman buildings and revived
classical styles with columns and domes.
 Literature: Writers like Petrarch ("Father of Humanism") studied classical texts. Others,
like Shakespeare and Cervantes, began writing in their local vernacular languages instead of
Latin.
 Science: The spirit of inquiry led to major discoveries.
 Nicholas Copernicus: Proposed the heliocentric (sun-centered) theory of the
universe.
 Galileo Galilei: Used a telescope to gather evidence supporting Copernicus's
theory.
 Technology: Around 1450, Johann Gutenberg developed a printing press with movable type,
allowing for the mass production of books and the rapid spread of ideas.
 Politics: Niccolo Machiavelli's book, *The Prince*, was a guide to acquiring and holding
political power, arguing that rulers should do whatever is necessary to achieve their goals ("the
end justifies the means")..6.4. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

The Scientific Revolution (c. 1500-1700)

 A new way of thinking about the natural world based on careful observation, experimentation,
and scientific reasoning.

Key Figures and Discoveries:

  Astronomy: Copernicus (heliocentric theory), Galileo Galilei (telescope observations).
 Physics: Isaac Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation.
 Instruments: Invention of the microscope, barometer, and thermometer.
 Medicine: Andreas Vesalius advanced the study of human anatomy; Edward Jenner
developed the first vaccine (for smallpox).
 Chemistry: Robert Boyle is considered the founder of modern chemistry.

The Enlightenment (The Age of Reason, mid-1700s)

 An intellectual movement that applied the principles of reason and the scientific method to all
aspects of society, including government, religion, and economics.
 France was the center of the movement, and its thinkers were known as philosophes.
 Core Beliefs: Reason, Nature, Happiness, Progress, and Liberty.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers and their Ideas:

 John Locke (English): People have natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
 Montesquieu (French): Advocated for the separation of powers in government
(legislative, executive, judicial).
 Voltaire (French): Championed freedom of thought, expression, and religious
freedom.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (French): Argued for a government formed by the
"general will" of the people.

Impact: The ideas of the Enlightenment profoundly influenced the American and French Revolutions
and became the foundation for modern democratic governments.